REWARDS OF MANAGEMENT RESEMBLE REWARDS OF WORKERS.--So far the

emphasis, in the discussion of reward, has been on the reward as

given to the worker, and his feeling toward it. The reward to the

management is just as sure. It lies in the increased output and

therefore the possibility of lower costs and of greater financial

gain. It is as positive; it is as predetermined, because before the

reward to the men is fixed the management realizes what proportion

that reward will bear to the entire undertaking, and exactly what

profits can be obtained. It is a fundamental of Scientific

Management that the management shall be able to prophesy the outputs

ahead. It will certainly be as personal, if the management side is

as thoroughly systematized as is the managed; it will be as fixed

and as assured, and it certainly is as prompt, as the cost records

can be arranged to come to the management every day, if that

is desired.

RESULTS OF SUCH REWARDS.--There are three other advantages to

management which might well be added here. First, that a reward such

as this attracts the best men to the work; second, that the reward,

and the stability of it, indicates the stability of the entire

institution, and thus raises its standing in the eyes of the

community as well as in its own eyes; and third, that it leads the

entire organization, both managed and managing, to look favorably at

all standardization. The standardized reward is sure to be

attractive to all members. As soon as it is realized that the reason

that it is attractive is because it is _standardized_, the entire

subject of standardization rises in the estimation of every one, and

the introduction of standards can be carried on more rapidly, and

with greater success.

REWARDS DIVIDED INTO PROMOTION AND PAY.--Rewards may be divided

into two kinds; first, promotion and, second, pay. Under Scientific

Management promotion is assured for every man and, as has been said,

this promotion does not thereby hold back others from having the

same sort of promotion. There is an ample place, under Scientific

Management, for every man to advance.[3] Not only is the promotion

sure, thus giving the man absolute assurance that he will advance as

his work is satisfactory, but it is also gradual.[4] The promotion

must be by degrees, otherwise the workers may get discouraged, from

finding their promotion has come faster than has their ability to

achieve, and the lack of attention, due to being discouraged, may be

contagious. It is, therefore, of vital importance that the worker be

properly selected, in order that, in his advancement and promotion,

he shall be able to achieve his task after having been put at the

new work. He must be advanced and promoted in a definite line of

gradual development, in accordance with a fully conceived plan. This

should be worked out and set down in writing as a definite plan,

similar to the plan on the instruction card of one of his tasks.

PROMOTION MAY BE TO PLACES WITHIN OR WITHOUT THE BUSINESS.--In

many lines of business, the business itself offers ample opportunity

for promoting all men who can "make good" as rapidly as they can

prepare themselves for positions over others, and for advancement;

but under Scientific Management provision is made even in case the

business does not offer such opportunities.[5] This is done by the

management finding places outside their own organization for the men

who are so trained that they can be advanced.

SUCH PROMOTION ATTRACTS WORKERS.--While at first glance it might

seem a most unfortunate thing for the management to have to let its

men go, and while, as Dr. Taylor says, it is unfortunate for a

business to get the reputation of being nothing but a training

school, on the other hand, it has a very salutary effect upon the

men to know that their employers are so disinterestedly interested

in them that they will provide for their future, even at the risk of

the individual business at which they have started having to lose

their services. This will not only, as Dr. Taylor makes clear,

stimulate many men in the establishment whose men go on to take the

places of those who are promoted, but will also be a great

inducement to other men to come into a place that they feel is

unselfish and generous.

SUBDIVISIONS OF "PAY."--Under "Pay" we have included eight

headings:

1. Wages

2. Bonus

3. Shorter hours

4. Prizes other than money

5. Extra knowledge

6. Method of attack

7. Good opinion of others

8. Professional standing.

RELATION BETWEEN WAGES AND BONUS.--Wages and bonus are closely

related. By wages we mean a fixed sum, or minimum hourly rate, that

the man gets in any case for his time, and by bonus we mean

additional money that he receives for achievement of method,

quantity or quality. Both might very properly be included under

wages, or under money received for the work, or opportunities for

receiving money for work, as the case might be. In the discussion of

the different ways of paying wages under Scientific Management,

there will be no attempt to discuss the economic value of the

various means; the different methods will simply be stated, and the

psychological significance will be, as far as possible, given.

Before discussing the various kinds of wages advised by the

experts in Scientific Management, it is well to pause a moment to

name the various sorts of methods of compensation recognized by

authorities. David F. Schloss in his "Method of Industrial

Remuneration" divides all possible ways of gaining remuneration

into three--

1. the different kinds of wages

1. time wage

2. piece wage

3. task wage

4. progressive wage

5. collective piece wage

6. collective task wage

7. collective progressive wage

8. contract work

9. coöperative work

with

2. profit sharing, and

3. industrial coöperation. These are defined and discussed at

length in his book in a lucid and simple manner.

It is only necessary to quote him here as to the relationship

between these different forms, where he says, page 11,--"The two

leading forms of industrial remuneration under the Wages System are

time wages, and piece wages. Intermediate between these principal

forms, stands that known as task wage, while supplemental to these

two named methods, we find those various systems which will here be

designated by the name of Progressive Wages."[6]

DAY WORK NEVER SCIENTIFIC.--The simplest of all systems, says

Dr. Taylor in "A Piece Rate System," paragraph 10, in discussing the

various forms of compensation "is the Day Work plan, in which the

employés are divided into certain classes, and a standard rate of

wages is paid to each class of men," He adds--"The men are paid

according to the position which they fill, and not according to

their individual character, energy, skill and reliability," The

psychological objection to day work is that it does not arouse

interest or effort or hold attention, nor does it inspire to

memorizing or to learning.

It will be apparent that there is no inducement whatever for the

man to do more than just enough to retain his job, for he in no wise

shares in the reward for an extra effort, which goes entirely to his

employer. "Reward," in this case, is usually simply a living

wage,--enough to inspire the man, if he needs the money enough to

work to hold his position, but not enough to incite him to any extra

effort.

It is true that, in actual practice, through the foreman or some

man in authority, the workers on day work may be "speeded up" to a

point where they will do a great deal of work; the foreman being

inspired, of course, by a reward for the extra output, but, as Dr.

Taylor says, paragraph 17--"A Piece Rate System," this sort of

speeding up is absolutely lacking in self-sustaining power. The

moment that this rewarded foreman is removed, the work will again

fall down. Therefore, day wage has almost no place in ultimate,

scientifically managed work.

PIECE WORK PROVIDES PAY IN PROPORTION TO WORK DONE.--Piece Work

is the opposite of time work, in that under it the man is paid not

for the time he spends at the work, but for the amount of work which

he accomplishes. Under this system, as long as the man is paid a

proper piece rate, and a rate high enough to keep him interested, he

will have great inducements to work. He will have a chance to

develop individuality, a chance for competition, a chance for

personal recognition. His love of reasonable racing will be

cultivated. His love of play may be cultivated.

All of these incentives arise because the man feels that his

sense of justice is being considered; that if the task is properly

laid out, and the price per piece is properly determined, he is

given a "square deal" in being allowed to accomplish as great an

amount of work as he can, with the assurance that his reward will be

promptly coming to him.

DANGER OF RATE BEING CUT.--Piece work becomes objectionable only

when the rate is cut. The moment the rate is cut the first time, the

man begins to wonder whether it is going to be cut again, and his

attention is distracted from the work by his debating this question

constantly. At best, his attention wanders from one subject to the

other, and back again. It cannot be concentrated on his work. After

the rate has been cut once or twice,--and it is sure to be cut

unless it has been set from scientifically derived elementary time

units,--the man loses his entire confidence in the stability of the

rate, and, naturally, when he loses this confidence, his work is

done more slowly, due to lack of further enthusiasm. On the

contrary, as long as it is to his advantage to do the work and he is

sure that his reward will be prompt, and that he will always get the

price that has been determined as right by him and by the employers

for his work, he can do this work easily in the time set. As soon as

he feels that he will not get it, he will naturally begin to do

less, as it will be not only to his personal advantage to do as

little as possible, but also very much to the advantage of his

fellows, for whom the rate will also be cut.

TASK WAGE CONTAINS NO INCENTIVE TO ADDITIONAL WORK.--What

Schloss calls the Task Wage would, as he well says, be the

intermediate between time or day wage and piece wage; that is, it

would be the assigning of a definite amount of work to be done in

definite time, and to be paid for by a definite sum. If the task

were set scientifically, and the time scientifically determined, as

it must naturally be for a scientific task, and the wage adequate

for that work, there would seem to be nothing about this form of

remuneration which could be a cause of dissatisfaction to the

worker. Naturally, however, there would be absolutely no chance for

him to desire to go any faster than the time set, or to accomplish

any more work in the time set than that which he was obliged to, in

that he could not possibly get anything for the extra work done.

WORTH OF PREVIOUS METHODS IN THE HANDLING.--It will be noted in

the discussion of the three types of compensation so far discussed,

that there is nothing in them that renders them unscientific. Any

one of the three may be used, and doubtless all are used, on works

which are attempting to operate under Scientific Management. Whether

they really are scientific methods of compensation or not, is

determined by the way that they are handled. Certainly, however, all

that any of these three can expect to do is to convince the man that

he is being treated justly; that is to say, if he knows what sort of

a contract he is entering into, the contract is perfectly fair,

provided that the management keeps its part of the contract, pays

the agreed-upon wage.

In proceeding, instead of following the order of Schloss we will

follow the order, at least for a time, of Dr. Taylor In "A Piece

Rate System"; this for two reasons:

First, for the reason that the "Piece Rate System" is later than

Schloss' book, Schloss being 1891, and the "Piece Rate" being 1895;

in the second place that we are following the Scientific Management

side in distinction to the general economic side, laid down by

Schloss. There is, however, nothing in our plan of discussion here

to prevent one's following fairly closely in the Schloss also.

THE GAIN-SHARING PLAN.--We take up, then, the Gain-sharing Plan

which was invented by Mr. Henry R. Towne and used by him with

success in the Yale & Towne works. This is described in a paper read

before the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, in professional

paper No. 341, in 1888 and also in the Premium Plan, Mr. Halsey's

modification of it, described by him in a paper entitled the

"Premium Plan of Paying for Labor," American Society of

Mechanical Engineers, 1891, Paper 449. In this, in describing the

Profit-sharing Plan, Mr. Halsey says--"Under it, in addition to

regular wages, the employés were offered a certain percentage of the

final profits of the business. It thus divides the savings due to

increased production between employer and employé."

OBJECTIONS TO THIS PLAN.--We note here the objection to this

plan: First,--"The workmen are given a share in what they do not

earn; second, the workmen share regardless of individual deserts;

third, the promised rewards are remote; fourth, the plan makes no

provision for bad years; fifth, the workmen have no means of knowing

if the agreement is carried out." Without discussing any farther

whether these are worded exactly as all who have tried the plan

might have found them, we may take these on Mr. Halsey's authority

and discuss the psychology of them. If the workmen are given a share

in what they do not earn, they have absolutely no feeling that they

are being treated justly. This extra reward which is given to them,

if in the nature of a present, might much better be a present out

and out. If it has no scientific relation to what they have gotten,

if the workmen share regardless of individual deserts, this, as Dr.

Taylor says, paragraph 27 in the "Piece Rate System," is the most

serious defect of all, in that it does not allow for recognition of

the personal merits of each workman. If the rewards are remote, the

interest is diminished. If the plan makes no provision for bad

years, it cannot be self-perpetuating. If the workmen have no means

of knowing if the agreement will be carried out or not, they will be

constantly wondering whether it is being carried out or not, and

their attention will wander.

THE PREMIUM PLAN.--The Premium Plan is thus described by Mr.

Halsey--"The time required to do a given piece of work is determined

from previous experience, and the workman, in addition to his usual

daily wages, is offered a premium for every hour by which he reduces

that time on future work, the amount of the premium being less than

his rate of wages. Making the hourly premium less than the hourly

wages is the foundation stone upon which rest all the merits of

the system."

DR. TAYLOR'S DESCRIPTION OF THIS PLAN.--Dr. Taylor comments upon

this plan as follows:

"The Towne-Halsey plan consists in recording the quickest time

in which a job has been done, and fixing this as a standard. If the

workman succeeds in doing the job in a shorter time, he is still

paid his same wages per hour for the time he works on the job, and,

in addition, is given a premium for having worked faster, consisting

of from one-quarter to one-half the difference between the wages

earned and the wages originally paid when the job was done in

standard time," Dr. Taylor's discussion of this plan will be found

in "Shop Management," paragraphs 79 to 91.

Psychologically, the defect of this system undoubtedly is that

it does not rest upon accurate scientific time study, therefore

neither management nor men can predict accurately what is going to

happen. Not being able to predict, they are unable to devote their

entire attention to the work in hand, and the result cannot be as

satisfactory as under an assigned task, based upon time study. The

discussion of this is so thorough in Dr. Taylor's work, and in Mr.

Halsey's work, that it is unnecessary to introduce more here.

PROFIT-SHARING.--Before turning to the methods of compensation

which are based upon the task, it might be well to introduce here

mention of "Coöperation," or "Profit-sharing," which, in its extreme

form, usually means the sharing of the profits from the business as

a whole, among the men who do the work. This is further discussed by

Schloss, and also by Dr. Taylor in paragraphs 32 to 35, in "A Piece

Rate System"; also in "Shop Management," quoting from the "Piece

Rate System," paragraphs 73 to 77.

OBJECTIONS TO PROFIT-SHARING.--The objections, Dr. Taylor says,

to coöperation are, first in the fact that no form of coöperation

has been devised in which each individual is allowed free scope for

his personal ambition; second, in the remoteness of the reward;

third, in the unequitable division of the profits. If each

individual is not allowed free scope, one sees at once that the

entire advantage of individuality, and of personal recognition, is

omitted. If the reward is remote, we recognize that its power

diminishes very rapidly; and if there cannot be equitable division

of the profits, not only will the men ultimately not be satisfied,

but they will, after a short time, not even be satisfied while they

are working, because their minds will constantly be distracted by

the fact that the division will probably not be equitable, and also

by the fact that they will be trying to plan ways in which they can

get their proper share. Thus, not only in the ultimate outcome, but

also during the entire process, the work will slow up necessarily,

because the men can have no assurance either that the work itself,

or the output, have been scientifically determined.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT EMBODIES VALUABLE ELEMENTS OF

PROFIT-SHARING.--Scientific Management embodies the valuable

elements of profit-sharing, namely, the idea of coöperation, and the

idea that the workers should share in the profit.

That the latter of these two is properly emphasized by

Scientific Management is not always understood by the workers. When

a worker is enabled to make three or four times as much output in a

day as he has been accustomed to, he may think that he is not

getting his full share of the "spoils" of increased efficiency,

unless he gets a proportionately increased rate of pay. It should,

therefore, be early made clear to him that the saving has been

caused by the actions of the management, quite as much as by the

increased efforts for productivity of the men. Furthermore, a part

of the savings must go to pay for the extra cost of maintaining the

standard conditions that make such output possible. The necessary

planners and teachers usually are sufficient as object-lessons to

convince the workers of the necessity of not giving all the extra

savings to the workers.

It is realized that approximately one third of the extra profits

from the savings must go to the employer, about one third to the

employés, and the remainder for maintaining the system and carrying

out further investigations.

This once understood, the satisfaction that results from a

coöperative, profit-sharing type of management will be enjoyed.

The five methods of compensation which are to follow are all

based upon the task, as laid down by Dr. Taylor; that is to say,

upon time study, and an exact knowledge by the man, and the

employers, of how much work can be done.

DIFFERENTIAL RATE PIECE WORK THE ULTIMATE FORM OF COMPENSATION.--

Dr. Taylor's method of compensation, which is acknowledged by all

thoroughly grounded in Scientific Management to be the ultimate

form of compensation where it can be used, is called Differential

Rate Piece Work. It is described in "A Piece Rate System,"

paragraphs 50 to 52, as follows:--

"This consists, briefly, in paying a higher price per piece, or

per unit, or per job, if the work is done in the shortest possible

time and without imperfection, than is paid if the work takes a

longer time or is imperfectly done. To illustrate--suppose 20 units,

or pieces, to be the largest amount of work of a certain kind that

can be done in a day. Under the differential rate system, if a

workman finishes 20 pieces per day, and all of these pieces are

perfect, he receives, say, 15 cents per piece, making his pay for

the day 15 times 20 = $3.00. If, however, he works too slowly and

turns out only, say 19 pieces, then instead of receiving 15 cents

per piece he gets only 12 cents per piece, making his pay for the

day 12x19= $2.28, instead of $3.00 per day. If he succeeds in

finishing 20 pieces--some of which are imperfect--then he should

receive a still lower rate of pay, say 10¢ or 5¢ per piece,

according to circumstances, making his pay for the day $2.00 or only

$1.00, instead of $3.00."

ADVANTAGES OF THIS SYSTEM.--This system is founded upon

knowledge that for a large reward men will do a large amount of

work. The small compensation for a small amount of work--and under

this system the minimum compensation is a little below the regular

day's work--may lead men to exert themselves to accomplish more

work. This system appeals to the justice of the men, in that it is

more nearly an exact ratio of pay to endeavor.

TASK WORK WITH A BONUS.--The Task work with Bonus system of

compensation, which is the invention of Mr. H.L. Gantt, is explained

in "A Bonus System of Rewarding Labor," paper 923, read before the

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, December, 1901, by Mr.

Gantt. This system is there described as follows:--

"If the man follows his instructions and accomplishes all the

work laid out for him as constituting his proper task for the day,

he is paid a definite bonus in addition to the day rate which he

always gets. If, however, at the end of the day he has failed to

accomplish all of the work laid out, he does not get his bonus, but

simply his day rate." This system of compensation is explained more

fully in Chapter VI of Mr. Gantt's book, "Work, Wages and Profits,"

where he explains the modification now used by him in the bonus.

ADVANTAGES OF TASK WORK WITH A BONUS.--The psychological

advantage of the task with a Bonus is the fact that the worker has

the assurance of a living wage while learning, no matter whether he

succeeds in winning his bonus or not. In the last analysis, it is

"day rate" for the unskilled, and "piece rate" for the skilled, and

it naturally leads to a feeling of security in the worker. Mr. Gantt

has so admirably explained the advantages, psychological as well as

industrial, of his system, that it is unnecessary to go farther,

except to emphasize the fine feeling of brotherhood which underlies

the idea, and its expression.

THE DIFFERENTIAL BONUS SYSTEM.--The Differential Bonus System of

Compensation is the invention of Mr. Frederick A. Parkhurst, and is

described by him in his book "Applied Methods of Scientific

Management."

"The time the job should be done in is first determined by

analysis and time study. The bonus is then added above the day work

line. No bonus is paid until a definitely determined time is

realized. As the time is reduced, the bonus is increased."

THREE RATE WITH INCREASED RATE SYSTEM.--The Three Rate System of

Compensation is the invention of Mr. Frank B. Gilbreth and consists

of day work, i.e., a day rate, or a flat minimum rate, which all who

are willing to work receive until they can try themselves out; of a

middle rate, which is given to the man when he accomplishes the work

with exactness of compliance to prescribed motions, according to the

requirements of his instruction card; and of a high rate, which is

paid to the man when he not only accomplishes the task in accordance

with the instruction card, but also within the set time and of the

prescribed quality of finished work.

ADVANTAGE OF THIS SYSTEM.--The advantage of this is, first of

all, that the man does not have to look forward so far for some of

his reward, as it comes to him just as soon as he has shown himself

able to do the prescribed methods required accurately. The first

extra reward is naturally a stimulus toward winning the second extra

reward. The middle rate is a stimulus to endeavor to perform that

method which will enable him easiest to achieve the accomplishment

of the task that pays the highest wage. The day rate assures the man

of a living wage. The middle rate pays him a bonus for trying to

learn. The high rate gives him a piece rate when he is skilled.

Lastly, as the man can increase his output, with continued

experience, above that of the task, he receives a differential rate

piece on the excess quantity, this simply making an increasing

stimulus to exceed his previous best record.

ALL TASK SYSTEMS INVESTIGATE LOSS OF BONUS.--Under all these

bonus forms of wages, if the bonus is not gained the fact is at once

investigated, in order that the blame may rest where it belongs. The

blame may rest upon the workers, or it may be due to the material,

which may be defective, or different from standard; it may be upon

the supervision, or some fault of the management in not supplying

the material in the proper quality, or sequence, or a bad condition

of tools or machinery; or upon the instruction card. The fact that

the missing of the bonus is investigated is an added assurance to

the workman that he is getting the "square deal," and enlists his

sympathy with these forms of bonus system, and his desire to work

under them. The fact that the management will investigate also

allows him to concentrate upon output, with no worry as to the

necessity of his investigating places where he has fallen short.

NECESSITY FOR WORKERS BEARING THIS LOSS.--In any case, whether

the blame for losing the bonus is the worker's fault directly or

not, he loses his bonus. This, for two reasons; in the first place,

if he did not lose his bonus he would have no incentive to try to

discover flaws before delays occurred; he would, otherwise, have an

incentive to allow the material to pass through his hands, defective

or imperfect as the case might be. This is very closely associated

with the second reason, and that is, that the bonus comes from the

savings caused by the plan of management, and that it is necessary

that the workers as well as the management shall see that everything

possible tends to increase the saving. It is only as the worker

feels that his bonus is a part of the saving, that he recognizes the

justice of his receiving it, that it is in no wise a gift to him,

simply his proper share, accorded not by any system of philanthropy,

or so-called welfare work, but simply because his own personal work

has made it possible for the management to hand back his share

to him.

USERS OF ANY TASK SYSTEM APPRECIATE OTHER TASK SYSTEMS.--It is

of great importance to the workers that the users of any of these

five methods of compensation of Scientific Management are all ready

and glad to acknowledge the worth of all these systems. In many

works more than one, in some all, of these systems of payment may be

in use. Far from this resulting in confusion, it simply leads to the

understanding that whatever is best in the particular situation

should be used. It also leads to a feeling of stability everywhere,

as a man who has worked under any of these systems founded on time

study can easily pass to another. There is also a great gain here in

the doing away of industrial warfare.

SHORTER HOURS AND HOLIDAYS EFFECTIVE REWARDS.--Probably the

greatest incentive, next to promotion and more pay, are shorter

hours and holidays. In some cases, the shorter hours, or holidays,

have proven even more attractive to the worker than the increase of

pay. In Shop Management, paragraph 165, Dr. Taylor describes a case

where children working were obliged to turn their entire pay

envelopes over to their parents. To them, there was no particular

incentive in getting more money, but, when the task was assigned, if

they were allowed to go as soon as their task was completed, the

output was accomplished in a great deal shorter time. Another case

where shorter hours were successfully tried, was in an office where

the girls were allowed the entire Saturday every two weeks, if the

work was accomplished within a set amount of time. This extra time

for shopping and matinees proved more attractive than any reasonable

amount of extra pay that could be offered.

DESIRE FOR APPROBATION AN INCENTIVE.--Under "Individuality" were

discussed various devices for developing the individuality of the

man, such as his picture over a good output or record. These all act

as rewards or incentives. How successful they would be, depends

largely upon the temperament of the man and the sort of work that is

to be done. In all classes of society, among all sorts of people,

there is the type that loves approbation. This type will be appealed

to more by a device which allows others to see what has been done

than by almost anything else. As to what this device must be,

depends on the intelligence of the man.

NECESSITY FOR COÖPERATION A STRONG INCENTIVE.--Under Scientific

Management, many workers are forced by their coworkers to try to

earn their bonuses, as "falling down on" tasks, and therefore

schedules, may force them to lose their bonuses also.

The fact that, in many kinds of work, a man falling below his

task will prevent his fellows from working, is often a strong

incentive to that man to make better speed. For example, on a

certain construction job in Canada, the teamsters were shown that,

by their work, they were cutting down working opportunities for cart

loaders, who could only be hired as the teamsters hauled sufficient

loads to keep them busy.

VALUE OF KNOWLEDGE GAINED AN INCENTIVE TO A FEW ONLY.--Extra

knowledge, and the better method of attack learned under Scientific

Management, are rewards that will be appreciated by those of

superior intelligence only. They will, in a way, be appreciated by

all, because it will be realized that, through what is learned, more

pay or promotion is received, but the fact that this extra

knowledge, and better method of attack, will enable one to do better

in all lines, not simply in the line at which one is working, and

will render one's life more full and rich, will be appreciated only

by those of a wide experience.

ACQUIRED PROFESSIONAL STANDING A POWERFUL INCENTIVE.--Just as

the success of the worker under Scientific Management assures such

admiration by his fellow-workers as will serve as an incentive

toward further success, so the professional standing attained by

success in Scientific Management acts as an incentive to those in

more responsible positions.

As soon as it is recognized that Scientific Management furnishes

the only real measure of efficiency, its close relationship to

professional standing will be recognized, and the reward which it

can offer in this line will be more fully appreciated.

PUNISHMENTS NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE.--Punishments may be first

negative, that is, simply a loss of promised rewards. Such

punishments, especially in cases of men who have once had the

reward, usually will act as the necessary stimulus to further

activity. Punishments may also be positive, such things as fines,

assignment to less pleasant work, or as a last resort, discharge.

FINES NEVER ACCRUE TO THE MANAGEMENT.--Fines have been a most

successful mode of punishment under Scientific Management. Under

many of the old forms of management, the fines were turned back to

the management itself, thus raising a spirit of animosity in the

men, who felt that everything that they suffered was a gain to those

over them. Under Scientific Management all fines are used in some

way for the benefit of the men themselves. All fines should be used

for some benefit fund, or turned into the insurance fund. The fines,

as has been said, are determined solely by the disciplinarian, who

is disinterested in the disposition of the funds thus collected. As

the fines do not in any way benefit the management, and in fact

rather hurt the management in that the men who pay them, no matter

where they are applied, must feel more or less discouraged, it is,

naturally, for the benefit of the management that there shall be as

few fines as possible. Both management and men realize this, which

leads to industrial peace, and also leads the managers, the

functional foremen, and in fact every one, to eliminate the

necessity and cause for fines to as great an extent as is possible.

ASSIGNMENT TO LESS PLEASANT WORK EFFECTIVE PUNISHMENT.--

Assignment to less pleasant work is a very effective form of

discipline. It has many advantages which do not show on the surface,

The man may not really get a cut in pay, though his work be changed,

and thus the damage he receives is in no wise to his purse, but

simply to his feeling of pride. In the meantime, he is gaining a

wider experience of the business, so that even the worst

disadvantage has its bright side.

DISCHARGE TO BE AVOIDED WHEREVER POSSIBLE.--Discharge is, of

course, available under Scientific Management, as under all other

forms, but it is really less used under Scientific Management than

under any other sort, because if a man is possibly available, and in

any way trained, it is better to do almost anything to teach him, to

assign him to different work, to try and find his possibilities,

than to let him go, and have all that teaching wasted as far as the

organization which has taught it is concerned.

DISCHARGE A GRAVE INJURY TO A WORKER.--Moreover, Scientific

Management realizes that discharge may be a grave injury to a

worker. As Mr. James M. Dodge, who has been most successful in

Scientific Management and is noted for his good work for his

fellow-men, eloquently pleads, in a paper on "The Spirit in Which

Scientific Management Should Be Approached," given before the

Conference on Scientific Management at Dartmouth College,

October, 1911:

"It is a serious thing for a worker who has located his home

within reasonable proximity to his place of employment and with

proper regard for the schooling of his children, to have to seek

other employment and readjust his home affairs, with a loss of time

and wages. Proper management takes account not only of this fact,

but also of the fact that there is a distinct loss to the employer

when an old and experienced employé is replaced by a new man, who

must be educated in the methods of the establishment. An old employé

has, in his experience, a potential value that should not be lightly

disregarded, and there should be in case of dismissal the soundest

of reasons, in which personal prejudice or temporary mental

condition of the foreman should play no part.

"Constant changing of employés is not wholesome for any

establishment, and the sudden discovery by a foreman that a man who

has been employed for a year or more is 'no good' is often a

reflection on the foreman, and more often still, is wholly untrue.

All working men, unless they develop intemperate or dishonest

habits, have desirable value in them, and the conserving and

increasing of their value is a duty which should be assumed by

their superiors."

PUNISHMENT CAN NEVER BE ENTIRELY ABOLISHED.--It might be asked

why punishments are needed at all under this system; that is, why

positive punishments are needed. Why not merely a lack of reward for

the slight offenses, and a discharge if it gets too bad? It must be

remembered, however, that the punishments are needed to insure a

proper appreciation of the reward. If there is no negative side, the

beauty of the reward will never be realized; the man who has once

suffered by having his pay cut for something which he has done

wrong, will be more than ready to keep up to the standard. In the

second place, unless individuals are punished, the rights of other

individuals will, necessarily, be encroached upon. When it is

considered that under Scientific Management the man who gives the

punishment is the disinterested disciplinarian, that the punishment

is made exactly appropriate to the offense, and that no advantage

from it comes to any one except the men themselves, it can be

understood that the psychological basis is such as to make a

punishment rather an incentive than a detriment.

DIRECT INCENTIVES NUMEROUS AND POWERFUL.--As for the direct

incentives, these are so many that it is possible to enumerate only

a few. For example--

This may be simply a result of love of speed, love of play, or

love of activity, or it may be, in the case of a man running a

machine, not so much for the love of the activity as for a love of

seeing things progress rapidly. There is a love of contest which has

been thoroughly discussed under "Athletic Contests," which results

in racing, and in all the pleasures of competition.

RACING DIRECTED UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The psychology of

the race under Scientific Management is most interesting. The race

is not a device of Scientific Management to speed up the worker, any

speed that would be demanded by Scientific Management beyond the

task-speed would be an unscientific thing. On the other hand, it is

not the scope of Scientific Management to bar out any contests which

would not be for the ultimate harm of the workers. Such interference

would hamper individuality; would make the workers feel that they

were restricted and held down. While the workers are, under

Scientific Management, supposed to be under the supervision of some

one who can see that the work is only such as they can do and

continuously thrive, any such interference as, for example, stopping

a harmless race, would at once make them feel that their individual

initiative was absolutely destroyed. It is not the desire of

Scientific Management to do anything of that sort, but rather to use

every possible means to make the worker feel that his initiative is

being conserved.

ALL "NATIVE REACTIONS" ACT AS INCENTIVES.--Pride,

self-confidence, pugnacity,--all the "native reactions" utilized by

teaching serve as direct incentives.

RESULTS OF INCENTIVES TO THE WORK.--All incentives in every form

of management, tend, from their very nature, to increase output.

When Scientific Management is introduced, there is selection of such

incentives as will produce greatest amount of specified output, and

the results can be predicted.

RESULTS OF INCENTIVES TO THE WORKER.--Under Traditional

Management the incentives are usually such that the worker is likely

to overwork himself if he allows himself to be driven by the

incentive. This results in bodily exhaustion. So, also, the anxiety

that accompanies an unstandardized incentive leads to mental

exhaustion. With the introduction of Transitory Management, danger

from both these types of exhaustion is removed. The incentive

is so modified that it is instantly subject to judgment as to its

ultimate value.

Scientific Management makes the incentives stronger than they

are under any other type, partly by removing sources of worry, waste

and hesitation, partly by determining the ratio of incentive to

output. The worker under such incentives gains in bodily and mental

poise and security.

CHAPTER IX FOOTNOTES: ==============================================

1. W.P. Gillette, _Cost Analysis Engineering_, p. 3.

2. F.W. Taylor, Paper 647, A.S.M.E., para. 33, para. 59.

3. Hugo Diemer, _Factory Organization and Administration_, p. 5.

4. James M. Dodge, Paper 1115, A.S.M.E., p. 723.

5. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, para. 310-311, Harper Ed.,

pp. 142-143.

6. See also C.U. Carpenter, _Profit Making in Shop and Factory

Management_, pp. 113-115. For an extended and excellent account

of the theory of well-known methods of compensating workmen, see

C.B. Going, _Principles of Industrial Engineering_, chap. VIII.

====================================================================

CHAPTER X

WELFARE

DEFINITION OF WELFARE.--"Welfare" means "a state or condition of

doing well; prosperous or satisfactory course or relation; exemption

from evil;" in other words, well-being. This is the primary meaning

of the word. But, to-day, it is used so often as an adjective, to

describe work which is being attempted for the good of industrial

workers, that any use of the word welfare has that fringe of meaning

to it.

"WELFARE" HERE INCLUDES TWO MEANINGS.--In the discussion of

welfare in this chapter, both meanings of the word will be included.

"Welfare" under each form of management will be discussed, first, as

meaning the outcome to the men of the type of management itself; and

second, as discussing the sort of welfare work which is used under

that form of management.

DISCUSSION OF FIRST ANSWERS. THREE QUESTIONS.--A discussion of

welfare as the result of work divides itself naturally into three

parts, or three questions:

What is the effect upon the physical life?

What is the effect upon the mental life?

What is the effect upon the moral life?

UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT NO PHYSICAL IMPROVEMENT.--The

indefiniteness of Traditional Management manifests itself again in

this discussion, it being almost impossible to make any general

statement which could not be controverted by particular examples;

but it is safe to say that in general, under Traditional Management,

there is not a definite physical improvement in the average worker.

In the first place, there is no provision for regularity in the

work. The planning not being done ahead, the man has absolutely no

way of knowing exactly what he will be called upon to do. There

being no measure of fatigue, he has no means of knowing whether he

can go to work the second part of the day, say, with anything like

the efficiency with which he could go to work in the first part of

the day. There being no standard, the amount of work which he can

turn out must vary according as the tools, machinery and equipment

are in proper condition, and the material supplies his needs.

NO GOOD HABITS NECESSARILY FORMED.--In the second place, under

Traditional Management there are no excellent habits necessarily

formed. The man is left to do fairly as he pleases, if only the

general outcome be considered sufficient by those over him. There

may be a physical development on his part, if the work be of a kind

which can develop him, or which he likes to such an extent that he

is willing to do enough of it to develop him physically; this liking

may come through the play element, or through the love of work, or

through the love of contest, or through some other desire for

activity, but it is not provided for scientifically, and the outcome

cannot be exactly predicted. Therefore, under Traditional Management

there is no way of knowing that good health and increased strength

will result from the work, and we know that in many cases poor

health and depleted strength have been the outcome of the work. We

may say then fairly, as far as physical improvement is concerned

that, though it might be the outcome of Traditional Management, it

was rather in spite of Traditional Management, in the sense at least

that the management had nothing to do with it, and had absolutely no

way of providing for it. The moment that it was provided for in any

systematic way, the Traditional Management vanished.

NO DIRECTED MENTAL DEVELOPMENT.--Second, mental development.

Here, again, there being no fixed habits, no specially trained habit

of attention, no standard, there was no way of knowing that the

man's mind was improving. Naturally, all minds improve merely with

experience. Experience must be gathered in, and must be embodied

into judgment. There is absolutely no way of estimating what the

average need in this line would be, it varies so much with the

temperament of the man. Again, it would usually be a thing that the

man himself was responsible for, and not the management, certainly

not the management in any impersonal sense. Some one man over an

individual worker might be largely responsible for improving him

intellectually. If this were so, it would be because of the

temperament of the over-man, or because of his friendly desire to

impart a mental stimulus; seldom, if ever, because the management

provided for its being imparted. Thus, there was absolutely no way

of predicting that wider or deeper interest, or that increased

mental capacity, would take place.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT DOUBTFUL.--As for moral development, in the

average Traditional Management it was not only not provided for, but

rather doubtful. A man had very little chance to develop real,

personal responsibilities, in that there was always some one over

him who was watching him, who disciplined him and corrected him, who

handed in the reports for him, with the result that he was in a very

slight sense a free agent. Only men higher up, the foremen and the

superintendents could obtain real development from personal

responsibilities. Neither was there much development of

responsibility for others, in the sense of being responsible for

personal development of others. Having no accurate standards to

judge by, there was little or no possibility of appreciation of the

relative standing of the men, either by the individual of himself,

or by others of his ability. The man could be admired for his

strength, or his skill, but not for his real efficiency, as measured

in any satisfactory way. The management taught self-control in the

most rudimentary way, or not at all. There was no distinct goal for

the average man, neither was there any distinct way to arrive at

such a goal; it was simply a case, with the man lower down, of

making good for any one day and getting that day's pay. In the more

enlightened forms of Traditional Management, a chance for promotion

was always fairly sure, but the moment that the line of promotion

became assured, we may say that Traditional Management had really

ceased, and some form of Transitory Management was in operation.

"SQUARE DEAL" LACKING.--Perhaps the worst lack under Traditional

Management is the lack of the "square deal." In the first place,

even the most efficient worker under this form of management was not

sure of his place. This not only meant worry on his part, which

distracted his attention from what he did, but meant a wrong

attitude all along the line. He had absolutely no way of knowing

that, even though he did his best, the man over him, in anger, or

because of some entirely ulterior thing, might not discharge him,

put him in a lower position. So also the custom of spying, the only

sort of inspection recognized under Traditional Management of the

most elementary form, led to a feeling on the men's part that they

were being constantly watched on the sly, and to an inability to

concentrate. This brought about an inability to feel really honest,

for being constantly under suspicion is enough to poison even one's

own opinion of one's integrity. Again, being at the beck and call of

a prejudiced foreman who was all-powerful, and having no assured

protection from the whims of such a man, the worker was obliged,

practically for self-protection, to try to conciliate the foremen by

methods of assuming merits that are obvious, on the surface. He

ingratiates himself in the favor of the foreman in that way best

adapted to the peculiarities of the character of the foreman,

sometimes joining societies, or the church of the foreman, sometimes

helping him elect some political candidate or relative; at other

times, by the more direct method of buying drinks, or taking up a

subscription for presenting the foreman with a gold watch, "in

appreciation of his fairness to all;" sometimes by consistently

losing at cards or other games of chance. When it is considered that

this same foreman was probably, at the time, enjoying a brutal

feeling of power, it is no wonder that no sense of confidence of the

"square deal" could develop. There are countless ways that the

brutal enjoyment of power could be exercised by the man in a

foreman's position. As has already been said, some men prefer

promotion to a position of power more than anything else. Nearly all

desire promotion to power for the extra money that it brings, and

occasionally, a man will be found who loves the power, although

unconsciously, for the pleasure he obtains in lording over other

human beings. This quality is present more or less in all human

beings. It is particularly strong in the savage, who likes to

torture captured human beings and animals, and perhaps the greatest

test for high qualifications of character and gentleness is that of

having power over other human beings without unnecessarily accenting

the difference in the situation. Under Military Management, there is

practically no limit to this power, the management being satisfied

if the foreman gets the work out of the men, and the men having

practically no one to appeal to, and being obliged to receive their

punishment always from the hands of a prejudiced party.

LITTLE POSSIBILITY OF DEVELOPMENT OF WILL.--Being under such

influence as this, there is little or no possibility of the

development of an intelligent will. The "will to do" becomes

stunted, unless the pay is large enough to lead the man to be

willing to undergo abuses in order to get the money. There is

nothing, moreover, in the aspect of the management itself to lead

the man to have a feeling of confidence either in himself, or in the

management, and to have that moral poise which will make him wish

to advance.

REAL CAPACITY NOT INCREASED.--With the likelihood of suspicion,

hate and jealousy arising, and with constant preparations for

conflict, of which the average union and employers' association is

the embodiment, naturally, real capacity is not increased, but is

rather decreased, under this form of management, and we may ascribe

this to three faults:

First, to lack of recognition of individuality,--men are handled

mostly as gangs, and personality is sunk.

Second, to lack of standardization, and to lack of time study,

that fundamental of all standardization, which leads to absolute

inability to make a measured, and therefore scientific judgment, and

Third, to the lack of teaching; to the lack of all

constructiveness.

These three lacks, then, constitute a strong reason why

Traditional Management does not add to the welfare of the men.

LITTLE SYSTEMATIZED WELFARE WORK UNDER TRADITIONAL

MANAGEMENT.--As for welfare work,--that is, work which the employers

themselves plan to benefit the men, if under such work be included

timely impulses of the management for the men, and the carrying of

these out in a more or less systematic way, it will be true to say

that such welfare work has existed in all times, and under all forms

of management. The kind-hearted man will show his kind heart

wherever he is, but it is likewise true to say that little

systematic beneficial work is done under what we have defined as

Traditional Management.

DEFINITE STATEMENTS AS TO WELFARE UNDER TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT

DIFFICULT TO MAKE.--It is almost impossible to give any statement as

to the general welfare of workers under Transitory Management,

because, from the very nature of the case, Transitory Management is

constantly changing. In the discussion of the various chapters, and

in showing how individuality, functionalization, measurement, and so

on, were introduced, and the psychological effect upon the men of

their being introduced, welfare was more or less unsystematically

considered. In turning to the discussion under Scientific Management

and showing how welfare is the result of Scientific Management and

is incorporated in it, much as to its growth will be included.

WELFARE WORK UNDER TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT IS USUALLY

COMMENDABLE.--As to the welfare work under Transitory Management,

much could be said, and much has been said and written. Typical

Welfare Work under Transitory Management deserves nothing but

praise. It is the result of the dedication of many beautiful lives

to a beautiful cause. It consists of such work as building rest

rooms for the employés, in providing for amusements, in providing

for better working conditions, in helping to better living

conditions, in providing for some sort of a welfare worker who can

talk with the employés and benefit them in every way, including

being their representative in speaking with the management.

AN UNDERLYING FLAW IS APPARENT.--There can be no doubt that an

enormous quantity of good has been done by this welfare work, both

positively, to the employés themselves, and indirectly, to the

management, through fostering a kinder feeling. There is, however, a

flaw to be found in the underlying principles of this welfare work

as introduced in Transitory Management, and that is that it takes on

more or less the aspect of a charity, and is so regarded both by the

employés and by the employer. The employer, naturally, prides

himself more or less upon doing something which is good, and the

employé naturally resents more or less having something given to him

as a sort of charity which he feels his by right.

ITS EFFECT IS DETRIMENTAL.--The psychological significance of

this is very great. The employer, feeling that he has bestowed a

gift, is, naturally, rather chagrined to find it is received either

as a right, or with a feeling of resentment. Therefore, he is often

led to decrease what he might otherwise do, for it is only an

unusual and a very high type of mind that can be satisfied simply

with the doing of the good act, without the return of gratitude. On

the other hand, the employé, if he be a man of pride, may resent

charity even in such a general form as this, and may, with an

element of rightness, prefer that the money to be expended be put

into his pay envelope, instead. If it is simply a case of better

working conditions, something that improves him as an efficient

worker for the management, he will feel that this welfare work is in

no sense something which he receives as a gift, but rather something

which is his right, and which benefits the employer exactly as much,

if not more than it benefits him.

WELFARE WORK NOT SELF-PERPETUATING.--Another fault which can be

found with the actual administration of the welfare work, is the

fact that it often disregards one of the fundamental principles of

Scientific Management, in that the welfare workers themselves do not

train enough people to follow in their footsteps, and thus make

welfare self-perpetuating.

In one case which the writer has in mind, a noble woman is

devoting her life to the welfare of a body of employés in an

industry which greatly requires such work. The work which she is

doing is undoubtedly benefiting these people in every aspect, not

only of their business but of their home lives, but it is also true

that should she be obliged to give up the work, or be suddenly

called away, the work would practically fall to pieces. It is built

up upon her personality, and, wonderful as it is, its basis must be

recognized as unscientific and temporary.

SCIENTIFIC PROVISION FOR WELFARE UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--

Under Scientific Management general welfare is provided for by:--

The effect that the work has on physical improvement. This we

shall discuss under three headings--

1. the regularity of the work.

2. habits.

3. physical development.

As for the regularity of the work--we have

(a) The apportionment of the work and the rest. Under

Scientific Management, work time and rest time are

scientifically apportioned. This means that the man is

able to come to each task with the same amount of

strength, and that from his work he gains habits of

regularity.

(b) The laying out of the work. The standards upon which

the instruction cards are based, and the method of

preparing them, assure regularity.

(c) The manner of performing the work. Every time that

identical work is done, it is done in an identical

manner.

The resulting regularity has an excellent effect upon the

physical welfare of the worker.

2. Habits, under Scientific Management,

(a) are prescribed by standards. The various physical

habits of the man, the motions that are used, having

all been timed and then standardized, the worker

acquires physical habits that are fixed.

(b) are taught;[1] therefore they are not remote but come

actually and promptly into the consciousness and into

the action of the worker.

(c) are retained, because they are standard habits and

because the rewards which are given for using them make

it an object to the worker to retain them.

(d) Are reënforced by individuality and functionalization;

that is to say, the worker is considered as an

individual, and his possibilities are studied, before

he is put into the work; therefore, his own

individuality and his own particular function naturally

reënforce those habits which he is taught to form.

These habits, being scientifically derived, add to

physical improvement.

3. Physical development

(a) is fostered through the play element, has been

scientifically studied, and is utilized as far as

possible; the same is true of the love of work, which

is reënforced by the fact that the man has been placed

where he will have the most love for his work.

(b) is insured by the love of contest, which is provided

for not only by contest with others, but by the

constant contest of the worker with his own previous

records. When he does exceed these records he utilizes

powers which it is for his good physically, as well as

otherwise, to utilize.

RESULTS OF PHYSICAL IMPROVEMENT.--This regularity, good habits,

and physical development, result in good health, increased strength

and a better appearance. To these three results all scientific

managers testify. An excellent example of this is found in Mr.

Gantt's "Work, Wages and Profits," where the increased health, the

better color and the better general appearance of the workers under

Scientific Management is commented on as well as the fact that they

are inspired by their habits to dress themselves better and in every

way to become of a higher type.[2]

MENTAL DEVELOPMENT.--Welfare under Scientific Management is

provided for by Mental Development. This we may discuss under

habits, and under general mental development.

1. As for habits we must consider

(a) Habits of attention. Under Scientific Management, as we

have shown, attention must become a habit. Only when it

does become a habit, can the work required be properly

performed, and the reward received. As only those who

show themselves capable of really receiving the reward

are considered to be properly placed, ultimately all

who remain at work under Scientific Management must

attain this habit of attention.

(b) Habit of method of attack. This not only enables the

worker to do the things that he is assigned

satisfactorily, but also has the broadening effect of

teaching him how to do other things, i.e., showing him

the "how" of doing things, and giving him standards

which are the outcome of mental habits, and by which he

learns to measure.

2. General mental development is provided for by the experience

which the worker gets not only in the general way in which all who

work must give experience, but in the set way provided for by

Scientific Management. This is so presented to the worker that it

becomes actually usable at once. This not only allows him to judge

others, but provides for self-knowledge, which is one of the most

valuable of all of the outcomes of Scientific Management. He becomes

mentally capable of estimating his own powers and predicting what he

himself is capable of doing. The outcome of this mental development is

(a) wider interest.

(b) deeper interest.

(c) increased mental capabilities.

The better method of attack would necessarily provide for wider

interest. The fact that any subject taken up is in its ultimate

final unit form, would certainly lead to deeper interest; and the

exercise of these two faculties leads to increased mental

capabilities.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT.--Moral development under Scientific

Management results from the provisions made for cultivating--

1. personal responsibility.

2. responsibility for others.

3. appreciation of standing.

4. self-control.

5. "squareness."

1. Personal responsibility is developed by

(a) Individual recognition. When the worker was considered

merely as one of a gang, it was very easy for him to

shift responsibilities upon others. When he knows that

he is regarded by the management, and by his mates, as

an individual, that what he does will show up in an

individual record, and will receive individual reward

or punishment, necessarily personal responsibility is

developed.

Moreover, this individual recognition is brought to his mind by

his being expected to fill out his own instruction card. In this

way, his personal responsibility is specifically brought home

to him.

(b) The appreciation which comes under Scientific

Management. This appreciation takes the form of reward

and promotion, and of the regard of his fellow-workers;

therefore, being a growing thing, as it is under

Scientific Management, it insures that his personal

responsibility, shall also be a growing thing, and

become greater the longer he works under Scientific

Management.

2. Responsibility for others is provided for by the

inter-relation of all functions. It is not necessary that all

workers under Scientific Management should understand all about it.

However, many do understand, and the more that they do understand,

the more they realize that everybody working under Scientific

Management is more or less dependent upon everybody else. Every

worker must feel this, more or less, when he realizes that there are

eight functional bosses over him, who are closely related to him, on

whom he is dependent, and who are more or less dependent upon him.

The very fact that the planning is separated from the performing,

means that more men are directly interested in any one piece of

work; in fact, that every individual piece of work that is done is

in some way a bond between a great number of men, some of whom are

planning and some of whom are performing it. This responsibility for

others is made even more close in the dependent bonuses which are a

part of Scientific Management, a man's pay being dependent upon the

work of those who are working under him. Certainly, nothing could

bring the fact more closely to the attention of each and every

worker under this system, than associating it with the pay envelope.

3. Appreciation of standing is fostered by

(a) individual records. Through these the individual

himself knows what he has done, his fellows know, and

the management knows.

(b) comparative records, which show even those who might

not make the comparison, exactly how each worker

stands, with relation to his mates, or with relation to

his past records.

This appreciation of standing is well exemplified in the happy

phrasing of Mr. Gantt--"There is in every workroom a fashion, or

habit of work, and the new worker follows that fashion, for it isn't

respectable not to. The man or woman who ignores fashion does not

get much pleasure from associating with those that follow it, and

the new member consequently tries to fall in with the sentiment of

the community.[3] Our chart shows that the stronger the sentiment in

favor of industry is, the harder the new member tries and the sooner

he succeeds."

4. Self-control is developed by

(a) the habits of inhibition fostered by Scientific

Management,--that is to say, when the right habits are

formed, necessarily many wrong habits are eliminated.

It becomes a part of Scientific Management to inhibit

all inattention and wrong habits, and to concentrate

upon the things desired. This is further aided by

(b) the distinct goal and the distinct task which

Scientific Management gives, which allow the man to

hold himself well in control, to keep his poise and to

advance steadily.

5. "Squareness." This squareness is exemplified first of all by

the attitude of the management. It provides, in every way, that the

men are given a "square deal," in that the tasks assigned are of the

proper size, and that the reward that is given is of the proper

dimensions, and is assured. This has already been shown to be

exemplified in many characteristics of Scientific Management, and

more especially in the inspection and in the disciplining.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT RESULTS IN CONTENTMENT, BROTHERHOOD AND THE

"WILL TO DO".--The three results of this moral development are

1. contentment

2. brotherhood

3. a "will to do."

1. Contentment is the outgrowth of the personal responsibility,

the appreciation of standing, and the general "squareness" of the

entire plan of Scientific Management.

2. The idea of brotherhood is fostered particularly through the

responsibility for others, through the feeling that grows up that

each man is dependent upon all others, and that it is necessary for

every man to train up another man to take his place before he can be

advanced. Thus it comes about that the old caste life, which so

often grew up under Traditional Management, becomes abolished, and

there ensues a feeling that it is possible for any man to grow up

into any other man's place. The tug-of-war attitude of the

management and men is transformed into the attitude of a band of

soldiers scaling a wall. Not only is the worker pulled up, but he is

also forced up from the bottom.[4]

3. The "will to do" is so fostered by Scientific Management that

not only is the worker given every incentive, but he, personally,

becomes inspired with this great desire for activity, which is after

all the best and finest thing that any system of work can give

to him.

INTERRELATION OF PHYSICAL, MENTAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT.--As to

the interrelation of physical, mental and moral development, it must

never be forgotten that the mind and the body must be studied

together,[5] and that this is particularly true in considering the

mind in management.[6] For the best results of the mind, the body

must be cared for, and provided for, fully as much as must the mind,

or the best results from the mind will not, and cannot, be obtained.

Successful management must consider the results of all mental

states upon the health, happiness and prosperity of the worker, and

the quality, quantity and cost of the output. That is to say, unless

the mind is kept in the right state, with the elimination of worry,

the body cannot do its best work, and, in the same way, unless the

body is kept up to the proper standard, the mind cannot develop.

Therefore, a really good system of management must consider not only

these things separately, but in their interrelation,--and this

Scientific Management does.

RESULT OF PHYSICAL, MENTAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT IS INCREASED

CAPACITY.--The ultimate result of all this physical improvement,

mental development and moral development is increased capacity,

increased capacity not only for work, but for health, and for life

in general.

WELFARE WORK AN INTEGRAL PART OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--

Strictly speaking, under Scientific Management, there should be no

necessity for a special department of Welfare Work. It should be so

incorporated in Scientific Management that it is not to be

distinguished. Here the men are looked out for in such a way under

the operation of Scientific Management itself that there is no

necessity for a special welfare worker. This is not to say that the

value of personality will disappear under Scientific Management, and

that it may not be necessary in some cases to provide for nurses,

for physical directors, and for advisers. It will, however, be

understood that the entire footing of these people is changed under

Scientific Management. It is realized under Scientific Management

that these people, and their work, benefit the employers as much as

the employés. They must go on the regular payroll as a part of the

efficiency equipment. The workers must understand that there is

absolutely no feeling of charity, or of gift, in having them; that

they add to the perfectness of the entire establishment.

SUMMARY

RESULTS OF WELFARE TO THE WORK.--Because of Welfare Work, of

whatever type, more and better work is accomplished, with only such

expenditure of effort as is beneficial to the worker. Not only does

the amount of work done increase, but it also tends to become

constant, after it has reached its standard expected volume.

RESULT OF WELFARE WORK TO THE WORKER.--This description of

welfare of the men under Scientific Management, in every sense of

the word welfare, has been very poor and incomplete if from it the

reader has not deduced the fact that Scientific Management enables

the worker not only to lead a fuller life in his work, but also

outside his work; that it furnishes him hours enough free from the

work to develop such things as the work cannot develop; that it

furnishes him with health and interest enough to go into his leisure

hours with a power to develop himself there; that it furnishes him

with a broader outlook, and, best of all, with a capacity of judging

for himself what he needs most to get. In other words, if Scientific

Management is what it claims to be, it leads to the development of a

fuller life in every sense of the word, enabling the man to become a

better individual in himself, and a better member of his community.

If it does not do this it is not truly Scientific Management. Miss

Edith Wyatt has said, very beautifully, at the close of her book,

"Making Both Ends Meet"[7]: "No finer dream was ever dreamed than

that the industry by which the nation lives, should be so managed as

to secure for the men and women engaged in it their real prosperity,

their best use of their highest powers. How far Scientific

Management will go toward realizing the magnificent dream in the

future, will be determined by the greatness of spirit and the

executive genius with which its principles are sustained by all the

people interested in its inauguration, the employers, the workers

and the engineers."

We wish to modify the word "dream" to the word "plan." The plan

of Scientific Management is right, and, as Miss Wyatt says, is but

waiting for us to fulfill the details that are laid out before us.

CONCLUSION.--The results thus far attained by Scientific

Management justify a prediction as to its future. It will accomplish

two great works.

1. It will educate the worker to the point where workers will

be fitted to work, and to live.

2. It will aid the cause of Industrial Peace.

It will put the great power of knowledge into every man's hands.

This it must do, as it is founded on coöperation, and this

coöperation demands that all shall know and shall be taught.

With this knowledge will come ability to understand the rights

of others as well as one's own. "To know all is to pardon all."

Necessity for coöperation, and trained minds:--These two can but

lead to elimination of that most wasteful of all warfare--Industrial

Warfare. Such will be the future of Scientific Management,--whether

it win universal approval, universal disapproval, or half-hearted

advocacy to-day.

When the day shall come that the ultimate benefits of Scientific

Management are realized and enjoyed, depends on both the managers

and the workers of the country; but, in the last analysis, the

greatest power towards hastening the day lies in the hands of

the workers.

To them Scientific Management would desire to appeal as a road

up and out from industrial monotony and industrial turmoil. There

are many roads that lead to progress. This road leads straightest

and surest,--and we can but hope that the workers of all lands, and

of our land in particular, will not wait till necessity drives, but

will lead the way to that true "Brotherhood" which may some day come

to be.

CHAPTER X FOOTNOTES: ===============================================

1. H.L. Gantt, _Work, Wages and Profits_, p. 115, p. 121.

2. Pp. 171-172.

3. H.L. Gantt, _Work, Wages and Profits_, pp. 154-155.

4. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, para. 170, Harper Ed., p. 76.

5. William James, _Psychology, Advanced Course_. Vol. II, p. 372.

6. See remarkable work of Dr. A. Imbert, _Evaluation de la Capacite

de Travail d'un Ouvrier Avant et Apres un Accident; Les Methodes

du Laboratoire appliquees a l'Etude directe et pratique des

Questions ouvrieres._

7. Clark and Wyatt, Macmillan, pp. 269-270.

====================================================================

INDEX

Accidents, prevention by measuring devices, 114.

prevention by standardization, 180.

"All Round" Men utilized by scientific management, 87.

Ambition, use of, 258.

American Journal of Physiology--1904, 111.

Analysis, amount governed by nature of work, 126.

definition of, 123.

field of psychology in, 128.

training should be provided in schools, 129.

worker should understand process, 129.

Analysis and Synthesis, cost the determining factor, 127.

effect on work of, 138.

effect on worker of, 138.

place in traditional management, 124.

place in transitory management, 125.

under scientific management, 125.

use by psychology, 123.

Analysist, duties of, 126.

qualifications of, 128.

Animals, standardization of work with, 170.

Appreciation, under scientific management, 325.

Apprentices, teaching of, 262.

Approbation, as an incentive, 304.

Athletic Contests, description of, 34.

Attention, forming habit of, 240.

gaining of, 178.

held by bulletin board, 241.

relation to fatigue, 160.

relation to instruction card, 241.

relation to placing of workers, 161.

Babbage, Charles--"Economy of Manufacturers," 2, 76, 179.

Barth, C.G.--"A.S.M.E. Paper 1010," 778, 174.

Blan, L.B.--"Special Study of Incidence of Retardation," 29.

Body, relation of mind to, 48, 160.

Bonus, definition of, 288.

investigation of loss of, 301.

Brashear, John, 81.

Breakdowns, prevented by measuring devices, 114.

Brotherhood, coming of, 332.

under scientific management, 328.

Bulletin Board, aids attention, 241.

benefit of, 194.

Calkins, M.W.--"A First Book in Psychology," 22, 53, 171.

Card, instruction, 44.

Capacity, increasing of, 317, 329.

Class, relation to individual, 49.

Clothing, in sports, 167.

standards, 166.

Constructiveness, benefits of, 260.

Contentment, under scientific management, 327.

Cooke, M.L.--"Bulletin No. 5 Carnegie Foundation," 9, 86, 94, 139.

Coöperation, necessity for, 102, 265, 332.

relation to incentives, 304.

Cost, determining factor in analysis and synthesis, 127.

Curiosity, under scientific management, 255.

Dana, R.T.--"Handbook of Steam Shovel Work," 111.

Dana and Saunders--"Rock Drilling," 139.

Day, Charles--"Industrial Plants," 66.

Day Work, description of, 289.

Decision of choice, elimination of, 163.

Demonstration, value of, 227.

Development, mental, 313, 323.

moral, 324.

Devices, standard, need for, 164.

Differential Bonus, description of, 300.

Differential Rate Piece, description of, 298.

Discharge, avoidance of, 306.

Disciplinarian, duties of, 68, 70.

Disciplining, psychology of, 71.

under scientific management, 70, 72.

under traditional management, 69.

Dodge, James M., 135.

"Discussion to Paper 1119 A.S.M.E.," 131.

Driver management, 10.

Efficiency, controlling factor in, 3.

measured by time and motion study, 115.

securing of, 3.

Emulation, use of, 258.

"Engineering," London, Sept 15, 1911, 136.

Equipment, measured by motion study and time study, 108.

standardization of, 163.

Errors, checking of, 112.

Exception principle, records made on, 187.

value of, 188.

Fatigue, eliminating of, 159.

importance of, 233.

influence of distracted attention on, 160.

relation to standards, 168.

Fear, treatment of, 252.

Fines, use of, 305.

First class man, definition of, 98, 152.

Foreman, duties of, 55.

duties under scientific management, 64.

qualifications of, 54, 55.

Foremanship, functionalized, 63,

Functional foreman, as teacher, 224.

Functional foremanship, teaching feature of, 63, 64.

Functionalization, definition of, 52.

effect upon work of, 83.

effect upon worker of, 85.

under scientific management, 61, 81.

under traditional management, 54.

under transitory management, 61.

use by psychology, 53.

Functions, basis of division into, 6S.

place of operation of, 66.

Gain-sharing, definition of, 293.

objections to, 294.

Gang boss, duties of, 73.

Gang instruction card, description of, 45, 175.

Gantt, H.L.--"A.S.M.E. Paper 928," 95, 181.

"A.S.M.E. Paper No. 1002," 55.

"Work, Wages and Profits," 24, 84, 89, 93, 125.

Gilbreth, F.B.--"Bricklaying System," 130.

"Cost Reducing System," 8, 35, 95, 127.

"Motion Study," 4, 28, 134.

Gillette, H.P.--"A.S.E.C. Paper No. 1," 3, 111.

"Cost Analysis Engineering," 55.

Gillette and Dana--"Cost Keeping and Management Engineering," 3, 53, 86.

Given man, definition of, 152.

Going, C.B.--"Methods of the Sante Fe," 158.

Government, duty in measurement of, 120.

Habit, importance of, 234.

methods of instilling, 236.

relation to standards, 235.

relation to teaching, 235.

Habits, necessity of forming, 312.

of attention, 24.

of motions, right, 238.

standardizing of, 164.

under scientific management, 321.

Hathaway, H.K.--"Machinery," Nov., 1906, 84.

Holidays, effectiveness as reward, 303.

Idiosyncrasies, emphasis on, 50.

Iles, George--"Inventors at Work," 17.

Imagination, under scientific management, 248.

Imitation, use of, 256.

Improvement, physical, 322.

Incentives, classes of, 272.

definition of, 271.

direct, 275.

importance of, 271.

indirect, 272.

individual, 46.

relation to coöperation, 304.

relation to interest, 242.

relation to knowledge, 304.

relation to standards, 140.

result on work of, 310.

result on worker of, 310.

under scientific management, 279.

Individual, as unit, 50.

differences respected, 246.

importance of study of, 23.

relation to class, 49.

Individuality, definition of, 21.

development of, 50.

psychological emphasis on, 22.

recognition under scientific management, 27.

recognition under transitory management, 26.

relation to instruction card, 44.

relation to standardization, 149.

relation to teaching, 46.

result upon work, 46.

result upon worker, 47.

status under traditional management, 24.

Industrial engineering, 106.

Industrial peace, relation of scientific management to, 331.

Initiative, records of, 185.

Initiative and Incentive Management, 10.

Inspector, duties of, 75.

Instruction card, as teacher, 221.

clerk, duties of, 67.

contents of, 154.

definition of, 153.

educative value of, 156.

gang, 45.

help to memory of, 176.

individuality under, 44.

language of, 157.

relation to attention, 241.

types of, 154.

Interest, relation to incentives, 242.

Interim management, 11.

Invention, fostered by comparing methods, 107.

Invention, relation scientific management, 136.

under standardization, 179.

James, William--"Psychology," 7.

"Psychology, Briefer Course," 22.

Job, long time, provision for, 83.

short time, provision for, 82.

Journeymen, teaching of, 262.

Judgment, derivation of, 250.

result of teaching, 251.

securing of, 240.

Knowledge, as an incentive, 304,

transferred under scientific management, 117.

Ladd, G.T.--definition of psychology, 22.

Le Chatelier, H.--"Discussion to Paper 1119, A.S.M.E," 124.

Long time job, provision for, 83.

Loyalty, under scientific management, 253.

Man, first class definition of, 98, 152.

given, definition of, 152.

standard, definition of, 152.

Management, change in meaning of, 8.

definition of, 6.

driver, 10.

good foundation of, 3.

initiative and incentive, 10,

interim, 11.

Marquis of Queensbury, 10.

military, 9.

place of analysis and synthesis in, 124.

place to start study of, 5.

scientific, 12.

successful, definition of, 3,

teaching of, 3.

three stages of, 14.

traditional, definition of, 8.

traditional, preferable name for, 9, 11.

transitory, 11.

types of, 8.

ultimate, 12.

value of study of, 2, 4.

Manufacturers, duty toward measurement, 122.

Manual training, necessity for, 264.

Marquis of Queensbury management, 10.

Measurement, coöperation of worker under, 116.

definition of, 90.

duty of government toward, 120.

effect upon worker of, 114.

elimination of waste by, 115.

importance in management, 93

importance in psychology, 90.

methods in psychology, 91.

methods under scientific management, 105.

necessity for training in, 104.

of teaching and learning, 263.

problems in management, 94.

relation to task of, 98.

results to work of, 113.

selection of units, 111.

under scientific management, 97.

under traditional management, 95.

under transitory management, 96.

Measured functional management, 12.

Measurer, qualifications of, 99.

Measuring devices, prevent accidents and breakdowns, 114.

Memory, relation to scientific management, 245.

Metcalfe, Henry--"Cost of Manufactures," 113, 140.

Method of attack, standardization of, 172.

Methods, benefits of comparison of, 107.

introduction of new, 137.

measurement by motion study and time study, 106.

Micro-motion study, definition of, 106.

demands coöperation, 103.

Military management, 9.

Mind, relation of body to, 48, 160.

Mnemonic symbols, advantages of, 151.

use of, 247.

Motion cycles, use in teaching, 244.

Motions, habits of right, 238.

teaching of right, 237.

Motion study, aims of, 110.

definition of, 106.

measurement by, 105.

scope of, 108.

Münsterburg, Hugo--"American Problems," 22, 30, 53, 90, 112.

Native reactions, use of, 252, 309.

Object lessons, value of, 226.

Observation, dangers of surreptitious, 102.

necessity for unbiased, 101.

Observed worker, qualifications of, 103.

Observer, qualifications of, 99.

relation of Vocational Guidance Bureau, 101.

One-talent men, utilized by scientific management, 86.

Oral teaching, advantages of, 241.

Order of work clerk, duties of, 66.

Outputs, advantages of recording, 37.

advantages of separating, 36.

handling under traditional management, 25.

relation to individuality, 33.

Ownership, use of feeling of, 259.

Parkhurst, F.A.--"Applied Methods of Scientific Management," 181.

Pay, subdivisions of, 288.

use of, 286.

Performing, separated from planning, 61.

Personality, value of, 255.

Piece work, description of, 290.

Planning, a life study, 76.

an epoch-making example of, 78.

detailed done by all under scientific management, 80.

hardship to worker of individual, 79.

open to all who like it, 80.

separated from performing, 61.

taken from all who dislike it, 80.

wastefulness of individual, 79.

Planning department, work of, 62.

Pin plan, description of, 194.

Premium plan, description of, 295.

Pride, stimulation of, 259.

Professional standing as an incentive, 305.

Profit-sharing, description of, 296.

objections to, 296.

relation to scientific management, 297.

Programme, as routing, 193.

definition of, 192.

derived from record under scientific management, 203.

relation to records, 196.

result to work and worker of, 195.

types of, 197.

under traditional management, 192.

under transitory management, 193.

Promotion, provision for under scientific management, 87, 88.

use of, 286.

Psychology, aid to industries by, 233.

appreciation of scientific management by, 93.

Psychology, definition of, 1, 22.

experimental field of, 30.

relation to progress, 260.

value of study of, 1, 4.

Psychology of management, conclusions of, 18.

definition of, 1.

description and outline of, 1.

importance of, 1, 4, 15.

outline of method of, 18.

plan of study in, 15.

Pugnacity, usefulness of, 259.

Punishment, avoidance of, 308.

classes of, 305.

definition of, 273.

nature of, 274.

under traditional management, 277.

Quality, maintenance of, 238.

standardization of, 171.

Rate, necessity of maintaining, 291.

Reason, education of, 239.

Recognition, individual, 324.

Records, advantages of, 39.

definition of, 183.

educative value of, 190, 223.

individual, 40.

making by workers of, 40, 187.

necessity for detailed, 109.

of achievement, 187.

of good behavior, 186.

of initiative, 185.

posting of, 188.

relation to incentives, 41.

relation to programmes, 196.

result to work of, 188.

result on worker of, 189.

test of worth of, 184.

types of, 185, 197.

under scientific management, 184.

under traditional management, 183.

under transitory management, 184.

Records and programmes, result on work of, 206.

Records and programmes, result on worker of, 206.

Repair boss, duties of, 74.

Responsibility, under scientific management, 325.

Rest, provision for, 169.

Reward, assured, 282.

attainability of, 284.

benefits of positive, 281.

definition of, 273.

fixed, 282.

nature of, 274.

personal, 282.

predetermined, 282.

results of, 285.

under scientific management, 280.

under traditional management, 26, 275.

under transitory management, 279.

Rhythm, securing of, 240.

Route chart, description of, 194.

Route clerk, duties of, 66.

Schloss, David F.--"Methods of Industrial Remuneration," 75, 289.

Scientific management, appreciation by psychologists of, 93.

athletic contests under, 34.

brotherhood under, 328.

change in mental attitude under, 89.

contentment under, 327.

definition of, 6, 12.

derivation of, 17.

development of men under, 87.

disciplining under, 70.

divisions of, 16.

duties of foremen under, 64.

emulation under, 258.

final results of, 331.

functionalization under, 6, 81.

importance of teaching under, 215.

incentives under, 279.

individual task under, 43,

measurement under, 97.

methods of measurement under, 105.

opportunities in, 4.

place of workers under, 62.

provision for specialists under, 86.

provides for same detailed planning by all, 80.

place of analysis and synthesis in, 125.

possibility of prophecy under, 195.

promotion of men under, 87.

relation of all parts of, 242.

relation to imagination, 248.

relation to individuality, 27.

relation to individual records, 42.

relation to industrial peace, 331.

relation to invention, 136.

relation to memory, 245.

relation to profit snaring, 297.

relation to traditional management, 218.

relation to welfare, 320.

rewards under, 184, 280.

results in loyalty, 253.

selection of workers under, 32.

standardization under, 147.

stimulation of pride by, 259.

supplements demanded by, 29.

teaching of apprentices under, 262.

teaching of journeymen under, 262.

training of will under, 261.

transference of knowledge under, 117.

underlying ideas of, 16.

use of ambition by, 258.

use of curiosity, 255.

use of imitation, 256.

utilization of "all round" men under, 87.

utilization of one-talent men by, 86.

vocabulary, interest of, 8.

vocabulary, poverty, 7.

"will to do" under, 328.

Self control, development of, 326.

Sense training, importance of, 228.

methods of, 230.

scope of, 231.

Short time job, provision for, 82.

Smith, Adam--"Wealth of Nations," 84, 179.

Soldiering, disadvantages of, 274.

Specialists, provision under scientific management for, 86.

Specializing, encouraged under scientific management, 86.

Speed boss, duties of, 74.

Square deal, need for, 315.

Squareness, under scientific management, 327.

Standards, derivation of, 139.

effect of, 168.

relation to automatic response, 239.

relation to habit, 235.

relation to incentive, 140, 257.

relation to "judgment," 141.

relation to phrasing, 158.

relation to psychology, 142.

relations to systems, 145.

relation to task, 140.

result of measurement, 147.

"Standard amount," definition of, 98.

Standard clothing, 167.

Standard man, definition of, 152.

Standardization, definition of, 139.

develops individuality, 149.

invention under, 180.

of clothing, 166.

of devices, 164.

of equipment, 163.

of method of attack, 172.

of nomenclature, 151.

of quality, 171.

of tools, 164.

prevention of accidents by, 180.

progress of, 181.

purpose of, 143.

Standardization, relation to initiative, 148.

result to work of, 173.

result to worker of, 174.

under scientific management, 147.

under traditional management, 143.

under transitory management, 144.

universality of application, 149.

waste eliminated by, 150.

Stratton--"Experimental Psychology and Culture,"

92, 93, 113, 160, 169.

Suggestion, use of, 252.

Suggestion card, description of, 185.

Sully, James--"The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology,"

22, 23, 53, 141.

Synthesis, definition of, 123.

importance of selection in, 129.

relation to task, 130.

Synthesist, duties of, 129.

qualifications of, 135.

Systems, definition of, 221.

importance of, 144.

incentives to follow, 214.

inelasticity of, 214.

relations to standards of, 145.

teaching power of, 213.

value in transitory management, 146.

Task, advantage to name for, 133.

applied to work of all, 134.

definition under scientific management, 133.

individual under scientific management, 43.

measured by motion study and time study, 108.

organization, 134.

relation to measurement of, 98.

relation to standard, 140.

result of synthesis, 130.

under traditional management, 25.

unfortunate name of, 131.

Task wage, definition of, 292.

Task work with a bonus, 299.

Taylor, F.W.--"A.S.M.E. Transactions, Vol. 28," 108.

"A.S.M.E. Paper 1119," 112, 180.

"On the Art of Cutting Metals," 78, 166.

"Piece Rate System, A," 117.

"Principles of Scientific Management," 4, 10, 15, 18, 62.

"Shop Management," 7, 9, 26, 54, 55, 63, 94, 95, 108, 117, 164, 165.

Taylor and Thompson--"Concrete Plain and Reinforced," 123.

Teaching, availability of, 227

equipment of, 225.

functional foreman as, 224.

training of, 224.

Teaching, availability of, 227.

by motion cycles, 244.

definition of, 208.

devices of, 222.

future of, 268.

involved in functional foremanship, 64.

measurement of, 263.

methods of, 220.

need of, 219.

of right motions, 23.

of untrained worked, 232.

oral, 223, 241.

psychological basis of, 228.

relation to habit, 235.

relation to individuality, 46.

results in judgment, 251.

results to work of, 266.

results to worker of, 266.

scope of, 219.

sources of, 220.

under scientific management, 215.

under traditional management, 25, 208.

under transitory management, 213.

Three Rate with Increased Rate,

description of, 300.

Time and Cost clerk, duties of, 68.

Time study, aims of, 110.

definition of, 106

importance to worker of, 121.

measurement by, 105.

scope of, 108.

"Tolerance," provision for, 172.

Tools, standard, need for, 164.

Towne, H.R.--"Introduction to Scientific Management," 12.

Traditional management,

definition of, 8, 11.

disciplining under, 69.

functionalization under, 54.

handling of output under, 25.

measurement under, 95.

place of analysis and synthesis in, 124.

position of workers under, 60.

preferable name for, 9.

programme under, 192.

punishment under, 277.

records under, 183.

reward under, 26, 275.

selecting workers under, 24.

standardization under, 143.

tasks under, 25.

teaching under, 25, 208.

treatment of individuality, 24.

welfare under, 311, 317.

Transitory management,

functionalization under, 61.

measurement under, 96.

place of analysis and synthesis in, 125.

programmes under, 193.

recognition of individuality, 26.

records under, 184, 185.

reward under, 279.

standardization under, 144.

teaching under, 213.

value of systems in, 146.

welfare under, 318.

Ultimate management, 12.

U.S. Bulletin of Agriculture, No. 208, 108.

Units of measurement, selection of, 111.

Vocabulary, importance of scientific management, 7.

Vocational guidance, duties of, 265.

relation to teaching, 264.

Vocational guidance bureau,

training of observers by, 101.

work of, 29.

Wages, definition of, 288.

Waste, eliminated by measurement, 115.

eliminated by standardization, 150.

Welfare, definition of, 311.

individual, 46.

relation to traditional management, 311.

relation to transitory management, 318.

result to work of, 330.

result on worker of, 330.

under scientific management, 320.

Welfare work,

relation to scientific management, 329.

under traditional management, 317.

White List File, description of, 186.

Will, development of, 316.

education of, 239.

training of, 261.

Will to do, under scientific management, 328.

Work, effect of analysis and synthesis on, 138.

effect of functionalization upon, 83.

necessity for regularity in, 321.

result of incentives to, 310.

result of individuality upon, 46.

results of measurement on, 113.

result of programme on, 195.

result of records on, 188, 206.

Work, result of standardization on, 173.

results of teaching on, 266.

result of welfare on, 330.

Worker, advantages of functionalization to, 76.

appreciation of time study by, 121.

capacity of, 94.

change in mental attitude under scientific management, 89.

coöperation under measurement of, 116.

development through records, 39.

effect of analysis and synthesis on, 138.

effect of functionalization upon, 85.

effect of measurement upon, 114.

given planning if he likes it, 80.

hardship of individual planning to, 79.

making of records by, 40.

observed, qualifications of, 103.

observed, securing coöperation of, 102.

place under scientific management, 62.

position under traditional management, 60.

records made by, 187.

relation to process of analysis, 129.

relation to standardization, 164.

relieved of planning if he dislikes it, 80,

rest periods for, 169.

result of incentives on, 310.

result of individuality upon, 47.

result of programme on, 195, 206.

result of records to, 189, 206.

results of standardization to, 174.

results of teaching on, 266.

result of welfare on, 330.

rewards of, 285.

selection under scientific management, 32.

selection under traditional management, 24.

untrained, teaching of, 232.

variables of, 28.

Working models, value of, 226.

End of Project Gutenberg's The Psychology of Management, by L. M. Gilbreth