NO SET TIME FOR USING SYSTEMS.--There is_The Psychology of Management The Function of the Mind in Determining, Teaching and Installing Methods of Least Waste

management, no set time for the study of the systems.

SYSTEMS INELASTIC.--Being written, these systems have all the

disadvantages of anything that is written. That is to say, they

require considerable adaptability on the part of the man who is

using them. He must consider his own mind, and the amount of time

which he must put on studying; he must consider his own work, and

adapting that method to his work while still obeying instructions.

In the case of the system being in great detail, he can usually find

a fairly detailed description of what he is going to do, and can use

that. In the case of the system being not so complete, if his work

varies, he must show intelligence in varying the system, and this

intelligence often demands a knowledge which he has not, and knows

not where to obtain.

WASTE OF TIME FROM UNSTANDARDIZED SYSTEMS.--The time

necessitated by the worker's laying out details of his method is

taken from the total time of his working day, hence in so far cuts

down his total product. Moreover, if no record is kept of the

details of his planning the next worker on the same kind of work

must repeat the investigation.

LATER TRANSITIONAL MANAGEMENT EMPHASIZES USE OF

STANDARDS.--Later Transitional Management eliminates this waste of

time by standardizing methods composed of standardized timed units,

thus both rendering standards elastic, and furnishing details.

TEACHING MOST IMPORTANT UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Teaching

is a most important element under Scientific Management not only

because it increases industrial efficiency, but also because it

fosters industrial peace.[2]

IMPORTANCE DEPENDS ON OTHER ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC

MANAGEMENT.--As we have seen, Scientific Management has as a basic

idea the necessity of divided responsibility, or functionalization.

This, when accompanied by the interdependent bonus, creates an

incentive to teach and an incentive to learn. Scientific Management

divides the planning from the performing in order to centralize and

standardize knowledge in the planning department, thus making all

knowledge of each available to all. This puts at the disposal of all

more than any could have alone. The importance of having this

collected and standardized knowledge conveyed best to the worker

cannot be overestimated. Through this knowledge, the worker is able

to increase his output, and thus insure the lowered costs, that

provide the funds with which to pay his higher wages,--to increase

his potential as well as actual efficiency, and best to coöperate

with other workers and with the management.

IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING ELEMENT BEST CLAIM TO PERMANENCE OF

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Upon the emphasis which it places on

teaching rests/a large part of the claim of Scientific Management

for permanence.[3] We have already shown the derivation of the

standards which are taught. We have shown that the relation between

the planning and performing departments is based largely on means

and methods for teaching. We have only to show here that the

teaching is done in accordance with those laws of Psychology that

are the laws of Pedagogy.

TEACHING IN SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT NOT THE RESULT OF THEORY

ONLY.--The methods of teaching under Scientific Management were not

devised in response to theories of education. They are the result of

actual experience in getting work done most successfully. The

teachers, the methods, the devices for teaching,--all these grew up

to meet needs, as did the other elements of Scientific Management.

CONFORMITY OF TEACHING TO PSYCHOLOGICAL LAWS PROOF OF WORTH OF

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The fact that teaching under Scientific

Management does conform, as will be shown, to the laws of

Psychology, is an added proof of the value of Scientific Management.

CHANGE FROM TEACHING UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--Mr. Gantt

says, "The general policy of the past has been to drive; but the era

of force must give way to that of knowledge, and the policy of the

future will be to teach and to lead, to the advantage of all

concerned."[4] This "driving" element of Traditional Management is

eliminated by Scientific Management.

NECESSITY FOR PERSONALLY DERIVED JUDGMENT ELIMINATED.--So also

is eliminated the old belief that the worker must go through all

possible experiences in order to acquire "judgment" as to best

methods. If the worker must pass through all the stages of the

training of the old-fashioned mechanic, and this is seriously

advocated by some, he may fail to reach the higher planes of

knowledge afforded by training under Scientific Management, by

reason of sheer lack of time. If, therefore, by artificial

conditions caused by united agreement and collective bargaining,

workmen insist upon forcing upon the new learners the old-school

training, they will lose just so much of the benefits of training

under those carefully arranged and carefully safe-guarded processes

of industrial investigation in which modern science has been

successful. To refuse to start in where others have left off, is

really as wasteful as it would be to refuse to use mathematical

formulas because they have been worked out by others. It might be

advocated that the mind would grow by working out every possible

mathematical formula before using it, but the result would be that

the student would be held back from any further original

investigation. Duplicating primary investigations might be original

work for him, but it would be worthless as far as the world is

concerned. The same is absolutely true in management. If the worker

is held back by acquiring every bit of knowledge for himself instead

of taking the work of others as the starting point, the most

valuable initiative will be lost to the world.

BAD HABITS THE RESULT OF UNDIRECTED LEARNING.--Even worse than

the waste of time would be the danger of acquiring habits of bad

methods, habits of unnecessary motions, habits of inaccurate work;

habits of inattention. Any or all of these might develop. These are

all prevented under Scientific Management by the improved methods

of teaching.

VALUABLE ELEMENTS OF TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT CONSERVED.--There

are, however, many valuable elements of the old Traditional system

of teaching and of management which should be retained and not be

lost in the new.

For example,--the greatest single cause of making men capable

under the old plan was the foreman's unconscious ability to make his

men believe, before they started a task, that they could achieve it.

It must not be thought that because of the aids to the teacher

under Scientific Management the old thought of personality is lost.

The old ability to convert a man to the belief that he could do a

thing, to inspire him with confidence in his foreman, with

confidence in himself, and a desire to do things, is by no means

lost, on the contrary it is carefully preserved under Scientific

Management.

TEACHING OF TRANSITORY MANAGEMENT SUPPLEMENTED.--In the

transforming of Transitory into Scientific Management, we note that

the process is one of supplementing, not of discarding. Written

system, which is the distinguishing characteristic of Transitory

Management, is somewhat limited in its scope, but its usefulness is

by no means impaired.

SCOPE OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Under Scientific

Management teaching must cover

1. Teaching of right methods of doing work,

2. Teaching of right habits of doing the right methods.

The teacher must so impart the knowledge that judgment can be

acquired without the learner being obliged himself to experience all

the elements of the judgment.

NEEDS FOR TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The needs for

this teaching have been stated, but may be recapitulated here.

1. Worker may not observe his own mistakes.

2. Worker has no opportunity under the old industrial

conditions to standardize his own methods.

3. Worker must know standard practice.

4. Waste can be eliminated by the teaching.

5. Right habits can be instilled.

SOURCES OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The sources of

teaching under Scientific Management are

1. Friends or Relatives }

2. Fellow workers } If the worker chooses

3. Literature of the Trade } to use them.

4. Night schools and study }

5. The Management. }

METHODS OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The Methods of

Teaching under Scientific Management are

1. Written, by means of

(a) Instruction Cards telling _what_ is to be done

and _how._

(b) Systems, explaining the _why._

methods.

(d) Records made by the worker himself.

2. Oral, the teaching of the Functional Foremen.

3. Object-lessons:

(a) Exhibits.

(b) Working models.

(d) Demonstrations by the worker under Supervision.

WORKER A SOURCE OF THESE METHODS.--It should be often stated

that, ultimately, the elements of all methods are derived from a

study of workers, and that the worker should be enabled to realize

this. Only when he feels that he is a part of what is taught, and

that the teachers are a _means_ of presenting to him the underlying

principles of his own experience, will the worker be able to

coöperate with all his energy.

INSTRUCTION CARDS ARE DIRECTIONS.--Instruction Cards are direct

instructions for each piece of work, giving, in most concise form,

closely defined description of standard practice and directions as

to how each element of the standardized task is to be performed. The

makers know that they must make their directions clear ultimately,

therefore they strive constantly for clearness.

INSTRUCTION CARDS TEACH DIRECTLY AND INDIRECTLY.--These

Instruction Cards not only teach the worker directly best to do his

work, but also teach him indirectly how to become a leader,

demonstrator, teacher and functional foreman. Study of them may lead

to an interest in, and a study of, elements, and to preparation for

becoming one of the planning department. The excellent method of

attack of the Instruction Card cannot fail to have some good effect,

even upon such workers as do not consciously note it.[5]

SYSTEMS ARE REASONS AND EXPLANATIONS.--"Systems" or standing

orders are collections of detailed reasons for, and explanations of,

the decisions embodied in the directions of the Instruction Cards.

There is a system showing the standard practice of each kind of

work.

THEY ENLIST THE JUDGMENT OF THE WORKER.--Under really successful

management, it is realized that the worker is of an inquiring mind,

and that, unless this inquiring tendency of his is recognized, and

his curiosity is satisfied, he can never do his best work. Unless

the man knows why he is doing the thing, his judgment will never

reënforce his work. He may conform to the method absolutely, but his

work will not enlist his zeal unless he knows just exactly why he is

made to work in the particular manner prescribed. This giving of the

"why" to the worker through the system, and thus allowing his reason

to follow through all the details, and his judgment to conform

absolutely, should silence the objections of those who claim that

the worker becomes a machine, and that he has no incentive to think

at his work. On the contrary, it will be seen that this method

furnishes him with more viewpoints from which he can consider

his work.

DRAWINGS, CHARTS, PLANS AND PHOTOGRAPHS MEANS OF MAKING

DIRECTIONS CLEARER.--The Instruction Cards are supplemented with

drawings, charts, plans and stereoscopic and timed motion

photographs,--any or all,--in order to make the directions of the

Instruction Cards plainer.

STEREOSCOPIC AND MICRO-MOTION STUDY PHOTOGRAPHS PARTICULARLY

USEFUL.--Stereoscopic photographs are especially useful in helping

non-visualizers, and in presenting absolutely new work. The value as

an educator of stereoscopic and synthesized micro-motion photographs

of right methods is as yet but faintly appreciated.

The "timed motion picture," or "micro-motion study photograph"

as it is called, consists of rapidly photographing workers in action

accompanied by a specially constructed chronometer that shows such

minute divisions of time that motion pictures taken at a speed that

will catch the most rapid of human motions without a blur, will show

a different time of day in each photograph. The difference in the

time in any two pictures gives the elapsed time of the desired

motion operation or time unit.

SELF-MADE RECORDS EDUCATIVE.--The educative value of the

worker's making his own records has never been sufficiently

appreciated. Dr. Taylor insists upon this procedure wherever

possible.[6] Not only does the worker learn from the actual marking

in of the spaces reserved for him, but also he learns to feel

himself a part of the record making division of the management. This

proof of the "square deal," in recording his output, and of the

confidence in him, cannot fail to enlist his coöperation.

ORAL INSTRUCTION COMES FROM THE FUNCTIONAL FOREMEN.--The

Functional Foremen are teachers whose business it is to explain,

translate and supplement the various written instructions when the

worker either does not understand them, does not know how to follow

them, or makes a mistake in following them.

ORAL INSTRUCTION HAS ITS FITTING PLACE UNDER SCIENTIFIC

MANAGEMENT.--Oral instruction under Scientific Management has at

least four advantages over such instruction under Traditional

Management.

1. The Instructor is capable of giving instruction.

2. The Instructor's specialty is giving instruction.

3. The instruction is a supplement to written instructions.

4. The instruction comes at the exact time that the learner

needs it.

TEACHER, OR FUNCTIONAL FOREMAN, SHOULD UNDERSTAND PSYCHOLOGY AND

PEDAGOGY.--The successful teacher must understand the minds of his

men, and must be able to present his information in such a way that

it will be grasped readily. Such knowledge of psychology and

pedagogy as he possesses he may acquire almost unconsciously

1. from the teaching of others,

2. from his study of Instruction Cards and Systems,

3. from actual practice in teaching.

The advantages of a study of psychology itself, as it applies to

the field of teaching in general, and of teaching in the industries

in particular, are apparent. Such study must, in the future, become

more and more prevalent.

ADVANTAGE OF FUNCTIONAL FOREMAN-TEACHER OVER TEACHER IN THE

SCHOOLS.--The Functional Foreman-teacher has an advantage over the

teacher in the school in that the gap between him and those he

teaches is not so great. He knows, because he remembers, exactly how

the worker must have his information presented to him. This gap is

narrowed by functionalizing the oral teaching, by using it merely as

a supplement to the written teaching, and by supplementing it with

object-lessons.

TEACHER MUST HAVE PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE TRADE HE IS TO

TEACH.--The teacher must have an intimate practical knowledge of the

art or trade that he is to teach. The most profound knowledge of

Psychology will never be a substitute for the mastery of the trade,

as a condition precedent to turning out the best craftsmen. This is

provided for by securing teachers from the ranks of the workers.[7]

HE MUST HAVE A THOROUGH KNOWLEDGE OF THE STANDARDS.--He must

have more than the traditional knowledge of the trade that he is to

teach; he must have also the knowledge that comes only from

scientific investigation of his trade. This knowledge is ready and

at hand, in the standards of Scientific Management that are

available to all for study.

HE MUST BE CONVINCED OF THE VALUE OF THE METHODS HE

TEACHES.--The teacher must also have an intimate acquaintance with

the records of output of the method he is to teach as compared with

those of methods held in high esteem by the believer in the old

methods; for it is a law that no teacher can be efficient in

teaching any method in which he does not believe, any more than a

salesman can do his best work when he does not implicitly believe in

the goods that he is selling.

HE MUST BE AN ENTHUSIAST.--The best teacher is the one who is an

enthusiast on the subject of the work itself, who can cause

contagion or imitation of his state of mind, by love of the problems

themselves.

SUCH ENTHUSIASM CONTAGIOUS.--It is the contagion of this

enthusiasm that will always create a demand for teachers, no matter

how perfect instruction cards may become. There is no form or device

of management that does away with good men, and in the teacher, as

here described, is conserved the personal element of the successful,

popular Traditional foreman.

VALUABLE TEACHER INTERESTS MEN IN THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The most valuable teacher is one who can

arouse his pupils to such a state of interest in the economic values

of the methods of Scientific Management, that all other objects that

would ordinarily distract or hold their attention will be banished

from their minds. They will then remember each step as it is

introduced, and they will be consumed with interest and curiosity to

know what further steps can be introduced, that will still further

eliminate waste.

OBJECT-LESSON MAY BE "WORKING MODELS."--The object-lesson may be

a "fixed exhibit" or a "working model," "a process in different

stages," or "a micro-motion study film" of the work that is to be

done. Successful and economical teaching may be done with such

models, which are especially valuable where the workers do not speak

the same language as the teacher, where many workers are to perform

exactly similar work, or where the memory, the visualizing and the

constructive imagination, are so poor that the models must be

referred to constantly. Models naturally appeal best to those who

take in information easiest through the eyes.

OBJECT-LESSONS MAY BE DEMONSTRATIONS BY THE TEACHER.--The

teacher may demonstrate the method manually to the worker, or by

means of films showing synthesized right methods on the

motion-picture screen. This, also, is a successful method of

teaching those who speak a different language, or of explaining new

work,--though it calls for a better memory than does the "working

model," The model, however, shows desired results; the

demonstration, desired methods.

DEMONSTRATION METHOD CHIEF METHOD OF TEACHING BY FOREMEN.--The

manual demonstration method is the chief method of teaching the

workmen by the foremen under Scientific Management, and no method is

rated as standard that cannot be successfully demonstrated by the

teacher, at any time, on request.

WORKER MAY DEMONSTRATE UNDER SUPERVISION.--If the worker is of

that type that can learn only by actually doing the work himself, he

is allowed to demonstrate the method under supervision of the

teacher.[8]

TEACHING ALWAYS AVAILABLE UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Under

Scientific Management all of these forms of teaching are available

constantly. The instruction card and accompanying illustrations are

given to the worker before he starts to work, and are so placed that

he can consult them easily at any time during the work. As, also, if

object-lessons are used, they are given before work commences, and

repeated when necessary.

The teacher is constantly available for oral instruction, and

the systems are constantly available for consultation.

METHODS OF TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PSYCHOLOGICALLY

RIGHT.--In order to prove that teaching under Scientific Management

is most valuable, it is necessary to show that it is psychologically

right, that it leads to mental development and improvement. Under

Scientific Management, teaching,--

1. uses and trains the senses.

2. induces good habits of thinking and acting.

3. stimulates attention,

4. provides for valuable associations.

5. assists and strengthens the memory.

6. develops the imagination.

7. develops judgment.

8. utilizes suggestion.

9. utilizes "native reactions."

10. develops the will.

TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT TRAINS THE SENSES.--

Scientific Management, in teaching the man, aims to train all of his

senses possible. Not only does each man show an aptitude for some

special sense training,[9] but at certain times one sense may be

stronger than another; for example, the sense of hearing, as is

illustrated by the saying, "The patient in the hospital knoweth when

his doctor cometh by the fall of his footsteps, yet when he

recovereth he knoweth not even his face." At the time that a certain

thing becomes of interest, and becomes particularly interesting to

one sense, that sense is particularly keen and developed.

Scientific Management cannot expect, without more detailed

psychological data than is as yet available, to utilize these

periods of sense predominance adequately. It can, and does, aim to

utilize such senses as are trained, and to supply defects of

training of the other senses.

SUCH TRAINING PARTIALLY DETERMINES THE QUALITY OF THE WORK.--The

importance of sense training can scarcely be overestimated. Through

his senses, the worker takes in the directions as to what he is to

do, and on the accuracy with which his senses record the impressions

made upon them, depends the mental model which he ultimately

follows, and the accuracy of his criticism of the resulting physical

object of his work. Through the senses, the worker sets his own

task, and inspects his work.

SENSE TRAINING INFLUENCES INCREASE OF EFFICIENCY.--With the

training of the senses the possibility of increased efficiency

increases. As any sense becomes trained, the minimum visable is

reduced, and more accurate impressions become possible.[10] They

lead to more rapid work, by eliminating time necessary for judgment.

The bricklayer develops a fineness of touch that allows him to

dispense with sight in some parts of his work.

SELECTIVE POWER OF SENSES DEVELOPED.--James defines the sense

organs as "organs of selection."[11] Scientific Management so trains

them that they can select what is of most value to the worker.

METHODS OF SENSE TRAINING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The

senses are trained under Scientific Management by means of the

various sources of teaching. The instruction card, with its detailed

descriptions of operations, and its accompanying illustrations, not

only tends to increase powers of visualization, but also, by the

close observation it demands, it reduces the minimum visible. The

"visible instruction card," or working model, is an example of

supplementing weak power of visualization. The most available

simple, inexpensive and easily handled device to assist visualizing

is the stereo or three-dimension photograph, which not only serves

its purpose at the time of its use, but trains the eye to see the

third dimension always.

Much training is given to the eye in Scientific Management by

the constant insistence on inspection. This inspection is not

confined to the inspector, but is the constant practice of worker

and foremen, in order that work may be of such a quality as will

merit a bonus.

SENSES THAT ARE MOST UTILIZED BEST TRAINED.--The relative

training given to the various senses depends on the nature of the

work. When the ear is the tester of efficiency, as it often is with

an engineer watching machinery in action, emphasis is laid on

training the hearing. In work where touch is important, emphasis is

on such training as will develop that sense.[12]

VARIATIONS IN SENSE POWER SHOULD BE UTILIZED.--Investigations

are constantly going to prove that each sense has a predominance at

a different time in the age of the child or man. Dottoressa

Montessori's experience with teaching very young children by touch

shows that that sense is able to discriminate to an extraordinary

extent for the first six years of life.[13]

So, also, acute keenness of any sense, by reason of age or

experience should be conserved.[14] Such acuteness is often the

result of some need, and, unless consciously preserved, will vanish

with the need.

PROGRESS IN SUCH TRAINING.--The elementary sense experiences are

defined and described by Calkins.[15] Only through a psychological

study can one realize the numerous elements and the possibility of

study. As yet, doubtless, Scientific Management misses many

opportunities for training and utilizing the senses. But the

standardizing of elements, and the realization of the importance of

more and more intensive study of the elements lends assurance that

ultimately all possibilities will be utilized.

AS MANY SENSES AS POSSIBLE APPEALED TO.--Scientific Management

has made great progress in appealing to as many senses as possible

in its teaching. The importance of the relation between the senses

is brought out by Prof. Stratton.[16]

In teaching, Scientific Management has, in its teachers, animate

and inanimate, great possibilities of appealing to many senses

simultaneously. The instruction card may be

1. read to oneself silently--eyes appealed to

2. read to oneself aloud--eyes and ears appealed to, also

muscles used trained to repeat

3. read aloud to one--ears

4. read aloud to one and also read silently by one,--

eyes and ears

5. read aloud, and at the same time copied--eyes, ears,

muscles of mouth, muscles of hand

6. read to one, while process described is demonstrated

7. read to one while process is performed by oneself

There are only a few of the possible combinations, any of which

are used, as best suits the worker and the work.[17]

UNTRAINED WORKER REQUIRES APPEAL TO MOST SENSES.--The value of

appeal to many senses is best realized in teaching an inexperienced

worker. His senses help to remind him what to do, and to "check up"

his results.

AT TIMES APPEAL TO BUT ONE SENSE PREFERABLE.--In the case of

work that must be watched constantly, and that involves continuous

processes, it may prove best to have directions read to the worker.

So also, the Gang Instruction Card may often be read to advantage to

the gang, thus allowing the next member of a group of members to

rest, or to observe, while directions are taken in through the ears

only. In this way time is allowed to overcome fatigue, yet the work

is not halted.

AT TIMES ONE SENSE IS BEST NOT UTILIZED.--At times teaching may

well omit one sense in its appeal, because that sense will tend to

confuse the learning, and will, when the method is learned, be

otherwise utilized than it could be during the learning process. In

teaching the "touch system" of typewriting,[18] the position of the

keys is quickly remembered by having the key named aloud and at the

same time struck with the assigned finger, the eyes being

blindfolded. Thus hearing is utilized, also mouth muscles and finger

muscles, but _not_ sight.

IMPORTANCE OF FATIGUE RECOGNIZED.--A large part of the success

of sense appeal and sense training of Scientific Management is in

the appreciation of the importance of fatigue. This was early

recognized by Dr. Taylor, and is constantly receiving study from all

those interested in Scientific Management.

PSYCHOLOGY ALREADY AIDING THE INDUSTRIES IN SUCH STUDY.--Study

of the _Psychological Review_ will demonstrate the deep and

increasing interest of psychologists in the subject of fatigue. The

importance of such stimulating and helpful work as that done by

Doctor A. Imbert of the University of Montpellier, France, is

great.[19] Not only are the results of his investigations

commercially valuable, but also they are valuable as indicating the

close connection between Psychology and Industrial Efficiency.

IMPORTANCE OF HABITS.[20]--Prof. William James says "an acquired

habit, from the psychological point of view, is nothing but a new

pathway of discharge formed in the brain, by which certain incoming

currents ever after tend to escape."

And again,--"First, habit simplifies our movements, makes them

accurate, and diminishes fatigue,"[21] and habit diminishes the

conscious attention with which our acts are performed. Again he

says, page 144, "The great thing, then, in all education, is to make

our nervous system our ally instead of an enemy; as it is to fund

and capitalize our acquisitions, and live at ease upon the interest

of the fund. For this we must make automatic and habitual, as early

as possible, as many useful actions as we can, and guard against the

growing into ways that are likely to be disadvantageous to us, as we

should guard against the plague."

These quotations demonstrate the importance of habit.

How deep these paths of discharge are, is illustrated by the

fact that often a German, having spent the early years of his school

life in Germany, will, even after learning to speak, read, write

and think in English, find it difficult to figure in anything

but German.

HABIT EASILY BECOMES THE MASTER.--Another illustration of the

power of habit is exhibited by the bricklayer, who has been trained

under old-time methods, and who attempts to follow the packet

method. The standard motions for picking up the upper row of bricks

from the packet are entirely different from those for picking up the

lower row. The bricklayers were taught this, yet invariably used the

old-time motions for picking up the bricks, in spite of the waste

involved.[22]

WRONG PRECONCEIVED IDEAS HAMPER DEVELOPMENT.--Wrong habits or

ideas often retard development. For example, it took centuries for

artists to see the colors of shadows correctly, because they were

sure that such shadows were a darker tone of the color itself.[23]

TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT RESULTS IN GOOD

HABITS.--The aim of teaching under Scientific Management, as has

been said, is to create good habits of thinking and good habits of

doing.

STANDARDS LEAD TO RIGHT METHODS OF THINKING AND ACTING.--The

standards of Scientific Management, as presented to the worker in

the instruction card, lead to good habits, in that they present the

best known method of doing the work. They thus aid the beginner, in

that he need waste no time searching for right methods, but can

acquire right habits at once. They aid the worker trained under an

older, supplanted method, in that they wage a winning war against

old-time, worn-out methods and traditions. Old motor images, which

tend to cause motions, are overcome by standard images, which

suggest, and pass into, standard motions. The spontaneous recurring

of images under the old method is the familiar cause of inattention

and being unable to get down to business, and the real cause of the

expression, "You can't teach old dogs new tricks." On the other

hand, the spontaneous recurrence of the images of the standard

method is the cause of greater speed of movement of the experienced

man, and these images of the standard methods do recur often enough

to drive down the old images and to enable all men who desire, to

settle down and concentrate upon what they are doing.

THROUGH STANDARDS BAD HABITS ARE QUICKEST BROKEN.--Through the

standards the bad habit is broken by the abrupt acquisition of a new

habit. This is at once practiced, is practiced without exception,

and is continually practiced until the new habit is in control.[24]

THROUGH STANDARDS NEW HABITS ARE QUICKEST FORMED.--These same

standards, as presented in teaching, allow of the speediest forming

of habits, in that repetition is exact and frequent, and is kept so

by the fact that the worker's judgment seconds that of the teacher.

HABITS ARE INSTILLED BY TEACHING.--The chief function of the

teacher during the stage that habits are being formed is the

instilling of good habits.

METHODS OF INSTILLING GOOD HABITS.--This he does by

insisting on

1. right motions first, that is to say,--the right number

of right motions in the right sequence.

2. speed of motions second, that is to say, constantly

increasing speed.

3. constantly improving quality.[25]

THIS METHOD IS CONTRARY TO MOST OLD-TIME PRACTICE.--Under most

old-time practice the quality of the work was the first

consideration, the quantity of work the second, and the methods of

achieving the results the third.

RESULTS OF OLD-TIME PRACTICE.--As a result, the mechanical

reactions, which were expected constantly to follow the improved

habits of work, were constantly hindered by an involuntary impulse

of the muscles to follow the old methods. Waste time and low output

followed.

SOME EARLY RECOGNITION OF "RIGHT MOTIONS FIRST."--The necessity

of teaching the right motions first was early recognized by a few

progressive spirits, as is shown in military tactics; for example,

see pages 6 and 7, "Cavalry Tactics of U.S.A." 1879, D. Appleton,

also page 51.

Note also motions for grooming the horse, page 473. These

directions not only teach the man how, but accustoms the horse to

the sequence and location of motions that he may expect.

BENEFITS OF TEACHING RIGHT MOTIONS FIRST.--Through teaching

right motions first reactions to stimuli gain in speed. The right

habit is formed at the outset. With the constant insistence on these

right habits that result from right motions, will come, naturally,

an increase in speed, which should be fostered until the desired

ultimate speed is reached.

ULTIMATELY, STANDARD QUALITY WILL RESULT.--The result of

absolute insistence on right motions will be prescribed quality,

because the standard motions prescribed were chosen because they

best produced the desired result.

UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT NO LOSS FROM QUALITY DURING

LEARNING.--As will be shown later, Scientific Management provides

that there shall be little or no loss from the quality of the work

during the learning period. The delay in time before the learner can

be said to produce such work as could a learner taught where quality

was insisted upon first of all, is more than compensated for by the

ultimate combination of speed and quality gained.

RESULTS OF TEACHING THE RIGHT MOTIONS FIRST ARE

FAR-REACHING.--There is no more important subject in this book on

the Psychology of Management than this of teaching right motions

first. The most important results of Scientific Management can all,

in the last analysis, be formulated in terms of habits, even to the

underlying spirit of coöperation which, as we shall show in

"Welfare," is one of the most important ideas of Scientific

Management. These right habits of Scientific Management are the

cause, as well as the result, of progress, and the right habits,

which have such a tremendous psychological importance, are the

result of insisting that right motions be used from the very

beginning of the first day.

FROM RIGHT HABITS OF MOTION COMES SPEED OF MOTIONS.--

Concentrating the mind on the next motion causes speed of motion.

Under Scientific Management, the underlying thought of sequence of

motions is so presented that the worker can remember them, and make

them in the shortest time possible.

RESPONSE TO STANDARDS BECOMES ALMOST AUTOMATIC.--The standard

methods, being associated from the start with right habits of

motions only, cause an almost automatic response. There are no

discarded habits to delay response.

STEADY NERVES RESULT.--Oftentimes the power to refrain from

action is quite as much a sign of education and training as the

power to react quickly from a sensation. Such conduct is called, in

some cases, "steady nerves." The forming of right habits is a great

aid toward these steady nerves. The man who knows that he is taught

the right way, is able almost automatically to resist any

suggestions which come to him to carry out wrong ways. So the man

who is absolutely sure of his method, for example, in laying brick,

will not be tempted to make those extra motions which, after all,

are merely an exhibition in his hand of the vacillation that is

going on in his brain, as to whether he really is handling that

brick in exactly the most efficient manner, or not.

REASON AND WILL ARE EDUCATED.--"The education of hand and muscle

implies a corresponding training of reasoning and will; and the

coördination of movements accompanies the coördination of

thoughts."[26]

The standards of Scientific Management educate hand and muscle;

the education of hand and muscle train the mind; the mind improves

the standards. Thus we have a continuous cycle.

JUDGMENT RESULTS WITH NO WASTE OF TIME.--Judgment is the outcome

of learning the right way, and knowing that it is the right way.

There is none of the lost time of "trying out" various methods that

exists under Traditional Management.

This power of judgment will not only enable the possessor to

decide correctly as to the relative merits of different methods, but

also somewhat as to the past history and possibilities of different

workers.

This, again, illustrates the wisdom of Scientific Management in

promoting from the ranks, and thus providing that every member of

the organization shall, ultimately, know from experience how to

estimate and judge the work of others.

HABITS OF ATTENTION FORMED BY SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The good

habits which result from teaching standard methods result in habits

of attention. The standards aid the mind in holding a "selective

attitude,"[27] by presenting events in an orderly sequence. The

conditions under which the work is done, and the incentives for

doing it, provide that the attention shall be "lively and

prolonged."

PRESCRIBED MOTIONS AFFORD RHYTHM AND ÆSTHETIC PLEASURE.--The

prescribed motions that result from motion study and time study, and

that are arranged in cycles, afford a rhythm that allows the

attention to "glide over some beats and linger on others," as Prof.

Stratton describes it, in a different connection.[28] So also the

"perfectly controlled" movements, which fall under the direction of

a guiding law, and which "obey the will absolutely,"[29] give an

æsthetic pleasure and afford less of a tax upon the attention.

INSTRUCTION CARD CREATES AND HOLDS ATTENTION.--As has been

already said in describing the instruction card under Standardization,

it was designed as a result of investigations as to what would

best secure output,--to attract and hold the attention.[30]

Providing, as it does, all directions that an experienced worker is

likely to need, he can confine his attention solely to his work and

his card; usually, after the card is once studied, to his work

alone. The close relation of the elements of the instruction card

affords a field for attention to lapse, and be recalled in the new

elements that are constantly made apparent.

ORAL INDIVIDUAL TEACHING FOSTERS CONCENTRATED ATTENTION.--The

fact that under Scientific Management oral teaching is individual,

not only directly concentrates the attention of the learner upon

what he is being taught, but also indirectly prevents distraction

from fear of ridicule of others over the question, or embarrassment

in talking before a crowd.

THE BULLETIN BOARD FURNISHES THE ELEMENT OF CHANGE.--In order

that interest or attention may be held, there must be provision for

allied subjects on which the mind is to wander. This, under

Scientific Management, is constantly furnished by the collection of

jobs ahead on the bulletin board. The tasks piled up ahead upon this

bulletin board provide a needed and ready change for the subject of

attention or interest, which conserves the economic value of

concentrated attention of the worker upon his work. Such future

tasks furnish sufficient range of subject for wandering attention to

rest the mind from the wearying effect of overconcentration or

forced attention. The assigned task of the future systematizes the

"stream of attention," and an orderly scheme of habits of thought is

installed. When the scheme is an orderly shifting of attention, the

mind is doing its best work, for, while the standardized extreme

subdivision of Taylor's plan, the comparison of the ultimate unit,

and groupings of units of future tasks are often helps in achieving

the present tasks, without such a definite orderly scheme for

shifting the attention and interest, the attention will shift to

useless subjects, and the result will be scattered.

INCENTIVES MAINTAIN INTEREST.--The knowledge that a prompt

reward will follow success stimulates interest. The knowledge that

this reward is sure concentrates attention and thus maintains

interest.

In the same way, the assurance of promotion, and the fact that

the worker sees those of his own trade promoted, and knows it is to

the advantage of the management, as well as to his advantage, that

he also be promoted,--this also maintains interest in the work.

THIS INTEREST EXTENDS TO THE WORK OF OTHERS.--The interest is

extended to the work of others, not only by the interrelated

bonuses, but also by the fact that every man is expected to train up

a man to take his place, before he is promoted.

CLOSE RELATIONSHIP OF ALL PARTS OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT HOLDS

INTEREST.--The attention of the entire organization, as well as of

the individual worker, is held by Scientific Management and its

teaching, because all parts of Scientific Management are related,

and because Scientific Management provides for scientifically

directed progression. Every member of the organization knows that

the standards which are taught by Scientific Management contain the

permanent elements of past successes, and provide for such

development as will assure progress and success in the future. Every

member of the organization realizes that upon his individual

coöperation depends, in part, the stability of Scientific

Management, because it is based on universal coöperation. This

provides an intensity and a continuity of interest that would still

hold, even though some particular element might lose its interest.

THIS RELATIONSHIP ALSO PROVIDES FOR ASSOCIATIONS.--The close

relationship of all parts of Scientific Management provides that all

ideas are associated, and are so closely connected that they can act

as a single group, or any selected number of elements can act as

a group.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ESTABLISHES BRAIN GROUPS THAT HABITUALLY

ACT IN UNISON.--Professor Read, in describing the general mental

principle of association says, "When any number of brain cells have

been in action together, they form a habit of acting in unison, so

that when one of them is stimulated in a certain way, the others

will also behave in the way established by the habit."[31] This

working of the brain is recognized in grouping of motions, such as

"playing for position."[32] Scientific Management provides the

groups, the habit, and the stimulus, all according to standard

methods, so that the result is largely predictable.

METHOD OF ESTABLISHING SUCH GROUPS IN THE WORKER'S BRAIN.--The

standard elements of Scientific Management afford units for such

groups. Eventually, with the use of such elements in instruction

cards, would be formed, in the minds of the worker, such groups of

units as would aid in foreseeing results, just as the foreseeing of

groups of moves aids the expert chess or checker player. The size

and number of such groups would indicate the skill of the worker.

That such skill may be gained quickest, Scientific Management

synthesizes the units into definite groups, and teaches these to the

workers as groups.

TEACHING DONE BY MEANS OF MOTION CYCLES.--The best group is that

which completes the simplest cycle of performance. This enables the

worker to associate certain definite motions, to make these into a

habit, and to concentrate his attention upon the cycle as a whole,

and not upon the elementary motions of which it is composed.

For example--The cycle of the pick and dip process of

bricklaying is to pick up a brick and a trowel full of mortar

simultaneously and deposit them on the wall simultaneously.[33] The

string mortar method has two cycles, which are, first to pick a

certain number of trowelfuls of mortar and deposit them on the wall,

and then to pick up a corresponding number of bricks and deposit

them on the wall.[34] Each cycle of these two methods consists of an

association of units that can be remembered as a group.

SUCH CYCLES INDUCE SPEED.--The worker who has been taught thus

to associate the units of attention and action into definite

rhythmic cycles, is the one who is most efficient, and least

fatigued by a given output. The nerves acquire the habit, as does

the brain, and the resulting swift response to stimulus

characterizes the efficiency of the specialist.[35]

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT RESTRICTS ASSOCIATIONS.--By its teaching

of standard methods, Scientific Management restricts association,

and thus gains in the speed with which associated ideas arise.[36]

Insistence on causal sequence is a great aid. This is rendered by

the Systems, which give the reasons, and make the standard method

easy to remember.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PRESENTS SCIENTIFICALLY DERIVED KNOWLEDGE

TO THE MEMORY.--Industrial memory is founded on experience, and that

experience that is submitted by teaching under Scientific Management

to the mind is in the form of scientifically derived standards.

These furnish

(a) data that is correct.

(b) images that are an aid in acquiring new

habits of forming efficient images.

for comparison.

(d) such arrangement of elements that reasoning

processes are stimulated.

(e) conscious, efficient grouping.

(f) logical association of ideas.

PROVISION FOR REPETITION OF IMPORTANT IDEAS.--Professor

Ebbinghaur says, "Associations that have equal reproductive power

lapse the more slowly, the older they are, and the oftener they have

been reviewed by renewed memorizing." Scientific Management provides

for utilizing this law by teaching right motions first, and by so

minutely dividing the elements of such motions that the smallest

units discovered are found frequently, in similar and different

operations.

BEST PERIODS FOR MEMORIZING UTILIZED.--As for education of the

memory, there is a wide difference of opinion among leading

psychologists in regard to whether or not the memorizing faculty, as

the whole, can be improved by training; but all agree that those

things which are specially desired to be memorized can be learned

more easily, and more quickly, under some conditions than under

others:

For example, there is a certain time of day, for each person,

when the memory is more efficient than at other times. This is

usually in the morning, but is not always so. The period when

memorizing is easiest is taken advantage of, and, as far as

possible, new methods and new instruction cards are passed out at

that time when the worker is naturally best fitted to remember what

is to be done.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES RESPECTED.--It is a question that varies

with different conditions, whether the several instruction cards

beyond the one he is working on shall be given to the worker ahead

of time, that he may use his own judgment as to when is the best

time to learn, or whether he shall have but one at a time, and

concentrate on that. For certain dispositions, it is a great help to

see a long line of work ahead. They enjoy getting the work done, and

feeling that they are more or less ahead of record. Others become

confused if they see too much ahead, and would rather attack but one

problem at a time. This fundamental difference in types of mind

should be taken advantage of when laying out material to be

memorized.

AID OF MNEMONIC SYMBOLS TO THE MEMORY.--The mnemonic

classifications furnish a place where the worker who remembers but

little of a method or process can go, and recover the full knowledge

of that which he has forgotten. Better still, they furnish him the

equivalent of memory of other experiences that he has never had, and

that are in such form that he can connect this with his memory of

his own personal experience.

The ease with which a learner or skilled mechanic can associate

new, scientifically derived data with his memory, because of the

classifications of Scientific Management, is a most important cause

of workers being taught quicker, and being more intelligent, under

Scientific Management, than under any other type of management.

PROPER LEARNING INSURES PROPER REMEMBERING.--Professor Read

says, "Take care of the learning and the remembering will take care

of itself."[37] Scientific Management both provides proper

knowledge, and provides that this shall be utilized in such a manner

that proper remembering will ensue.

BETTER HABITS OF REMEMBERING RESULT.--The results of cultivating

the memory under Scientific Management are cumulative. Ultimately,

right habits of remembering result that aid the worker automatically

so to arrange his memory material as to utilize it better.[38]

"IMAGINATION" HAS TWO DEFINITIONS.--Professor Read gives

definitions for two distinct means of Imagination.

1. "The general function of the having of images."

2. "The particular one of having images which are not

consciously memories or the reproduction of the facts of

experience as they were originally presented to

consciousness."[39]

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PROVIDES MATERIAL FOR IMAGES.--As was

shown under the discussion of the appeals of the various teaching

devices of Scientific Management,--provision is made for the four

classes of imagination of Calkins[40]--

1. visual,

2. auditory,

3. tactual, and

4. mixed.

IT ALSO REALIZES THE IMPORTANCE OF PRODUCTIVE

IMAGINATION.--Scientific Management realizes that one of the special

functions of teaching the trades is systematic exercising and

guiding of imaginations of apprentices and learners. As Professor

Ennis says,--"Any kind of planning ahead will result in some good,"

but to plan ahead most effectively it is necessary to have a

well-developed power of constructive imagination. This consists of

being able to construct new mental images from old memory images; of

being able to modify and group images of past experiences, or

thoughts, in combination with new images based on imagination, and

not on experience. The excellence of the image arrived at in the

complete work is dependent wholly upon the training in image forming

in the past. If there has not been a complete economic system of

forming standard habits of thought, the worker may have difficulty

in controlling the trend of associations of thought images, and

difficulty in adding entirely new images to the groups of

experienced images, and the problem to be thought out will suffer

from wandering of the mind. The result will be more like a dream

than a well balanced mental planning. It is well known that those

apprentices, and journeymen as well, are the quickest to learn, and

are better learners, who have the most vivid imagination. The best

method of teaching the trade, therefore, is the one that also

develops the power of imagination.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ASSISTS PRODUCTIVE IMAGINATION.--

Scientific Management assists productive, or constructive,

imagination, not only by providing standard units, or images, from

which the results may, be synthesized, but also, through the

unity of the instruction card, allows of imagination of the outcome,

from the start.

For example,--in performing a prescribed cycle of motions, the

worker has his memory images grouped in such a figure, form, or

sequence,--often geometrical,--that each motion is a part of a

growing, clearly imagined whole.

The elements of the cycle may be utilized in other entirely new

cycles, and are, as provided for in the opportunities for invention

that are a part of Scientific Management.

JUDGMENT THE RESULT OF FAITHFUL ENDEAVOR.--Judgment, or the

"mental process which ends in an affirmation or negation of

something,"[41] comes as the result of experience, as is admirably

expressed by Prof. James,--"Let no youth have any anxiety about the

upshot of his education whatever the line of it may be. If he keeps

faithfully busy each hour of the working day, he may safely leave

the final result to itself. He can with perfect certainty count on

waking up some fine morning, to find himself one of the competent

ones of his generation, in whatever pursuit he may have singled out.

Silently, between all the details of his business, the _power of

judging_ in all that class of matter will have built itself up

within him as a possession that will never pass away. Young people

should know this truth in advance.[42] The ignorance of it has

probably engendered more discouragement and faint-heartedness in

youths embarking on arduous careers than all other causes put

together."[43]

TEACHING SUPPLIES THIS JUDGMENT UNDER SCIENTIFIC

MANAGEMENT.--Under Scientific Management this judgment is the result

of teaching of standards that are recognized as such by the learner.

Thus, much time is eliminated, and the apprentice under Scientific

Management can work with all the assurance as to the value of his

methods that characterized the seasoned veterans of older types

of management.

TEACHING ALSO UTILIZES THE JUDGMENT.--The judgment that is

supplied by Scientific Management is also used as a spring toward

action.[44] Scientific Management appeals to the reason, and workers

perform work as they do because, through the Systems and otherwise,

they are persuaded that the method they employ is the best.

THE POWER OF SUGGESTION IS ALSO UTILIZED.[45]--The dynamic power

of ideas is recognized by Scientific Management, in that the

instruction card is put in the form of direct commands, which,

naturally, lead to immediate action. So, also, the teaching written,

oral and object, as such, can be directly imitated by the

learner.[46]

Imitation, which Dr. Stratton says "may well be counted a

special form of suggestion," will be discussed later in this chapter

at length.[47]

WORKER ALWAYS HAS OPPORTUNITY TO CRITICISE THE SUGGESTION.--The

worker is expected to follow the suggestion of Scientific Management

without delay, because he believes in the standardization on which

it is made, and in the management that makes it. But the Systems

afford him an opportunity of reviewing the reasonableness of the

suggestion at any time, and his constructive criticism is invited

and rewarded.

SUGGESTION MUST BE FOLLOWED AT THE TIME.--The suggestion must be

followed at the time it is given, or its value as a suggestion is

impaired. This is provided for by the underlying idea of coöperation

on which Scientific Management rests, which molds the mental

attitude of the worker into that form where suggestions are quickest

grasped and followed.[48]

"NATIVE REACTIONS" ENUMERATED BY PROF. JAMES.--Prof. James

enumerates the "native reactions" as (1) fear, (2) love, (3)

curiosity, (4) imitation, (5) emulation, (6) ambition, (7)

pugnacity, (8) pride, (9) ownership, (10) constructiveness.[49]

These are all considered by Scientific Management. Such as might

have a harmful effect are supplanted, others are utilized.

FEAR UTILIZED BY ANCIENT MANAGERS.--The native reaction most

utilized by the first managers of armies and ancient works of

construction was that of fear. This is shown by the ancient rock

carvings, which portray what happened to those who disobeyed.[50]

FEAR STILL USED BY TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT.--Fear of personal

bodily injury is not usual under modern Traditional Management, but

fear of less progress, less promotion, less remuneration, or of

discharge, or of other penalties for inferior effort or efficiency

is still prevalent.

FEAR TRANSFORMED UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Under Scientific

Management the worker may still fear that he will incur a penalty,

or fail to deserve a reward, but the honest, industrious worker

experiences no such horror as the old-time fear included. This is

removed by his knowledge

1. that his task is achievable.

2. that his work will not injure his health.

3. that he may be sure of advancement with age and

experience.

4. that he is sure of the "square deal."

Thus such fear as he has, has a good and not an evil effect upon

him. It is an incentive to coöperate willingly. Its immediate and

ultimate effects are advantageous.

LOVE, OR LOYALTY, FOSTERED BY SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--The

worker's knowledge that the management plans to maintain such

conditions as will enable him to have the four assurances enumerated

above leads to love, or loyalty, between workers and employers.[51]

Far from Scientific Management abolishing the old personal and

sympathetic relations between employers and workers, it gives

opportunities for such relations as have not existed since the days

of the guilds, and the old apprenticeship.[52]

The coöperation upon which Scientific Management rests does away

with the traditional "warfare" between employer and workers that

made permanent friendliness almost impossible. Coöperation induces

friendliness and loyalty of each member in the organization to all

the others.

Mr. Wilfred Lewis says, in describing the installation of

Scientific Management in his plant, "We had, in effect, been

installing at great expense a new and wonderful means for increasing

the efficiency of labor, in the benefits of which the workman

himself shared, and we have today an organization second, I believe,

to none in its loyalty, efficiency and steadfastness of

purpose."[53] This same loyalty of the workers is plain in an

article in _Industrial Engineering_, on "Scientific Management as

Viewed from the Workman's Standpoint," where various men in a shop

having Scientific Management were interviewed.[54] After quoting

various workers' opinions of Scientific Management and their own

particular shop, the writer says: "Conversations with other men

brought out practically the same facts. They are all contented. They

took pride in their work, and seemed to be especially proud of the

fact that they were employed in the Link-Belt shops."[55]

TEACHING UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT DEVELOPS SUCH LOYALTY.--The

manner of teaching under Scientific Management fosters such loyalty.

Only through friendly aid can both teacher and taught prosper. Also,

the perfection of the actual workings of this plan of management

inspires regard as well as respect for the employer.

VALUE OF PERSONALITY NOT ELIMINATED.--It is a great mistake to

think that Scientific Management underestimates the value of

personality.[56] Rather, Scientific Management enhances the value of

an admirable personality. This is well exemplified in the Link-Belt

Co.,[57] and in the Tabor Manufacturing Co. of Philadelphia, as well

as on other work where Scientific Management has been installed a

period of several years.

CURIOSITY AROUSED BY SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Scientific

Management arouses the curiosity of the worker, by showing, through

its teaching, glimpses of the possibilities that exist for further

scientific investigation. The insistence on standard methods of less

waste arouses a curiosity as to whether still less wasteful methods

cannot be found.

CURIOSITY UTILIZED BY SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--This curiosity is

very useful as a trait of the learner, the planner and the

investigator. It can be well utilized by the teacher who recognizes

it in the learner, by an adaptation of methods of interpreting the

instruction card, that will allow of partially satisfying, and at

the same time further exciting, the curiosity.

In selecting men for higher positions, and for special work,

curiosity as to the work, with the interest that is its result, may

serve as an admirable indication of one sort of fitness. This

curiosity, or general interest, is usually associated with a

personal interest that makes it more intense, and more easy to

utilize.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PLACES A HIGH VALUE ON IMITATION.--It was

a popular custom of the past to look down with scorn on the

individual or organization that imitated others. Scientific

Management believes that to imitate with great precision the best,

is a work of high intelligence and industrial efficiency.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT USES BOTH SPONTANEOUS AND DELIBERATE

IMITATION.--Teaching under Scientific Management induces both

spontaneous and deliberate imitation. The standardization prevalent,

and the conformity to standards exacted, provide that this imitation

shall follow directed lines.

SPONTANEOUS IMITATION UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT HAS VALUABLE

RESULTS.--Under Scientific Management, the worker will spontaneously

imitate the teacher, when the latter has been demonstrating. This

leads to desired results. So, also, the worker imitates, more or

less spontaneously, his own past methods of doing work. The right

habits early formed by Scientific Management insure that the results

of such imitation shall be profitable.

DELIBERATE IMITATION CONSTANTLY ENCOURAGED.--Deliberate

imitation is caused more than anything else by the fact that the man

knows, if he does the thing in the way directed, his pay will be

increased.

Such imitation is also encouraged by the fact that the worker is

made to believe that he is capable, and has the will to overcome

obstacles. He knows that the management believes he can do the work,

or the instruction card would not have been issued to him. Moreover,

he sees that the teacher and demonstrator is a man promoted from his

rank, and he is convinced, therefore, that what the teacher can do

he also can do.[58]

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PROVIDES STANDARDS FOR IMITATION.--It is

of immense value in obtaining valuable results from imitation, that

Scientific Management provides standards. Under Traditional

Management, it was almost impossible for a worker to decide which

man he should imitate. Even though he might come to determine, by

constant observation, after a time, which man he desired to imitate,

he would not know in how far he would do well to copy any particular

method. Recording individually measured output under Transitory

Management allows of determining the man of high score, and either

using him as a model, or formulating his method into rules. Under

Scientific Management, the instruction card furnishes a method which

the worker knows that he can imitate exactly, with predetermined

results.

IMITATION IS EXPECTED OF ALL.--As standardization applies to the

work of all, so imitation of standards is expected of all. This fact

the teacher under Scientific Management can use to advantage, as an

added incentive to imitation. Any dislike of imitation is further

decreased, by making clear to every worker that those who are under

him are expected to imitate him,--and that he must, himself, imitate

his teachers, in order to set a worthy example.

IMITATION LEADS TO EMULATION.--Imitation, as provided for by

teaching under Scientific Management, and admiration for the

skillful teacher, or the standard imitated, naturally stimulate

emulation. This emulation takes three forms:

1. Competition with the records of others.

2. Competition with one's own record.

3. Competition with the standard record.

NO HARD FEELING AROUSED.--In the first sort of competition only

is there a possibility of hard feeling being aroused, but danger of

this is practically eliminated by the fact that rewards are provided

for all who are successful. In the second sort of competition, the

worker, by matching himself against what he has done, measures his

own increased efficiency. In the third sort of competition, there is

the added stimulus of surprising the management by exceeding the

task expected. The incentive in all three cases is not only more pay

and a chance for promotion, but also the opportunity to win

appreciation and publicity for successful performance.

AMBITION IS AROUSED.--The outcome of emulation is ambition. This

ambition is stimulated by the fact that promotion is so rapid, and

so outlined before the worker, that he sees the chance for

advancement himself, and not only advancement that means more pay,

but advancement also that means a chance to specialize on that work

which he particularly likes.

PUGNACITY UTILIZED.--Pugnacity can never be entirely absent

where there is emulation. Under Scientific Management it is used to

overcome not persons, but things. Pugnacity is a great driving

force. It is a wonderful thing that under Scientific Management this

force is aroused not against one's fellow-workers, but against one's

work. The desire to win out, to fight it out, is aroused against a

large task, which the man desires to put behind him. Moreover, there

is nothing under Scientific Management which forbids an athletic

contest. While the workers would not, under the ultimate form, be

allowed to injure themselves by overspeeding, a friendly race with a

demonstration of pugnacity which harms no one is not frowned upon.

PRIDE IS STIMULATED.--Pride in one's work is aroused as soon as

work is functionalized. The moment a man has something to do that he

likes to do, and can do well, he takes pride in it. So, also, the

fact that individuality, and personality, are recognized, and that

his records are shown, makes pride serve as a stimulus. The outcome

of the worker's pride in his work is pride in himself. He finds that

he is part of a great whole, and he learns to take pride in the

entire management,--in both himself and the managers, as well as in

his own work.

FEELING OF OWNERSHIP PROVIDED FOR.--It may seem at first glance

that the instinct of ownership is neglected, and becomes stunted,

under Scientific Management, in that all tools become more or less

standardized, and the man is discouraged from having tools peculiar

in shape, or size, for whose use he has no warrant except long time

of use.

Careful consideration shows that Scientific Management provides

two opportunities for the worker to conserve his instinct for

ownership,--

1. During working hours, where the recognition of his

personality allows the worker to identify himself with his work, and

where his coöperation with the management makes him identified with

its activities.

2. Outside the work. He has, under Scientific Management, more

hours away from work to enjoy ownership, and more money with which

to acquire those things that he desires to own.

The teacher must make clear to him both these opportunities, as

he readily can, since the instinct of ownership is conserved in him

in an identical manner.

CONSTRUCTIVENESS A PART OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT.--Every act

that the worker performs is constructive, because waste has been

eliminated, and everything that is done is upbuilding. Teaching

makes this clear to the worker. Constructiveness is also utilized in

that exercise of initiative is provided for. Thus the instinct,

instead of being weakened, is strengthened and directed.

PROGRESS IN UTILIZING INSTINCTS DEMANDS PSYCHOLOGICAL

STUDY.--Teaching under Scientific Management can never hope fully to

understand and utilize native reactions, until more assistance has

been given by psychology. At the present time, Scientific Management

labors under disadvantages that must, ultimately, be removed.

Psychologists must, by experiments, determine more accurately the

reactions and their controlability. More thorough study must be made

of children that Scientific Management may understand more of the

nature of the reactions of the young workers who come for industrial

training. Psychology must give its help in this training. Then only,

can teaching under Scientific Management become truly efficient.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT REALIZES THE IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING THE

WILL.--The most necessary, and most complex and difficult part of

Scientific Management, is the training of the will of all members of

the organization. Prof. Read states in his "Psychology" five means

of training or influencing the will. These are[59]

"1. The first important feature in training the will is the

help furnished by supplying the mind with a useful body

of ideas.

"2. The second great feature of the training of the will is

the building up in the mind of the proper interests, and the

habit of giving the attention to useful and worthy purposes.

"3. Another important feature of the training of the will is

the establishing of a firm association between ideas and actions,

or, in other words, the forming of a good set of habits.

"4. Another very important feature of the training of the

will has reference to its strength of purpose or power of

imitation.

"5. The matter of discipline."

Teaching under Scientific Management does supply these five

functions, and thus provide for the strengthening and development of

the will.

VARIATIONS IN TEACHING OF APPRENTICES AND

JOURNEYMEN.--Scientific Management must not only be prepared to

teach apprentices, as must all types of management, it must also

teach journeymen who have not acquired standard methods.

APPRENTICES ARE EASILY HANDLED.--Teaching apprentices is a

comparatively simple proposition, far simpler than under any other

type of management. Standard methods enable the apprentice to become

proficient long before his brother could, under the old type of

teaching. The length of training required depends largely on how

fingerwise the apprentice is.

OLDER WORKERS MUST BE HANDLED WITH TACT.--With adult workers,

the problem is not so simple. Old wrong habits, such as the use of

ineffective motions, must be eliminated. Physically, it is difficult

for the adult worker to alter his methods. Moreover, it may be most

difficult to change his mental attitude, to convince him that the

methods of Scientific Management are correct.

A successful worker under Traditional Management, who is proud

of his work, will often be extremely sensitive to what he is prone

to regard as the "criticism" of Scientific Management with regard

to him.

APPRECIATION OF VARYING VIEWPOINTS NECESSARY.--No management can

consider itself adequate that does not try to enter into the mental

attitude of its workers. Actual practice shows that, with time and

tact, almost any worker can be convinced that all criticism of him

is constructive, and that for him to conform to the new standards is

a mark of added proficiency, not an acknowledgment of ill-preparedness.

The "Systems" do much toward this work of reconciling the older

workers to the new methods, but most of all can be done by such

teachers as can demonstrate their own change from old to standard

methods, and the consequent promotion and success. This is, again,

an opportunity for the exercise of personality.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PROVIDES PLACES FOR SUCH TEACHING.--Under

the methods of teaching employed by Scientific Management,--right

motions first, next speed, with quality as a resultant product,--it

is most necessary to provide a place where learners can work. The

standard planning of quality provides such a place. The plus and

minus signs automatically divide labor so that the worker can be

taught by degrees, being set at first where great accuracy is not

demanded by the work, and being shifted to work requiring more

accuracy as he becomes more proficient. In this way even the most

untrained worker becomes efficient, and is engaged in actual

productive work.

MEASUREMENT OF TEACHING AND LEARNING.--Under Scientific

Management the results of teaching and learning become apparent

automatically in records of output. The learner's record of output

of proper prescribed quality determines what pay he shall receive,

and also has a proportionate effect on the teacher's pay. Such a

system of measurement may not be accurate as a report of the

learner's gain,--for he doubtless gains mental results that cannot

be seen in his output,--but it certainly does serve as an incentive

to teaching and to learning.

RELATION OF TEACHING IN SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT TO ACADEMIC

TRAINING AND VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE.[60]--Teaching under Scientific

Management can never be most efficient until the field of such

teaching is restricted to training learners who are properly

prepared to receive industrial training.[61] This preparedness

implies fitting school and academic training, and Vocational

Guidance.

LEARNER SHOULD BE MANUALLY ADEPT.--The learner should, before

entering the industrial world, be taught to be manually adept, or

fingerwise, to have such control over his trained muscles that they

will respond quickly and accurately to orders. Such training should

be started in infancy,[62] in the form of guided play, as, for

example, whittling, sewing, knitting, handling mechanical toys and

tools, and playing musical instruments, and continued up to, and

into, the period of entering a trade.

SCHOOLS SHOULD PROVIDE MENTAL PREPAREDNESS.--The schools should

render every student capable of filling some place worthily in the

industries. The longer the student remains in school, the higher the

position for which he should be prepared. The amount and nature of

the training in the schools depends largely on the industrial work

to be done, and will be possible of more accurate estimation

constantly, as Scientific Management standardizes work and shows

what the worker must be to be most efficient.

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE MUST PROVIDE DIRECTION.--As made most clear

in Mr. Meyer Bloomfield's book, "Vocational Guidance,"[63] bureaus

of competent directors stand ready to help the youth find that line

of activity which he can follow best and with greatest satisfaction

to himself. At present, such bureaus are seriously handicapped by

the fact that little data of the industries are at hand, but this

lack the bureaus are rapidly supplying by gathering such data as are

available. Most valuable data will not be available until Scientific

Management has been introduced into all lines.

PROGRESS DEMANDS COÖPERATION.--Progress here, as everywhere,

demands coöperation.[64] The three sets of educators,--the teachers

in the school, in the Vocational Guidance Bureaus, and in Scientific

Management, must recognize their common work, and must coöperate to

do it. There is absolutely no cause for conflict between the three;

their fields are distinct, but supplementary. Vocational Guidance is

the intermediary between the other two.

SUMMARY

RESULTS TO THE WORK.--Under the teaching of Traditional

Management, the learner may or may not improve the quantity and

quality of his work. This depends almost entirely on the particular

teacher whom the learner happens to have. There is no standard

improvement to the work.

Under the teaching of Transitory Management, the work gains in

quantity as the methods become standardized, and quality is

maintained or improved.

Under the teaching of Scientific Management, work, the quantity

of work, increases enormously through the use of standards of all

kinds; quantity is oftentimes tripled.

Under the teaching of Scientific Management, when the schools

and Vocational Guidance movement coöperate, high output of required

quality will be obtained at a far earlier stage of the worker's

industrial life than is now possible, even under Scientific

Management.

RESULTS TO THE WORKER.--Under Traditional Management, the worker

gains a knowledge of how his work can be done, but the method by

which he is taught is seldom, of itself, helpful to him. Not being

sure that he has learned the best way to do his work, he gains no

method of attack. The result of the teaching is a habit of doing

work which is good, or bad, as chance may direct.

Under Transitory Management, with the use of Systems as

teachers, the worker gains a better method of attack, as he knows

the reason why the prescribed method is prescribed. He begins to

appreciate the possibilities and benefits of standardized teaching.

The method laid down under Scientific Management is devised to

further the forming of an accurate accumulation of concepts, which

results in a proper method of attack. The method of instruction

under Scientific Management is devised to furnish two things:

1. A collection of knowledge relating in its entirety to the

future work of the learner.

2. A definite procedure, that will enable the learner to

apply the same process to acquiring knowledge of other subjects

in the most economical and efficient way.

It teaches the learner to be observant of details, which is the

surest method for further development of general truths and

concepts.

The method of attack of the methods provided for in Scientific

Management results, naturally, in a comparison of true data. This is

the most efficient method of causing the learner to think for

himself.

Processes differing but little, apparently, give vastly

different results, and the trained habits of observation quickly

analyze and determine wherein the one process is more efficient than

the other.

This result is, of course, the one most desired for causing

quick and intelligent learning.

The most valuable education is that which enables the learner to

make correct judgments. The teaching under Scientific Management

leads to the acquisition of such judgment, plus an all-around sense

training, a training in habits of work, and a progressive

development.

A partial topic list of the results may make more clear their

importance.

1. Worker better trained for all work.

2. Habits of correct thinking instilled.

3. Preparedness provided for.

4. Productive and repetitive powers increased.

5. Sense powers increased.

6. Habits of proper reaction established.

7. "Guided original work" established.

8. System of waste elimination provided.

9. Method of attack taught.

10. Brain fully developed.

11. "Standard response" developed.

12. Opportunities and demands for "thinking"

provided.

13. Self-reliance developed.

14. Love of truth fostered.

15. Moral sentiment developed.

16. Resultant happiness of worker.

RESULTS TO BE EXPECTED IN THE FUTURE.--When the schools,

vocational guidance and teaching under Scientific Management

coöperate, the worker will not only receive the benefits now

obtained from Scientific Management, but many more. There will be

nothing to unlearn, and each thing that is learned will be taught by

those best fitted to teach it. The collection of vocational guidance

data will begin with a child at birth, and a record of his

inheritance will be kept. This will be added to as he is

educated, and as various traits and tendencies appear. From this

scientifically derived record will accrue such data as will assist

in making clear exactly in what place the worker will be most

efficient, and in what sphere he will be able to be most helpful to

the world, as well as to himself. All early training will be planned

to make the youth adept with his muscles, and alert, with a mind so

trained that related knowledge is easily acquired.

When the vocation for which he is naturally best fitted becomes

apparent, as it must from the study of the development of the youth

and his desires, the school will know, and can give exactly, that

training that is necessary for the vocation. It can also supplement

his limitations intelligently, in case he decides to follow a

vocation for which he is naturally handicapped.

This will bring to the industry learners prepared to be taught

those things that characterize the industry, the "tricks of the

trade," and the "secrets of the craft," now become standard, and

free to all. Such teaching Scientific Management is prepared to

give. The results of such teaching of Scientific Management will be

a worker prepared in a short time to fill efficiently a position

which will allow of promotion to the limit of his possibilities.

The result of such teaching will be truly educated workers,

equipped to work, and to live,[65] and to share the world's

permanent satisfactions.

The effect of such education on industrial peace must not be

underestimated. With education, including in education learning and

culture,--prejudice will disappear. The fact that all men, those

going into industries and those not, will be taught alike to be

finger wise as well as book wise, up to the time of entering the

industries, will lead to a better understanding of each other all

through life.

The entire bearing of Scientific Management on industrial peace

cannot be here fully discussed. We must note here the strong effect

that teaching under Scientific Management will ultimately have on

doing away with industrial warfare,--the great warfare of ignorance,

where neither side understands the other, and where each side should

realize that large immediate sacrifices should be made if necessary,

that there may be obtained the great permanent benefit and savings

that can be obtained only by means of the heartiest coöperation.

CHAPTER VIII FOOTNOTES: ============================================

1. F.B. Gilbreth, _Bricklaying System_, para. 541-545.

2. H.K. Hathaway, _Prerequisites to the Introduction of Scientific

Management, Engineering Magazine,_ April, 1911, p. 141.

3. H.L. Gantt, paper 928, A.S.M.E., p. 372.

4. H.L. Gantt, _Work, Wages and Profits_, p. 116.

5. H.L. Gantt, paper 928, A.S.M.E., p. 342.

6. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, para. 289, Harper Ed.,

pp. 127-128.

7. H.K. Hathaway, _Engineering Magazine_, April, 1911, p. 144.

8. W.D. Ennis, _An Experiment in Motion Study, Industrial

Engineering_, June, 1911, p. 462.

9. C.S. Myers, M.D., _An Introduction to Experimental Psychology_,

chap. V, p. 73.

10. G. M. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, p. 125.

11. William James, _Psychology, Briefer Course_, p. 171.

12. F.B. Gilbreth, _Bricklaying System_, chap. I, _Training of

Apprentices_.

13. _McClure's Magazine_, May, 1911, Dec, 1911, Jan., 1912.

14. As a woodman's keenness of hearing.

15. M.W. Calkins, _A First Book in Psychology_, chap. III.

16. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, chap. VII.

17. Compare with an actor's learning a part.

18. As proved by experimenting with a six-year-old child.

19. Imbert, _Etudes experimentales de travail professionnel ouvrier,

Sur la fatigue engendree par les mouvements rapides_.

20. William James, _Psychology, Briefer Course_, p. 134.

21. _Ibid._, p. 138. William James, Psychology, Advanced Course.

p. 112.

22. F.B. Gilbreth, _Bricklaying System_, p. 142.

23. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, p. 214.

24. Prof. Bain, quoted In William James' _Psychology, Briefer

Course_, pp. 145-147.

25. F.B. Gilbreth, _Bricklaying System_, para. 18-19.

26. M.W. Calkins, _A First Book in Psychology_, p. 354.

27. James Sully, _The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology_, p. 119.

28. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, p. 99.

29. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_ p. 240.

30. Attracting the attention is largely a matter of appealing to

what is known to interest, for example, to a known ambition.

31. M.S. Read, _An Introductory Psychology_, p. 183.

32. F.B. Gilbreth, _Motion Study_, p. 89.

33. _Ibid._, _Bricklaying System_, para. 555-557.

34. F.B. Gilbreth, _Bricklaying System_, p. 150.

35. M.S. Read, _An Introductory Psychology_, pp. 179-194.

36. G.M. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, p. 42.

37. M.S. Read, _An Introductory Psychology_, p. 208.

38. William James, _Psychology, Advanced Course_, Vol. I, p. 667.

39. M.S. Read, _An Introductory Psychology_, pp. 212-213. William

James, _Psychology, Briefer Course_, p. 302.

40. M.W. Calkins, _A First Book in Psychology_, p. 25.

41. James Sully, _The Teacher's Handbook of Psychology_, p. 290.

42. William James, _Psychology, Briefer Course_, p. 150.

43. W.D. Scott, _Influencing Men in Business_, chap. II.

44. _Ibid._, chap. III.

45. W.D. Scott, _The Theory of Advertising_, p. 71.

46. W.D. Scott, _Increasing Human Efficiency in Business_, p. 41.

47. G.M. Stratton, _Experimental Psychology and Culture_, p. 200.

48. F.W. Taylor, _The Principles of Scientific Management_, p. 36.

49. William James, _Talks to Teachers_, chap. III.

50. Knight's _Mechanical Dictionary_, Vol. III, p. 2204.

51. For example, see W.D. Scott's _Increasing Efficiency in

Business_, chap. IV.

52. R.A. Bray, _Boy Labor and Apprenticeship_, chap. II, especially

p. 8.

53. Wilfred Lewis, _Proceedings of the Congress of Technology_,

1911, p. 175.

54. November, 1910.

55. The Link-Belt Co., Philadelphia, Pa.

56. For value of personality see J.W. Jenks's, _Governmental Action

for Social Welfare_, p. 226.

57. F.W. Taylor, _Shop Management_, para. 311, Harper Ed., p. 143.

58. Compare with the old darkey, who took her sons from a Northern

school, where the teacher was white, in order to send them to a

Southern school having a colored teacher that they might feel,

as they looked at him, "What _that_ nigger can do, _this_ nigger

can do."

59. M.S. Read, _An Introductory Psychology,_ pp. 297-303.

60. Hugo Münsterberg, _American Problems_, p. 29.

61. Morris Llewellyn Cooke, _Bulletin No. 5_ of _The Carnegie

Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching_, p. 70. William

Kent, _Discussion of Paper 647_, A.S.M.E., p. 891.

62. A well known athlete started throwing a ball at his son in

infancy, to prepare him to be an athlete, thus practically sure

of a college education.

63. Meyer Bloomfield, _The Vocational Guidance of Youth_, Houghton

Mifflin & Co.

64. A. Pimloche, _Pestalozzi and the Foundation of the Modern

Elementary School_, p. 139.

65. Friedrich Froebel, _Education of Man_, "To secure for this

ability skill and directness, to lift it into full

consciousness, to give it insight and clearness, and to exalt

it into a life of creative freedom, is the business of the

subsequent life of man in successive stages of development and

cultivation."

====================================================================

CHAPTER IX

INCENTIVES

DEFINITION OF INCENTIVE.--An "incentive" is defined by the

Century Dictionary as "that which moves the mind or stirs the

passions; that which incites or tends to incite to action; motive,

spur." Synonyms--"impulse, stimulus, incitement, encouragement,

goad."

IMPORTANCE OF THE INCENTIVE.--The part that the incentive plays

in the doing of all work is enormous. This is true in learning, and

also in the performance of work which is the result of this

learning: manual work and mental work as well. The business man

finishing his work early that he may go to the baseball game; the

boy at school rushing through his arithmetic that he may not be kept

after school; the piece-worker, the amount of whose day's pay

depends upon the quantity and quality he can produce; the student of

a foreign language preparing for a trip abroad,--these all

illustrate the importance of the incentive as an element in the

amount which is to be accomplished.

TWO KINDS OF INCENTIVES.--The incentive may be of two kinds: it

may be first of all, a return, definite or indefinite, which is to

be received when a certain portion of the work is done, or it may be

an incentive due to the working conditions themselves. The latter

case is exemplified where two people are engaged in the same sort of

work and start in to race one another to see who can accomplish the

most, who can finish the fixed amount in the shortest space of time,

or who can produce the best quality. The incentive may be in the

form of some definite aim or goal which is understood by the worker

himself, or it may be in some natural instinct which is roused by

the work, either consciously to the worker, or consciously to the

man who is assigning the work, or consciously to both, or

consciously to neither one. In any of these cases it is a natural

instinct that is being appealed to and that induces the man to do

more work, whether he sees any material reward for that work or not.

DEFINITIONS OF TWO TYPES.--We may call the incentive which

utilizes the natural instinct, "direct incentive," and the incentive

which utilizes these secondarily, through some set reward or

punishment, "indirect incentive." This, at first sight, may seem a

contradictory use of terms--it may seem that the reward would be the

most direct of incentives; yet a moment's thought will cause one to

realize that all the reward can possibly do is to arouse in the

individual a natural instinct which will lead him to increase

his work.

INDIRECT INCENTIVES INCLUDE TWO CLASSES.--We will discuss the

indirect incentives first as, contrary to the usual use of the word

"indirect," they are most easy to estimate and to describe. They

divide themselves into two classes, reward and punishment.

DEFINITION OF REWARD.--Reward is defined by the Century

Dictionary as--"return, recompense, the fruit of one's labor or

works; profit," with synonyms, "pay, compensation, remuneration,

requital and retribution." Note particularly the word "retribution,"

for it is this aspect of reward, that is, the just outcome of one's

act, that makes the reward justly include punishment. The word

"reward" exactly expresses what management would wish to be

understood by the incentive that it gives its men to increase

their work.

DEFINITION OF PUNISHMENT.--The word "punishment" is defined

as--"pain, suffering, loss, confinement, or other penalty inflicted

on a person for a crime or offense by the authority to which the

offender is subject," with synonyms, "chastisement, correction,

discipline."

The word punishment, as will be noted later, is most unfortunate

when applied to what Scientific Management would mean by a penalty,

though this word also is unfortunate; but, in the first place, there

is no better word to cover the general meaning; and in the second

place, the idea of pain and suffering, which Scientific Management

aims to and does eliminate, is present in some of the older forms of

management Therefore the word punishment must stand.

REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS RESULT IN ACTION.--There can be no doubt

that a reward is an incentive. There may well be doubt as to whether

a punishment is an incentive to action or not. This, however, is

only at first glance, and the whole thing rests on the meaning of

the word "action." To be active is certainly the opposite of being

at rest. This being true, punishment is just as surely an incentive

to action as is reward. The man who is punished in every case will

be led to some sort of action. Whether this really results in an

increase of output or not simply determines whether the punishment

is a scientifically prescribed punishment or not. If the

punishment is of such a nature that the output ceases because of it,

or that it incites the man punished against the general good, then

it does not in any wise cease to be an active thing, but it is

simply a wrong, and unscientifically assigned punishment, that acts

in a detrimental way.

SOLDIERING ALONE CUTS DOWN ACTIVITY.--It is interesting to note

that the greatest cause for cutting down output is related more

closely to a reward than a punishment. Under such managements as

provide no adequate reward for all, and no adequate assurance that

all can receive extra rewards permanently without a cut in the rate,

it may be advisable, for the worker's best interests, to limit

output in order to keep the wages, or reward, up, and soldiering

results. The evils of soldiering will be discussed more at length

under the "Systems of Pay." It is plain, however, here that

soldiering is the result of a cutting down of action, and it is

self-evident that anything which cuts down action is harmful, not

only to the individual himself, but to society at large.

NATURE OF REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS.--Under all types of

management, the principal rewards consist of promotion and pay, pay

being a broad word used here to include regular wages, a bonus,

shorter hours, other forms of remuneration or recompense; anything

which can be given to the man who does the work to benefit him and

increase his desire to continue doing the work. Punishments may be

negative, that is, they may simply take the form of no reward; or

they may be positive, that is, they may include fines, discharge,

assignment to less remunerative or less desirable work, or any other

thing which can be given to the man to show him that he has not done

what is expected of him and, in theory at least, to lead him to

do better.

NATURE OF DIRECT INCENTIVES.--Direct incentives will be such

native reaction as ambition, pride and pugnacity; will be love of

racing, love of play; love of personal recognition; will be the

outcome of self-confidence and interest, and so on.

THE REWARD UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT UNSTANDARDIZED.--As with

all other discussions of any part or form of Traditional Management,

the discussion of the incentive under Traditional Management is

vague from the very nature of the subject. "Traditional" stands for

vagueness and for variation, for the lack of standardization, for

the lack of definiteness in knowledge, in process, in results. The

rewards under Traditional Management, as under all types of

management, are promotion and pay. It must be an almost unthinkably

poor system of management, even under Traditional Management, which

did not attempt to provide for some sort of promotion of the man who

did the most and best work; but the lack of standardization of

conditions, of instructions, of the work itself, and of reward,

makes it almost impossible not only to give the reward, but even to

determine who deserves the reward. Under Traditional Management, the

reward need not be positive, that is, it might simply consist in the

negation of some previously existing disadvantage. It need not be

predetermined. It might be nothing definite. It might not be so set

ahead that the man might look forward to it. In other words it might

simply be the outcome of the good, and in no wise the incentive for

the good. It need not necessarily be personal. It could be shared

with a group, or gang, and lose all feeling of personality. It need

not be a fixed reward or a fixed performance; in fact, if the

management were Traditional it would be almost impossible that it

would be a fixed reward. It might not be an assured reward, and in

most cases it was not a prompt reward. These fixed adjectives

describe the reward of Scientific Management--positive, predetermined,

personal, fixed, assured and prompt. A few of these might apply,

or none might apply to the reward under Traditional Management.

REWARD A PRIZE WON BY ONE ONLY.--If this reward, whether

promotion or pay, was given to someone under Traditional Management,

this usually meant that others thereby lost it; it was in the nature

of a prize which one only could attain, and which the others,

therefore, would lose, and such a lost prize is, to the average man,

for the time at least, a dampener on action. The rewarding of the

winner, to the loss of all of the losers, has been met by the

workmen getting together secretly, and selecting the winners for a

week or more ahead, thus getting the same reward out of the employer

without the extra effort.

PUNISHMENT UNDER TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT WRONG IN THEORY.--The

punishment, under Traditional Management, was usually much more than

negative punishment; that is to say, the man who was punished

usually received much more than simply the negative return of

getting no reward. The days of bodily punishment have long passed,

yet the account of the beatings given to the galley slaves and to

other workers in the past are too vividly described in authentic

accounts to be lost from memory. To-day, under Traditional

Management, punishment consists of

1. fines, which are usually simply a cutting down of wages,

the part deducted remaining with the company,

2. discharge, or

3. assignment to less pleasant or less desirable work.

This assignment is done on an unscientific basis, the man being

simply put at something which he dislikes, with no regard as to

whether his efficiency at that particular work will be high or not.

RESULTS ARE UNFORTUNATE.--The punishment, under Traditional

Management, is usually meted out by the foreman, simply as one of

his many duties. He is apt to be so personally interested, and

perhaps involved, in the case that his punishment will satisfy some

wrong notions, impulse of anger, hate, or envy in him, and will

arouse a feeling of shame or wounded pride, or unappreciation, in

the man to whom punishment is awarded.

DIRECT INCENTIVES NOT SCIENTIFICALLY UTILIZED.--As for what we

have called direct incentive, the love of racing was often used

under Traditional Management through Athletic Contests, the faults

in these being that the men were not properly studied, so that they

could be properly assigned and grouped; care was not always

exercised that hate should not be the result of the contest; the

contest was not always conducted according to the rules of clean

sport; the men slighted quality in hastening the work, and the

results of the athletic contests were not so written down as to be

thereafter utilized. Love of play may have been developed

unconsciously, but was certainly not often studied, Love of personal

recognition was probably often utilized, but in no scientific way.

Neither was there anything in Traditional Management to develop

self-confidence, or to arouse and maintain interest in any set

fashion. Naturally, if the man were in a work which he particularly

liked, which under Traditional Management was a matter of luck, he

would be more or less interested in it, but there was no scientific

way of arousing or holding his interest. Under Traditional

Management, a man might take pride in his work, as did many of the

old bricklayers and masons, who would set themselves apart after

hours if necessary, lock themselves in, and cut bricks for a

complicated arch or fancy pattern, but such pride was in no way

fostered through the efforts of the management. Pugnacity was

aroused, but it might have an evil effect as well as a good, so far

as the management had any control. Ambition, in the same way, might

be stimulated, and might not. There is absolutely nothing under

Traditional Management to prevent a man being ambitious, gratifying

his pride, and gratifying his pugnacity in a right way, and at the

same time being interested in his work, but there was nothing under

Traditional Management which provided for definite and exact methods

for encouraging these good qualities, seeing that they developed in

a proper channel, and scientifically utilizing the outcome again

and again.

PAY FOR PERFORMANCE PROVIDED FOR BY TRANSITORY

MANAGEMENT.--Under Transitory Management, as soon as practicable,

one bonus is paid for doing work according to the method prescribed.

As standardization takes place, the second bonus for completing the

task in the time set can be paid. As each element of Scientific

Management is introduced, incentives become more apparent, more

powerful, and more assured.

DIRECT INCENTIVES MORE SKILLFULLY USED.--With the separating of

output, and recording of output separately, love of personal

recognition grew, self-confidence grew, interest in one's work

grew. The Athletic Contest is so conducted that love of speed, love

of play, and love of competition are encouraged, the worker

constantly feeling that he can indulge in these, as he is assured

of "fair play."

INCENTIVES UNDER SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT CONSTRUCTIVE.--It is most

important, psychologically and ethically, that it be understood that

Scientific Management is not in any sense a destructive power. That

only is eliminated that is harmful, or wasteful, or futile;

everything that is good is conserved, and is utilized as much as it

has ever been before, often much more than it has ever been

utilized. The constructive force, under Scientific Management, is

one of its great life principles. This is brought out very plainly

in considering incentives under Scientific Management. With the

scientifically determined wage, and the more direct and more sure

plan of promotion, comes no discard of the well-grounded incentives

of older types of management. The value of a fine personality in all

who are to be imitated is not forgotten; the importance of using all

natural stimuli to healthful activity is appreciated. Scientific

Management uses all these, in so far as they can be used to the best

outcome for workers and work, and supplements them by such

scientifically derived additions as could never have been derived

under the older types.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE REWARD.--Rewards, under Scientific

Management are--

(a) positive; that is to say, the reward must be a

definite, positive gain to the man, and not simply a

taking away of some thing which may have been a

drawback.

(b) predetermined; that is to say, before the man begins to

work it must be determined exactly what reward he is to

get for doing the work.

particular man for that particular work.

(d) fixed, unchanged. He must get exactly what it has been

determined beforehand that he shall get.

(e) assured; that is to say, there must be provision made

for this reward before the man begins to work, so that

he may be positive that he will get the reward if he

does the work. The record of the organization must be

that rewards have always been paid in the past,

therefore probably will be in the future.

(f) the reward must be prompt; that is to say, as soon as

the work has been done, the man must get the reward.

This promptness applies to the announcement of the

reward; that is to say, the man must know at once that

he has gotten the reward, and also to the receipt of

the reward by the man.

POSITIVE REWARD AROUSES INTEREST AND HOLDS ATTENTION.--The

benefit of the positive reward is that it arouses and holds

attention. A fine example of a reward that is not positive is that

type of "welfare work" which consists of simply providing the worker

with such surroundings as will enable him to work decently and

without actual discomfort. The worker, naturally, feels that such

surroundings are his right, and in no sense a reward and incentive

to added activity. The reward must actually offer to the worker

something which he has a right to expect only if he earns it;

something which will be a positive addition to his life.

PREDETERMINED REWARD CONCENTRATES ATTENTION.--The predetermined

reward allows both manager and man to concentrate their minds upon

the work. There is no shifting of the attention, while the worker

wonders what the reward that he is to receive will be. It is also a

strong factor for industrial peace, and for all the extra activities

which will come when industrial conditions are peaceful.

PERSONAL REWARD CONSERVES INDIVIDUALITY.--The personal reward is

a strong incentive toward initiative, towards the desire to make the

most of one's individuality. It is an aid toward the feeling of

personal recognition. From this personal reward come all the

benefits which have been considered under individuality.[1]

FIXED REWARD ELIMINATES WASTE TIME.--The fact that the reward is

fixed is a great eliminator of waste to the man and to the manager

both. Not only does the man concentrate better under the fixed

reward, but the reward, being fixed, need not be determined anew,

over and over again; that is to say, every time that that kind of

work is done, simultaneous with the arising of the work comes the

reward that is to be paid for it. All the time that would be given

to determining the reward, satisfying the men and arguing the case,

is saved and utilized.

ASSURED REWARD AIDS CONCENTRATION.--The assured reward leads to

concentration,--even perhaps more so than the fact that the reward

is determined. In case the man was not sure that he would get the

reward in the end, he would naturally spend a great deal of time

wondering whether he would or not. Moreover, no immediate good

fortune counts for much as an incentive if there is a prospect of

bad luck following in the immediate future.

NEED FOR PROMPTNESS VARIES.--The need for promptness of the

reward varies. If the reward is to be given to a man of an

elementary type of mind, the reward must be immediately announced

and must be actually given very promptly, as it is impossible for

anyone of such a type of intellect to look forward very far.[2] A

man of a high type of intellectual development is able to wait a

longer time for his reward, and the element of promptness, while

acting somewhat as an incentive, is not so necessary.

Under Scientific Management, with the ordinary type of worker on

manual work, it has been found most satisfactory to pay the reward

every day, or at the end of the week, and to announce the score of

output as often as every hour. This not only satisfies the longing

of the normal mind to know exactly where it stands, but also lends a

fresh impetus to repeat the high record. There is also, through the

prompt reward, the elimination of time wasted in wondering what the

result will be, and in allaying suspense. Suspense is not a stimulus

to great activity, as anyone who has waited for the result of a

doubtful examination can testify, it being almost impossible to

concentrate the mind on any other work until one knows whether the

work which has been done has been completed satisfactorily or not.

PROMPTNESS ALWAYS AN ADDED INCENTIVE.--There are many kinds of

life work and modes of living so terrible as to make one shudder at

the thoughts of the certain sickness, death, or disaster that are

almost absolutely sure to follow such a vocation. Men continue to

work for those wages that lead positively to certain death, because

of the immediateness of the sufficient wages, or reward. This takes

their attention from their ultimate end. Much more money would be

required if payment were postponed, say, five years after the act,

to obtain the services of the air-man, or the worker subject to the

poisoning of some branches of the lead and mercury industries.

If the prompt reward is incentive enough to make men forget

danger and threatened death, how much more efficient is it in

increasing output where there is no such danger.

IMMEDIATE REWARD NOT ALWAYS PREFERABLE.--There are cases where

the prompt reward is not to be preferred, because the delayed reward

will be greater, or will be available to more people Such is the

case with the reward that comes from unrestricted output.

For example,--the immediacy of the temporarily increased reward

caused by restricting output has often led the combinations of

working men to such restriction, with an ultimate loss of reward to

worker, to employer, and to the consumer.

REWARDS POSSIBLE OF ATTAINMENT BY ALL.--Every man working under

Scientific Management has a chance to win a reward. This means not

only that the man has a "square deal," for the man may have a square

deal under Traditional Management in that he may have a fair chance

to try for all existing rewards. There is more than this under

Scientific Management. By the very nature of the plan itself, the

rewards are possible of achievement by all; any one man, by winning,

in no way diminishes the chances of the others.

The Psychology of Management The Function of the Mind in Determining, Teaching and Installing Methods of Least Waste · 第 13 / 14 章

NO SET TIME FOR USING SYSTEMS.--There is, under this type of