Mandan, Hidatsa, and Dakota, was formerly given a place among the
dancing lodge ceremonies of the Blackfoot. The information we have seems
to indicate that this ceremony had not become thoroughly adjusted to its
place in this series at the time of its prohibition by the United States
and Canadian governments. The claim is made by some of the Piegan that
it was borrowed from the Arapaho and was not looked upon with much
favor. As one man expressed it, "None of those taking the cutting lived
to reach old age." It was said that a few Blackfoot warriors once
visited the Arapaho at the time of their sun dance where they were put
through the cutting ceremony. According to the Blackfoot mode of
thought, this means that the medicine rites (and rights) were
transferred to them. When they returned, they induced others to take the
cutting, to whom, of course, the rites were transferred. Whether this
historical statement is accurate or mythical, we have no means of
knowing, but we are inclined to give it some weight as evidence. It
seems, however, that warriors took the cutting because of a vow, similar
to that of the medicine woman. Sometimes a man dreamed that the sun
required it of him. The giving of property and the conditions of the
transfer were the same as for "cutting the thong," though we have no
information that "catching" was permitted. Such may, however, have been
tolerated.
The men taking the cutting were nude to the belt. Sage was tied around
the wrists and ankles. The hair hung down, held in place by a wreath of
cedar (some informants say sage). They were painted white. Rows of spots
in blue extended down the sides of the face, over the shoulders and down
the arms. Wavy lines of the same color were also drawn down the arms. A
circle representing the sun, was made on the breast, also upon the chin
and probably on the back opposite the one over the heart. On the
forehead was another circle representing the moon. Other informants say
a crescent moon in black was used instead of these circles.
According to one informant, vows were made to purchase this ceremony
when ill or in great danger. If the promise brought results, the vow was
fulfilled at the next dance. The supplicant calls upon one having
purchased the rite. They enter the booth of the weather dancers, a
blanket is held up to shut out the gaze of the others. The transferrer
then paints the purchaser. He cuts a hole through the skin of the right
shoulder, over the scapula, and a hole over each breast. A small
sharpened stick is thrust through each. A shield is hung on the back.
Long cords were fastened to those on the breast, the ends of which were
tied fast, high up to the center pole. The purchaser goes up to the
pole, embraces it, and cries for a time. Then he backs off, and dancing,
throws his weight on the ropes. The transferrer jerks the shield from
his shoulders and if necessary, assists him in tearing loose. At once,
the purchaser goes out into the hills and sleeps in different places to
receive power.
It is said that all who take this ceremony die in a few years, because
it is equivalent to giving one's self to the sun. Hence, the sun takes
them for his own.
The cutting was similar to that described by Catlin and other writers as
observed elsewhere. Some informants say the dancers held whistles in
their mouths and gazed at the sun as they danced. When all the thongs
were torn out, some of the lacerated flesh was cut off as an offering to
the sun.
McLean reports the following observations upon this ceremony at a Blood
sun dance:--
... The chief attraction to the pale-face is what has been
ignorantly termed "making braves." I desired very much to see this
ceremony _once_, that I might know the facts from personal
observation, and draw my own conclusions after conversing with the
Indians.
Two young men having their whole bodies painted, wearing the
loin-cloth only, and with wreaths of leaves around their heads,
ankles and wrists, stepped into the center of the lodge. A blanket
and a pillow were laid on the ground, and one of the young men
stretched himself upon them. As he lay, an old man came forward and
stood over him and then in an earnest speech told the people of the
brave deeds, and noble heart of the young man. In the enumeration of
his virtues and noble deeds, after each separate statement the
musicians beat applause. When the aged orator ceased, the young man
arose, placed his hands upon the old man's shoulders, and drew them
downward, as a sign of gratitude for the favorable things said about
him. He lay down, and four men held him while a fifth made the
incisions in his breast and back. Two places were marked in each
breast denoting the position and width of each incision. This being
done, the wooden skewers being in readiness, a double edged knife
was held in the hand, the point touching the flesh, a small piece of
wood was placed on the under side to receive the point of the knife
when it had gone through, and the flesh was drawn out the desired
length for the knife to pierce. A quick pressure and the incision
was made, the piece of wood was removed, and the skewer inserted
from the under-side as the knife was being taken out. When the
skewer was properly inserted, it was beaten down with the palm of
the hand of the operator, that it might remain firmly in its place.
This being done to each breast, with a single skewer for each,
strong enough to tear away the flesh, and long enough to hold the
lariats fastened to the top of the sacred pole, a double incision
was made on the back of the left shoulder, to the skewer of which
was fastened an Indian drum. The work being pronounced good by the
persons engaged in the operation, the young man arose, and one of
the operators fastened the lariats giving them two or three jerks to
bring them into position.
The young man went up to the sacred pole, and while his countenance
was exceedingly pale, and his frame trembling with emotion, threw
his arms around it, and prayed earnestly for strength to pass
successfully through the trying ordeal. His prayer ended he moved
backward until the flesh was fully extended, and placing a small
bone whistle in his mouth, he blew continuously upon it a series of
short sharp sounds, while he threw himself backward, and danced
until the flesh gave way and he fell. Previous to his tearing
himself free from the lariats, he seized the drum with both hands
and with a sudden pull tore the flesh on his back, dashing the drum
to the ground amid the applause of the people. As he lay on the
ground, the operators examined his wounds, cut off the flesh that
was hanging loosely, and the ceremony was at an end. In former years
the head of a buffalo was fastened by a rope on the back of the
person undergoing the feat of self-immolation, but now a drum is
used for that purpose.
From two to five persons undergo this torture every Sun-Dance. Its
object is military and religious. It admits the young man into the
noble band of warriors, whereby he gains the esteem of his fellows,
and opens up the path to fortune and fame. But it is chiefly a
religious rite. In a time of sickness, or danger, or in starting
upon some dangerous expedition, the young man prays to Natos for
help, and promises to give himself to Natos if his prayers are
answered. Upon his return, when the Annual Sun-Dance is held, he
fulfills his vow, gives himself to his god, and thus performs a
twofold duty. Of course the applause of the people and the
exhibition of courage are important factors in this rite, but its
chief feature is a religious one. Instead of being a time of
feasting and pleasure, the Sun-Dance is a military and religious
festival, in connection with which there are occasions for joy, and
the feast enhances the pleasure.[16]
It may be well to note that the offering of bits of flesh to the sun was
a general practice not necessarily associated with the sun dance. Many
comparatively young men now living (1904) bear numerous scars testifying
to such offerings. When in perilous situations a finger would sometimes
be struck off with a call upon the sun for help. Among the Blood, such
sacrifice of a finger by women as well as men was common at the sun
dance.[17] These facts concerning the more general practice of
mutilating the body to win the approval of the sun suggest that if the
cutting ceremony is intrusive, it either found on hand a series of
analogous customs or brought with it a concept that afterwards gave
birth to them. It may be observed that the form of costume and dance is
strikingly like that employed by the present weather dancers.
Since there seems to be no good published data on the sacrificing of
skin and fingers we append the narrative of Split-ears:--
Sometimes, when warriors are on an expedition and come in sight of
the enemy they will sit in a circle while the leader, or the oldest
member of the party, offers prayers that they may succeed in their
undertaking. Then they proceed to offer bits of their own skin to
the sun. The one who prayed sits down by one of the party, takes up
a needle or bodkin and a knife, thrusts the former under a small
section of skin and raising it, cuts off a small slice with a knife.
This leaves a circular wound a quarter of an inch or less in
diameter. It is understood that the operator pulls the skin up with
the needle and slices off a small section underneath that
instrument. He then takes up some black paint and dips the bit of
skin into it. Then he holds it up to the sun and prays for the
success of his victim. The bit of skin is then placed upon a piece
of cloth and another is removed from the victim in the same manner
and so the operator goes to each of the party in turn, each time
removing a piece of skin, dipping it in black paint, and holding it
up in a prayer to the sun. While each person is expected to give two
pieces, they are not limited to the maximum number, some men giving
four and some still more. The bits of skin thus collected are tied
up in one corner of the cloth which is mounted upon a stick wrapped
with wild sage, the whole being fastened in a tree or set up on the
top of a high hill as the sun's offering. This sacrifice is always
spoken of as feeding the sun with flesh from one's own body. The
cloth is fastened to the stick in the form of a flag or banner so
that it waves in the wind with the flesh offerings tied in one
corner. This sacrifice is considered one of the greatest a man can
make.
Now, as I have said, some men only give two small pieces of skin,
while others give a great many more, but as they do this each time
they go on an expedition, it so happens that a man who made many war
expeditions has many small scars on his arms and legs. Thus, we can
still tell those of our old men who went upon the warpath many times
in their youth. We can tell by the scars made from feeding the sun
their own flesh. But, again, it so happens that men while at home
may have dreams in which they are commanded to feed the sun. Now it
is believed that unless a man heeds such a command, he is certain to
be visited by misfortune or even death, so he always makes haste to
comply with the command. After such a dream he makes a sweathouse
and invites in an old man who prays and makes the offering. The
procedure here is the same as previously described and the offering
is made into a banner and placed in a tree or upon a hill. Then
again, the men who are at home in the camp but who have relatives in
a war party may so wish for the safety of these that they themselves
offer bits of skin in their behalf. Thus, you see, there are many
times when people will offer bits of skin, so that it was not
uncommon for a man to have one hundred or more scars upon his body.
These are generally arranged in rows up and down the arms, down the
legs, down the breasts and the back. I have even heard of cases
where a man is said to have offered one hundred pieces of skin at
one time. This, however, was unusual.
[Illustration: Fig. 1. The Offering of Human Flesh. The bits of
flesh are tied in the corner of the banner. Drawn from a native
sketch.]
Sometimes, instead of offering skin, the warrior would offer a
finger. Thus, if beset by very great danger on the warpath a man may
make a vow to the sun stating that if brought home safely he will
sacrifice a finger. This sacrifice can be made at any time; either
when on the warpath or when at home in camp or at the sun dance. In
such cases, the finger is offered to the sun in the precise manner
as the pieces of skin described above.
There are, however, occasions upon which fingers are cut off that
are not offerings to the sun. Thus, people who are in mourning
sometimes sacrifice a finger. In those cases it is usual to call
upon some old woman who is skilled in the amputation. She cuts off
the finger, usually reciting a kind of ritual, but it is not offered
to the sun. It is simply thrown away. Then again babies' fingers are
sometimes cut off to give the child good luck. Thus, if a woman lost
many children she would call upon an old woman to make the sacrifice
for her newly born. In this case, the tip end of a finger is cut off
and wrapped up in a piece of meat which the mother is required to
swallow. This is supposed to insure the child's living to maturity.
It had no connection with the sun.
I have told you how men are called upon to cut off pieces of skin
and how certain old women were selected to amputate fingers. You
should also know that in olden times there were some women and men
who might be called upon to cut open dead persons for various
reasons. Sometimes they did this on their own account in order to
get information as to the cause of death.
These accounts show for one thing that the cutting ceremony in the sun
dance is but one of a type of blood and flesh offerings made to the sun,
in fulfillment of a vow. The sacrifice of a finger is more frequent and
less specialized, though frequently done at the sun dance. Then comes
the very frequent offering of bits of skin, a sacrifice common in war
raids at all times. The offering of bits of skin in the precise manner
described here is found elsewhere in the Plains. The writer has observed
men so scarred among several divisions of the Dakota. The method of
removing the skin was here the same as followed by the Blackfoot. The
thrusting in of the awl has a curious similarity to the cutting and
skewering in the sun dance; one may even be pardoned for wondering if it
did not so arise.
FOOTNOTES:
[16] McLean, John, "The Blackfoot Sun Dance" (_Proceedings of the
Canadian Institute_, third series, vol. 6, Toronto, 1888), 235-237.
[17] McLean, as an eye-witness to such a sacrifice, gives the
following:--
"As I stood outside the lodge, a young Indian friend of mine, went to
an old medicine-woman and presented his sacrifice to Natos. During the
year he had gone on a horse-stealing expedition and as is customary on
such occasions had prayed to Natos for protection and success,
offering himself to his god if his prayers were answered. He had been
successful and he now presented himself as a sacrifice. The old woman
took his hand held it toward the Sun and prayed, then laying a finger
on a block of wood she severed it with one blow from a knife and
deer's horn scraper. She held the portion of the finger cut off toward
the Sun and dedicated that to him as the young man's sacrifice." (p.
235.)
SUN DANCE SONGS.
Two songs have a special place in the ceremony. They are sung by the men
as they ride into camp with the willows for the hundred-willow
sweathouse. They are sung again when the procession of pole raisers
moves up to raise the sun pole. Formerly, they were sung by any
considerable body of the tribe approaching the camp of strange Indians.
Likewise, when they approached a post to open trade.[18]
Red-plume, a Piegan, has a smudge stick on which are notches said to
represent the number of different songs used in the ceremonies of the
medicine woman. There are 413 which is said to be the full number of
songs. These, as has been stated in Volume 7, are in reality a part of
the beaver bundle ritual.
The singing at the dancing ceremonies after the sun lodge has been
erected is usually confined to the songs of various societies concerned.
There are, however, a few with characteristic airs that are regarded as
peculiarly appropriate to the occasion, regardless of who may be
dancing.
FOOTNOTES:
[18] For musical notation see McClintock, Walter, _The Old North
Trail, or Life, Legends and Religion of the Blackfoot Indians_
(London, 1910), 311.
THE SUN DANCE CAMP.
In a previous paper, we called attention to the belief that the camp
circle was formed expressly for the sun dance. Our informants say that
formerly the circle was formed by the assemblage of the bands some time
before the medicine woman began her fast. In winter, the tribes
scattered out, usually two to five bands in a camp, often many miles
apart. At the approach of summer, the husband of a woman having made a
vow to give the sun dance sends a man to look up the camps and invite
them to join his band. He carries tobacco and presents some to each head
man with the invitation. As the head men receive the invitation, they
order their bands to move, forming the circle at the medicine woman's
camp. Once formed, the circle is not broken until after the sun dance, a
period estimated at from two to four months. The whole body may move
about and even make long journeys aside from the four ceremonial moves
required while the medicine woman is fasting. After the sun dance, they
split up into parties for the fall hunt and finally went into winter
quarters. The import of our former statement is thus apparent. The
suggestion is that the camp circle is intimately associated with the sun
dance. At least, one point is clear, the camp circle is initiated by the
woman who starts the sun dance and even so is one of the preparatory
steps.
As previously stated in Volume 7 of this series, there is much
uncertainty as to the order of bands in the circle. We doubt if it ever
was absolutely fixed beyond change at the will of those in charge of the
sun dance proceedings.
MYTHOLOGICAL NOTES.
The way that several distinct myths are used to account for different
features of the sun dance might be taken as a suggestion that the
ceremony grew up among the Blackfoot. We suspect, however, that we have
here an example of pattern phenomena. Those familiar with the detailed
study of rituals in Volume 7 will recall that tradition recognized the
obvious fact that rituals were not produced all at once, but grew by
accretions. This is so marked in the mythical accounts of ritual origin
that we may suspect its appearance in the mythology of the sun dance. On
page 241 we have enumerated the myths accounting for important features
of the ceremony. Among these are not included the parts taken by
societies or the cutting sacrifices, they, as we have stated, not being
regarded as integral parts of the sun dance.
For the sake of completeness we offer some extracts from an unpublished
version of the Scar-face myth:--
We will take up this narrative at the point where Scar Face has killed
the cranes and reported with their scalps. We are told that had not Scar
Face killed these birds, they would always have killed people, but that
since he overpowered them they now fear people and have done so ever
since.
Now, the Sun, the Moon, Scar Face, and Morningstar had a scalp dance
while the Sun and Moon sang the praise songs in honor of Scar Face.
The Sun addressed Scar Face: "When your people kill enemies they
should scalp them and then give a scalp dance. Whenever anyone
counts coup or recounts his war experiences, the praise songs should
be sung." We have followed this custom ever since. Whenever anyone
related his war deeds, some old men or old woman sang the praise
songs, repeating the narrator's name during the singing.
The Sun was pleased with Scar Face. He directed Morningstar and Scar
Face to build four sweathouses, standing side by side, with their
entrances facing east. When they were completed, the Sun,
Morningstar, and Scar Face entered one of them, the Moon remaining
outside to close the door. After the Sun had worked over Scar Face,
he ordered the moon to open the door and they went into the next
sweathouse, again choosing the moon to be the door attendant. Now,
the Sun asked the Moon to point out her son. The Moon designated
Morningstar. They moved into the third sweathouse where the Sun had
Morningstar and Scar Face exchange seats. Again, the Moon was asked
to pick out her son. Though she noticed that the scar on the young
man's face had disappeared, she pointed to her own son. They
proceeded to the fourth sweathouse. Again, the Sun had the two men
exchange places. The Moon looked in and pointing to Scar Face said,
"This is Morningstar." The Sun replied, "You have mistaken him for
Morningstar, the other is our son." Ever since that time, Scar Face
has always been called Mistaken Morningstar.
Then the Sun gave Scar Face a buckskin suit decorated with porcupine
quills. On the breast and back of the shirt were quill-worked
rosettes representing the sun; the side seams of the leggings and
sleeves were covered with strips of quillwork three or four inches
wide. In addition, the sleeves and leggings bore hair fringes
representing the scalps of cranes killed by Scar Face. The Sun also
gave Scar Face a bow with a lock of hair fastened to one end, a
whistle made of a hollow reed, a bladder, and the robe worn by Scar
Face. To represent the scalping, the Sun painted the upper part
black. The whistle and the bladder were to be used on the woman who
had refused Scar Face. The bow too, is a reminder of the killing of
the cranes and is still used in the sun dance lodge. The Sun gave
Scar Face a circle of creeping juniper which the women that build
the lodge (the sun dance or medicine lodge) are to wear on their
heads.
The Sun told Scar Face of the sun dance, the lodge, and the
sweathouse, and added, "When you return to your people and wish to
make an offering to me, you must first build a sweathouse and there
make your offerings. Then I will hear your prayers and accept them.
You may also make offerings to me in the sun dance lodge." He
covered Scar Face's face with the "seventh" or red paint, drew a
black circle around his face and a black dot on the bridge of his
nose, and a streak of black around each wrist. He said to Scar Face,
"This is the way the people must paint when they make offerings to
me in the sun dance lodge. For the victory or scalp dance they must
paint their faces black." The Sun also gave him a necklace, in the
center of which were strung two small shells and a pendent lock of
hair, flanked on either side by four beads. This is the necklace
worn by the husband of the woman owning the natoas. The Sun's lodge
was made of white buffalo robes and some the color of beaver skins.
The door of the Sun's lodge faced the east. For this reason, tipis
were always turned so the doors faced east. Now Scar Face decided to
return to the place where Spider waited.
The narrative then proceeds in the usual way, except that the hero
calls all the men of the camp to take revenge on the young woman
after which he by magic turns her into a cripple.
THE BLOOD AND NORTH BLACKFOOT.
The writer has upon two occasions seen the ground where a Blood sun
dance had been held. The dancing lodge, the sweathouse, etc., were still
standing and all these were just as noted among the Piegan. The Blood
lodge was a little larger, but the Piegan said that it was formerly so
with them, they now having very poor timber to work with. We have in
addition two brief published accounts of eyewitnesses.[19] The chief
difference we could detect was in the secondary dances of the society
where the Horns and the Matoki[20] took a very prominent part. As there
are now no such organizations among the Piegan, this gives merely an
outward appearance of difference.