FOOTNOTES:

[1] The positions of the _House of Fame_ and _Palamon and Arcyte_

are still matters of controversy.

[2] The French influences on this Prologue, its connexion with the

Flower and the Leaf controversy, and the priority of what had

previously been reckoned as the second or "B" form of the Prologue

over the "A," were demonstrated in papers by Prof. Kittredge on

"Chaucer and some of his Friends" in _Modern Philology_, vol. i.

(Chicago, 1903), and by Mr J. L. Lowes on "The Prologue to the

Legend of Good Women" in _Publications of the Modern Language

Association of America_, vol. xix., December 1904.

[3] The Talks on the Road show clearly that only one Priest in

attendance on the Prioress, and two tales to each narrator, were

originally contemplated, but the "Prestes _thre_" in line 164 of the

Prologue, and the bald couplet (line 793 sq.) explaining that each

pilgrim was to tell two tales _each way_, were probably both

alterations made by Chaucer in moments of amazing hopefulness. The

journey was reckoned a 3-1/2 days' ride, and eight or nine tales a day

would surely have been a sufficient allowance.

[4] The absence of these links necessitates the division of the

_Canterbury Tales_ into nine groups, to which, for purposes of

quotation, the letters A to I have been assigned, the line

numeration of the Tales in each group being continuous.

CHAUDESAIGUES, a village of central France, in the department of Cantal,

at the foot of the mountains of Aubrac, 19 m. S.S.W. of St Flour by

road. Pop. (1906) town, 937; commune, 1558. It is celebrated for its hot

mineral springs, which vary in temperature from 135 deg. to 177 deg.

Fahr., and at their maximum rank as the hottest in France. The water,

which contains bicarbonate of soda, is employed not only medicinally

(for rheumatism, &c.), but also for the washing of fleeces, the

incubation of eggs, and various other economic purposes; and it

furnishes a ready means of heating the houses of the town during winter.

In the immediate neighbourhood is the cold chalybeate spring of

Condamine. The warm springs were known to the Romans, and are mentioned

by Sidonius Apollinaris.

CHAUFFEUR (from Fr. _chauffer_), to heat, a term primarily used in French

of a man in charge of a forge or furnace, and so of a stoker on a

locomotive or in a steamship, but in its anglicized sense more

particularly confined to a professional driver of a motor vehicle. (See

also BRIGANDAGE.)

CHAULIEU, GUILLAUME AMFRYE DE (1639-1720), French poet and wit, was born

at Fontenay, Normandy, in 1639. His father, _maitre des comptes_ of

Rouen, sent him to study at the College de Navarre. Guillaume early

showed the wit that was to distinguish him, and gained the favour of the

duke of Vendome, who procured for him the abbey of Aumale and other

benefices. Louis Joseph, duke of Vendome, and his brother Philippe,

grand prior of the Knights of Malta in France, at that time had a joint

establishment at the Temple, where they gathered round them a very gay

and reckless circle. Chaulieu became the constant companion and adviser

of the two princes. He made an expedition to Poland in the suite of the

marquis de Bethune, hoping to make a career for himself in the court of

John Sobieski; he saw one of the Polish king's campaigns in Ukraine, but

returned to Paris without securing any advancement. Saint-Simon says

that the abbe helped his patron the grand prior to rob the duke of

Vendome, and that the king sent orders that the princes should take the

management of their affairs from him. This account has been questioned

by Sainte-Beuve, who regards Saint-Simon as a prejudiced witness. In his

later years Chaulieu spent much time at the little court of the duchesse

du Maine at Sceaux. There he became the trusted and devoted friend of

Mdlle Delaunay, with whom he carried on an interesting correspondence.

Among his poems the best known are "Fontenay" and "La Retraite."

Chaulieu died on the 27th of June 1720.

His works were edited with those of his friend the marquis de la Fare

in 1714, 1750 and 1774. See also C.A. Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du

lundi_, vol. i.; and _Lettres inedites_ (1850), with a notice by

Raymond, marquis de Berenger.

CHAUMETTE, PIERRE GASPARD (1763-1794), French revolutionist, was born at

Nevers. Until the Revolution he lived a somewhat wandering life,

interesting himself particularly in botany. He was a student of medicine

at Paris in 1790, became one of the orators of the club of the

Cordeliers, and contributed anonymously to the _Revolutions de Paris_.

As member of the insurrectionary Commune of the 10th of August 1792, he

was delegated to visit the prisons, with full power to arrest suspects.

He was accused later of having taken part in the massacres of September,

but was able to prove that at that time he had been sent by the

provisional executive council to Normandy to oversee a requisition of

60,000 men. Returning from this mission, he pronounced an eloquent

discourse in favour of the republic. His simple manners, easy speech,

ardent temperament and irreproachable private life gave him great

influence in Paris, and he was elected president of the Commune,

defending the municipality in that capacity at the bar of the Convention

on the 31st of October 1792. Re-elected in the municipal elections of

the 2nd of December 1792, he was soon charged with the functions of

procurator of the Commune, and contributed with success to the

enrolments of volunteers by his appeals to the populace. Chaumette was

one of the ringleaders in the attacks of the 31st of May and of the 2nd

of June 1793 on the Girondists, toward whom he showed himself

relentless. He demanded the formation of a revolutionary army, and

preached the extermination of all traitors. He was one of the promoters

of the worship of Reason, and on the 10th of November 1793 he presented

the goddess to the Convention in the guise of an actress. On the 23rd of

the same month he obtained a decree closing all the churches of Paris,

and placing the priests under strict surveillance; but on the 25th he

retraced his steps and obtained from the Commune the free exercise of

worship. He wished to save the Hebertists by a new insurrection and

struggled against Robespierre; but a revolutionary decree promulgated by

the Commune on his demand was overthrown by the Convention. Robespierre

had him accused with the Hebertists; he was arrested, imprisoned in the

Luxembourg, condemned by the Revolutionary tribunal and executed on the

13th of April 1794. Chaumette's career had its brighter side. He was an

ardent social reformer; he secured the abolition of corporal punishment

in the schools, the suppression of lotteries, of houses of ill-fame and

of obscene literature; he instituted reforms in the hospitals, and

insisted on the honours of public burial for the poor.

Chaumette left some printed speeches and fragments, and memoirs

published in the _Amateur d'autographes_. His memoirs on the 10th of

August were published by F.A. Aulard, preceded by a biographical

study.

CHAUMONT-EN-BASSIGNY, a town of eastern France, capital of the

department of Haute-Marne, a railway junction 163 m. E.S.E. of Paris on

the main line of the Eastern railway to Belfort. Pop. (1906) 12,089.

Chaumont is picturesquely situated on an eminence between the rivers

Marne and Suize in the angle formed by their confluence. To the west a

lofty viaduct over the Suize carries the railway. The church of

St-Jean-Baptiste dates from the 13th century, the choir and lateral

chapels belonging to the 15th and 16th. In the interior the sculptured

triforium (15th century), the spiral staircase in the transept and a

Holy Sepulchre are of interest. The lycee and the hospital have chapels

of the 17th and 16th centuries respectively. The Tour Hautefeuille (a

keep of the 11th century) is the principal relic of a chateau of the

counts of Champagne; the rest of the site is occupied by the law courts.

In the Place de l'Escargot stands a statue of the chemist Philippe Lebon

(1767-1804), born in Haute-Marne. Chaumont is the seat of a prefect and

of a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and of

commerce, a lycee, training colleges, and a branch of the Bank of

France. The main industries are glove-making and leather-dressing. The

town has trade in grain, iron, mined in the vicinity, and leather. In

1190 it received a charter from the counts of Champagne. It was here

that in 1814 Great Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia concluded the

treaty (dated March 1, signed March 9) by which they severally bound

themselves not to conclude a separate peace with Napoleon, and to

continue the war until France should have been reduced within the

boundaries of 1792.

CHAUNCEY, ISAAC (1772-1840), American naval commander, was born at Black

Rock, Connecticut, on the 20th of February 1772. He was brought up in

the merchant service, and entered the United States navy as a lieutenant

in 1798. His first services were rendered against the Barbary pirates.

During these operations, more especially at Tripoli, he greatly

distinguished himself, and was voted by Congress a sword of honour,

which, however, does not appear to have been given him. The most active

period of his life is that of his command on the Lakes during the War

of 1812. He took the command at Sackett's Harbor on Lake Ontario in

October 1812. There was at that time only one American vessel, the brig

"Oneida" (16), and one armed prize, a schooner, on the lake. But

Commodore Chauncey brought from 400 to 500 officers and men with him,

and local resources for building being abundant, he had by November

formed a squadron of ten vessels, with which he attacked the Canadian

port, York, taking it in April 1813, capturing one vessel and causing

the destruction of another then building. He returned to Sackett's

Harbor. In May Sir James Lucas Yeo (1732-1818) came out from England

with some 500 officers and men, to organize a squadron for service on

the Lakes. By the end of the month he was ready for service with a

squadron of eight ships and brigs, and some small craft. The governor,

Sir G. Prevost, gave him no serious support. On the 29th of May, during

Chauncey's absence at Niagara, the Americans were attacked at Sackett's

Harbor and would have been defeated if Prevost had not insisted on a

retreat at the very moment when the American shipbuilding yard was in

danger of being burnt, with a ship of more than eight hundred tons on

the stocks. The retreat of the British force gave Chauncey time to

complete this vessel, the "General Pike," which was so far superior to

anything under Yeo's command that she was said to be equal in effective

strength to the whole of the British flotilla. The American commodore

was considered by many of his subordinates to have displayed excessive

caution. In August he skirmished with Sir James Yeo's small squadron of

six vessels, but made little effective use of his own fourteen. Two of

his schooners were upset in a squall, with the loss of all hands, and he

allowed two to be cut off by Yeo. Commodore Chauncey showed a preference

for relying on his long guns, and a disinclination to come to close

quarters. He was described as chasing the British squadron all round the

lake, but his encounters did not go beyond artillery duels at long

range, and he allowed his enemy to continue in existence long after he

might have been destroyed. The winter suspended operations, and both

sides made exertions to increase their forces. The Americans had the

advantage of commanding greater resources for shipbuilding. Sir James

Yeo began by blockading Sackett's Harbor in the early part of 1814, but

when the American squadron was ready he was compelled to retire by the

disparity of the forces. The American commodore was now able to blockade

the British flotilla at Kingston. When the cruising season of the lake

was nearly over he in his turn retired to Sackett's Harbor, and did not

leave it for the rest of the war. During his later years he served as

commissioner of the navy, and was president of the board of naval

commissioners from 1833 till his death at Washington on the 27th of

February 1840.

See Roosevelt's _War of 1812_ (1882); and A. T. Mahan, _Sea-Power in

its Relations to the War of 1812_ (1905).

CHAUNCY, CHARLES-(1592-1672), president of Harvard College, was born at

Yardley-Bury, Hertfordshire, England, in November 1592, and was educated

at Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow. He was in

turn vicar at Ware, Hertfordshire (1627-1633), and at Marston St

Lawrence, Northamptonshire (1633-1637). Refusing to observe the

ecclesiastical regulations of Archbishop Laud, he was brought before the

court of high commission in 1629, and again in 1634, when, for opposing

the placing of a rail around the communion table, he was suspended and

imprisoned. His formal recantation in February 1637 caused him lasting

self-reproach and humiliation. In 1637 he emigrated to America, and from

1638 until 1641 was an associate pastor at Plymouth, where, however, his

advocacy of the baptism of infants by immersion caused dissatisfaction.

He was the pastor at Scituate, Massachusetts, from 1641 until 1654, and

from 1654 until his death was president of Harvard College, as the

successor of the first president Henry Dunster (c. 1612-1659). He died

on the 19th of February 1672. By his sermons and his writings he exerted

a great influence in colonial Massachusetts, and according to Mather was

"a most incomparable scholar." His writings include: _The Plain Doctrine

of the Justification of a Sinner in the Sight of God_ (1659) and

_Antisynodalia Scripta Americana_ (1662). His son, Isaac Chauncy

(1632-1712), who removed to England, was a voluminous writer on

theological subjects.

There are biographical sketches of President Chauncy in Cotton

Mather's _Magnalia Christi Americana_. (London, 1702), and in W.C.

Fowler's _Memorials of the Chauncys, including President Chauncy_

(Boston, 1858).

President Chauncy's great-grandson, CHARLES CHAUNCY (1705-1787), a

prominent American theologian, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the

1st of January 1705, and graduated at Harvard in 1721. In 1727 he was

chosen as the colleague of Thomas Foxcroft (1697-1769) in the pastorate

of the First Church of Boston, continuing as pastor of this church until

his death. At the time of the "Great Awakening" of 1740-1743 and

afterwards, Chauncy was the leader of the so-called "Old Light" party in

New England, which strongly condemned the Whitefieldian revival as an

outbreak of emotional extravagance. His views were ably presented in his

sermon _Enthusiasm_ and in his _Seasonable Thoughts on the State of

Religion in New England_ (1743), written in answer to Jonathan Edwards's

_Some Thoughts Concerning the Present Revival of Religion in New

England_ (1742). He also took a leading part in opposition to the

projected establishment of an Anglican Episcopate in America, and before

and during the American War of Independence he ardently supported the

whig or patriot party. Theologically he has been classed as a precursor

of the New England Unitarians. He died in Boston on the 10th of February

1787. His publications include: _Compleat View of Episcopacy, as

Exhibited in the Fathers of the Christian Church, until the close of the

Second Century_ (1771); _Salvation of All Men, Illustrated and

Vindicated as a Scripture Doctrine_ (1782); _The Mystery Hid from Ages

and Generations made manifest by the Gospel-Revelation_ (1783); and

_Five Dissertations on the Fall and its Consequences_ (1785).

See P.L. Ford's privately printed _Bibliotheca Chaunciana_ (Brooklyn,

N.Y., 1884); and Williston Walker's _Ten New England Leaders_ (New

York, 1901).

CHAUNY, a town of northern France in the department of Aisne, 19 m. S.

by W. of St Quentin by rail. Pop. (1906) 10,127. The town is situated on

the Oise (which here becomes navigable) and at the junction of the canal

of St Quentin with the lateral canal of the Oise, and carries on an

active trade. It contains mirror-polishing works, subsidiary to the

mirror-works of St Gobain, chemical works, sugar manufactories, metal

foundries and breweries. Chauny was the scene of much fighting in the

Hundred Years' War.

CHAUTAUQUA, a village on the west shore of Chautauqua Lake in the town

of Chautauqua, Chautauqua county, New York, U.S.A. Pop. of the town

(1900), 3590; (1905) 3505; (1910) 3515; of the village (1908) about 750.

The lake is a beautiful body of water over 1300 ft. above sea-level, 20

m. long, and from a few hundred yards to 3 m. in width. The town of

Chautauqua is situated near the north end and is within easy reach by

steamboat and electric car connexions with the main railways between the

east and the west. The town is known almost solely as being the

permanent home of the Chautauqua Institution, a system of popular

education founded in 1874 by Lewis Miller (1829-1899) of Akron, Ohio,

and Bishop John H. Vincent (b. 1832). The village, covering about three

hundred acres of land, is carefully laid out to provide for the work of

the Institution.

The Chautauqua Institution began as a Sunday-School Normal Institute,

and for nearly a quarter of a century the administration was in the

hands of Mr Miller, who was responsible for the business management, and

Bishop Vincent, who was head of the instruction department. Though

founded by Methodists, in its earliest years it became non-sectarian and

has furnished a meeting-ground for members of all sects and

denominations. At the very outset the activities of the assembly were

twofold: (1) the conducting of a summer school for Sunday-school

teachers, and (2) the presentation of a series of correlated lectures

and entertainments. Although the movement was and still is primarily

religious, it has always been assumed that the best religious education

must necessarily take advantage of the best that the educational world

can afford in the literatures, arts and sciences. The scope of the plan

rapidly broadened, and in 1879 a regular group of schools with graded

courses of study was established. At about the same time, also, the

Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, providing a continuous

home-reading system, was founded. The season lasts during June, July and

August. In 1907 some 325 lectures, concerts, readings and entertainments

were presented by a group of over 190 lecturers, readers and musicians,

while at the same time 200 courses in the summer schools were offered by

a faculty of instructors drawn from the leading colleges and normal

schools of the country.

The Chautauqua movement has had an immense influence on education in the

United States, an influence which is especially marked in three

directions: (1) in the establishment of about 300 local assemblies or

"Chautauquas" in the United States patterned after the mother

Chautauqua; (2) in the promotion of the idea of summer education, which

has been followed by the founding of summer schools or sessions at a

large number of American universities, and of various special summer

schools, such as the Catholic Summer School of America, with

headquarters at Cliff Haven, Clinton county, New York, and the Jewish

Chautauqua Society, with headquarters at Buffalo, N.Y.; and (3) in the

establishment of numerous correspondence schools patterned in a general

way after the system provided by the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific

Circle.

See John Heyl Vincent, _The Chautauqua Movement_ (Boston, 1886), and

Frank C. Bray, _A Reading Journey through Chautauqua_ (Chicago, 1905).

CHAUVELIN, BERNARD FRANCOIS, MARQUIS DE (1766-1832), French diplomatist

and administrator. Though master of the king's wardrobe in 1789, he

joined in the Revolution. He served in the army of Flanders, and then

was sent to London in February 1792, to induce England to remain neutral

in the war which was about to break out between France and "the king of

Bohemia and Hungary." He was well received at first, but after the 10th

of August 1792 he was no longer officially recognized at court, and on

the execution of Louis XVI. (21st of January 1793) he was given eight

days to leave England. After an unsuccessful embassy in Tuscany, he was

imprisoned as a suspect during the Terror, but freed after the 9th

Thermidor. Under Napoleon he became a member of the council of state,

and from 1812 to 1814 he governed Catalonia under the title of

intendant-general, being charged to win over the Catalonians to King

Joseph Bonaparte. He remained in private life during the Restoration and

the Hundred Days. In 1816 he was elected deputy, and spoke in favour of

liberty of the press and extension of the franchise. Though he was again

deputy in 1827 he played no part in public affairs, and resigned in

1829.

See G. Pallain, _La Mission de Talleyrand a Londres en 1792_ (Paris,

1889).

CHAUVIGNY, a town of western France, in the department of Vienne, 20 m.

E. of Poitiers by rail. Pop. (1906) 2326. The town is finely situated

overlooking the Vienne and a small torrent, and has two interesting

Romanesque churches, both restored in modern times. There are also ruins

of a chateau of the bishops of Poitiers, and of other strongholds. Near

Chauvigny is the curious bone-cavern of Jioux, the entrance to which is

fortified by large blocks of stone. The town carries on lime-burning and

plaster-manufacture, and there are stone quarries in the vicinity. Trade

is in wool and feathers.

CHAUVIN, ETIENNE (1640-1725), French Protestant divine, was born at

Nimes on the 18th of April 1640. At the revocation of the Edict of

Nantes he retired to Rotterdam, where he was for some years preacher at

the Walloon church; in 1695 the elector of Brandenburg appointed him

pastor and professor of philosophy, and later inspector of the French

college at Berlin, where he enjoyed considerable reputation as a

representative of Cartesianism and as a student of physics. His

principal work is a laborious _Lexicon Rationale, sive Thesaurus

Philosophicus_ (Rotterdam, 1692; new and enlarged edition, Leuwarden,

1713). He also wrote _Theses de Cognitione Dei_ (1662), and started the

_Nouveau Journal des Savans_ (1694-1698).

See E. and E. Haag, _La France Protestante_, vol. iv. (1884).

CHAUVINISM, a term for unreasonable and exaggerated patriotism, the

French equivalent of "Jingoism." The word originally signified idolatry

of Napoleon, being taken from a much-wounded veteran, Nicholas Chauvin,

who, by his adoration of the emperor, became the type of blind

enthusiasm for national military glory.

CHAUX DE FONDS, LA, a large industrial town in the Swiss canton of

Neuchatel. It is about 19 m. by rail N. W. of Neuchatel, and stands at a

height of about 3255 ft. in a valley (5 m. long) of the same name in the

Jura. Pop. (1900) 35,968 (only 13,659 in 1850); (1905) 38,700, mainly

French-speaking and Protestants; of the 6114 "Catholics" the majority

are "Old Catholics." It is a centre of the watch-making industry,

especially of gold watch cases; about 70% of those manufactured in

Switzerland are turned out here. In 1900 it exported watches to the

value of nearly L3,000,000 sterling. There is a school of industrial art

(engraving and enamelling watch cases) and a school of watch-making

(including instruction in the manufacture of chronometers and other

scientific instruments of precision). It boasts of being _le plus gros

village de l'Europe_, and certainly has preserved some of the features

of a big village. Leopold Robert (1794-1835), the painter, was born

here. (W. A. B. C.).

CHAVES, a town of northern Portugal, in the district of Villa Real,

formerly included in the province of Traz os Montes; 8 m. S. of the

Spanish frontier, on the right bank of the river Tamega. Pop. (1900)

6388. Chaves is the ancient _Aquae Flaviae_, famous for its hot saline

springs, which are still in use. A fine Roman bridge of 18 arches spans

the Tamega. In the 16th century Chaves contained 20,000 inhabitants; it

was long one of the principal frontier fortresses, and in fact derives

its present name from the position which makes it the "keys," or

_chaves_, of the north. One of its churches contains the tomb of

Alphonso I. of Portugal (1139-1185). In 1830 the town gave the title of

marquess to Pinto da Fonseca, a leader of the Miguelite party.

CHAZELLES, JEAN MATHIEU DE (1657-1710), French hydrographer, was born at

Lyons on the 24th of July 1657. He was nominated professor of

hydrography at Marseilles in 1685, and in that capacity carried out

various coast surveys. In 1693 he was engaged to publish a second volume

of the _Neptune francais_, which was to include the hydrography of the

Mediterranean. For this purpose he visited the Levant and Egypt. When in

Egypt he measured the pyramids, and, finding that the angles formed by

the sides of the largest were in the direction of the four cardinal

points, he concluded that this position must have been intended, and

also that the poles of the earth and meridians had not deviated since

the erection of those structures. He was made a member of the Academy in

1695, and died in Paris on the 16th of January 1710.

CHEADLE, a town in the Altrincham parliamentary division of Cheshire,

England, 6 m. S. of Manchester, included in the urban district of

Cheadle and Gatley. Pop. (1901) 7916. This is one of the numerous

townships of modern growth which fringe the southern boundaries of

Manchester, and practically form suburbs of that city. Stockport lies

immediately to the east. The name occurs in the formerly separate

villages of Cheadle Hulme, Cheadle Bulkeley and Cheadle Moseley. There

are cotton printing and bleaching works in the locality. The parish

church of St Giles, Cheadle, is Perpendicular, containing an altar-tomb

of the 15th century for two knights.

CHEADLE, a market town in the Leek parliamentary division of

Staffordshire, England, 13 m. N.E. of Stafford, and the terminus of a

branch line from Cresswell on the North Staffordshire railway. Pop.

(1901) 5186. The Roman Catholic church of St Giles, with a lofty spire,

was designed by Pugin and erected in 1846. The interior is lavishly

decorated. There are considerable collieries in the neighbourhood, and

silk and tape works in the town. In the neighbouring Froghall district

limestone is quarried, and there are manufactures of copper. In Cheadle

two fairs of ancient origin are held annually.

CHEATING, "the fraudulently obtaining the property of another by any

deceitful practice not amounting to felony, which practice is of such a

nature that it directly affects, or may directly affect, the public at

large" (Stephen, _Digest of Criminal Law_, chap. xl. S367). Cheating is

either a common law or statutory offence, and is punishable as a

misdemeanour. An indictment for cheating at common law is of

comparatively rare occurrence, and the statutory crime usually presents

itself in the form of obtaining money by false pretences (q.v.). The

word "cheat" is a variant of "_escheat_," i.e. the reversion of land to

a lord of the fee through the failure of blood of the tenant. The

shortened form "cheater" for "escheator" is found early in the legal

sense, and _chetynge_ appears in the _Promptorium Parvulorum_, c. 1440,

as the equivalent of _confiscatio_. In the 16th century "cheat" occurs

in vocabularies of thieves and other slang, and in such works as the

_Use of Dice-Play_ (1532). It is frequent in Thomas Harman's _Caveat_ or

_Warening for ... Vagabones_ (1567), in the sense of "thing," with a

descriptive word attached, e.g. _smeling chete_ = nose. In the tract

_Mihil Mumchance, his Discoverie of the Art of Cheating_, doubtfully

attributed to Robert Greene (1560-1592), we find that gamesters call

themselves _cheaters_, "borrowing the term from the lawyers." The sense

development is obscure, but it would seem to be due to the extortionate

or fraudulent demands made by legal "escheators."

CHEBICHEV, PAFNUTIY LVOVICH (1821-1894), Russian mathematician, was born

at Borovsk on the 26th of May 1821. He was educated at the university of

Moscow, and in 1859 became professor of mathematics in the university of

St Petersburg, a position from which he retired in 1880. He was chosen a

correspondent of the Institute of France in 1860, and succeeded to the

high honour of _associe etranger_ in 1874. He was also a foreign member

of the Royal Society of London. After N.I. Lobachevskiy he probably

ranks as the most distinguished mathematician Russia has produced. In

1841 he published a valuable paper, "Sur la convergence de la serie de

Taylor," in _Crelle's Journal_. His best-known papers, however, deal

with prime numbers; in one of these ("Sur les nombres premiers," 1850)

he established the existence of limits within which must be comprised

the sum of the logarithms of the primes inferior to a given number.

Another question to which he devoted much attention was that of

obtaining rectilinear motion by linkage. The parallel motion known by

his name is a three-bar linkage, which gives a very close approximation

to exact rectilinear motion, but in spite of all his efforts he failed

to devise one that produced absolutely true rectilinear motion. At last,

indeed, he came to the conclusion that to do so was impossible, and in

that conviction set to work to find a rigorous proof of the

impossibility. While he was engaged on this task the desired linkage,

which moved the highest admiration of J.J. Sylvester, was discovered and

exhibited to him by one of his pupils, named Lipkin, who, however, it

was afterwards found, had been anticipated by A. Peaucellier. Chebichev

further constructed an instrument for drawing large circles, and an

arithmetical machine with continuous motion. His mathematical writings,

which account for some forty entries in the Royal Society's catalogue of

scientific papers, cover a wide range of subjects, such as the theory of

probabilities, quadratic forms, theory of integrals, gearings, the

construction of geographical maps, &c. He also published a _Traite de la

theorie des nombres_. He died at St Petersburg on the 8th of December

1894.

CHEBOYGAN, a city and the county-seat of Cheboygan county, Michigan,

U.S.A., on South Channel (between Lakes Michigan and Huron), at the

mouth of Cheboygan river, in the N. part of the lower peninsula. Pop.

(1890) 6235; (1900) 6489, of whom 2101 were foreign-born; (1904) 6730;

(1910) 6859. It is served by the Michigan Central and the Detroit &

Mackinac railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago, Milwaukee,

Detroit, Sault Ste Marie, Green Bay and other lake ports; and is

connected by ferry with Mackinac and Pointe aux Pins. During a great

part of the year small boats ply between Cheboygan and the head of

Crooked Lake, over the "Inland Route." Cheboygan is situated in a

fertile farming region, for which it is a trade centre, and it has

lumber mills, tanneries, paper mills, boiler works, and other

manufacturing establishments. The water-works are owned and operated by

the municipality. The city, at first called Duncan, then Inverness, and

finally Cheboygan, was settled in 1846, incorporated as a village in

1871, reincorporated in 1877, and chartered as a city in 1889.

CHECHENZES, TCHETCHEN, or KHISTS (_Kisti_), the last being the name by

which they are known to the Georgians, a people of the eastern Caucasus

occupying the whole of west Daghestan. They call themselves Nakhtche,

"people." A wild, fierce people, they fought desperately against Russian

aggression in the 18th century under Daud Beg and Oman Khan and Shamyl,

and in the 19th under Khazi-Mollah, and even now some are independent in

the mountain districts. On the surrender of the chieftain Shamyl to

Russia in 1859 numbers of them migrated into Armenia. In physique the

Chechenzes resemble the Circassians, and have the same haughtiness of

carriage. They are of a generous temperament, very hospitable, but quick

to revenge. They are fond of fine clothes, the women wearing rich robes

with wide, pink silk trousers, silver bracelets and yellow sandals.

Their houses, however, are mere hovels, some dug out of the ground,

others formed of boughs and stones. Before their subjection to Russia

they were remarkable for their independence of spirit and love of

freedom. Everybody was equal, and they had no slaves except prisoners of

war. Government in each commune was by popular assembly, and the

administration of justice was in the hands of the wronged. Murder and

robbery with violence could be expiated only by death, unless the

criminal allowed his hair to grow and the injured man consented to shave

it himself and take an oath of brotherhood on the Koran. Otherwise the

law of vendetta was fully carried out with curious details. The wronged

man, wrapped in a white woollen shroud, and carrying a coin to serve as

payment to a priest for saying the prayers for the dead, started out in

search of his enemy. When the offender was found he must fight to a

finish. A remarkable custom among one tribe is that if a betrothed man

or woman dies on the eve of her wedding, the marriage ceremony is still

performed, the dead being formally united to the living before

witnesses, the father, in case it is the girl who dies, never failing to

pay her dowry. The religion of the Chechenzes is Mahommedanism, mixed,

however, with Christian doctrines and observances. Three churches near

Kistin in honour of St George and the Virgin are visited as places of

pilgrimage, and rams are there offered as sacrifices. The Chechenzes

number upwards of 200,000. They speak a distinct language, of which

there are said to be twenty separate dialects.

See Ernest Chanter, _Recherches anthropologiques dans le Caucase_

(Lyon, 1885-1887); D.G. Brinton, _Races of Man_ (1890); Hutchinson,

_Living Races of Mankind_ (London, 1901).

CHECKERS, the name by which the game of draughts (q.v.) is known in

America. The origin of the name is the same as that of "chess" (q.v.).

CHEDDAR, a small town in the Wells parliamentary division of

Somersetshire, England, 22 m. S.W. of Bristol by a branch of the Great

Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1975. The town, with its Perpendicular

church and its picturesque market-cross, lies below the south-western

face of the Mendip Hills, which rise sharply from 600 to 800 ft. To the

west stretches the valley of the river Axe, broad, low and flat. A fine

gorge opening from the hills immediately upon the site of the town is

known as Cheddar cliffs from the sheer walls which flank it; the

contrast of its rocks and rich vegetation, and the falls of a small

stream traversing it, make up a beautiful scene admired by many

visitors. Several stalactitical caverns are also seen, and prehistoric

British and Roman relics discovered in and near them are preserved in a

small museum. The two caverns most frequently visited are called

respectively Cox's and Gough's; in each, but especially in the first,

there is a remarkable collection of fantastic and beautiful

stalactitical forms. There are other caverns of greater extent but less

beauty, but their extent is not completely explored. The remains

discovered in the caves give evidence of British and Roman settlements

at Cheddar (_Cedre_, _Chedare_), which was a convenient trade centre.

The manor of Cheddar was a royal demesne in Saxon times, and the

witenagemot was held there in 966 and 968. It was granted by John in

1204 to Hugh, archdeacon of Wells, who sold it to the bishop of Bath and

Wells in 1229, whose successors were overlords until 1553, when the

bishop granted it to the king. It is now owned by the marquis of Bath.

By a charter of 1231 extensive liberties in the manor of Cheddar were

granted to Bishop Joceline, who by a charter of 1235 obtained the right

to hold a weekly market and fair. By a charter of Edward III. (1337)

Cheddar was removed from the king's forest of Mendip. The market was

discontinued about 1690. Fairs are now held on the 4th of May and the

29th of October under the original grants. The name of Cheddar is given

to a well-known species of cheese (see DAIRY), the manufacture of which

began in the 17th century in the town and neighbourhood.

CHEDUBA, or MAN-AUNG, an island in the Bay of Bengal, situated 10 m.

from the coast of Arakan, between 18 deg. 40' and 18 deg. 56' N. lat.,

and between 93 deg. 31' and 93 deg. 50' E. long. It forms part of the

Kyaukpyu district of Arakan. It extends about 20 m. in length from N. to

S., and 17 m. from E. to W., and its area of 220 sq. m. supports a

population of 26,899 (in 1901). The channel between the island and the

mainland is navigable for boats, but not for large vessels. The surface

of the interior is richly diversified by hill and dale, and in the

southern portion some of the heights exceed a thousand feet in

elevation. There are various indications of former volcanic activity,

and along the coast are earthy cones covered with green-sward, from

which issue springs of muddy water emitting bubbles of gas. Copper, iron

and silver ore have been discovered; but the island is chiefly noted for

its petroleum wells, the oil derived from which is of excellent quality,

and is extensively used in the composition of paint, as it preserves

wood from the ravages of insects. Timber is not abundant, but the

gamboge tree and the wood-oil tree are found of a good size. Tobacco,

cotton, sugar-cane, hemp and indigo are grown, and the staple article is

rice, which is of superior quality, and the chief article of export. The

inhabitants of the island are mainly Maghs. Cheduba fell to the Burmese

in the latter part of the 18th century. From them it was captured in

1824 by the British, whose possession of it was confirmed in 1826 by the

treaty concluded with the Burmese at Yandaboo.

CHEERING, the uttering or making of sounds encouraging, stimulating or

exciting to action, indicating approval of acclaiming or welcoming

persons, announcements of events and the like. The word "cheer" meant

originally face, countenance, expression, and came through the O. Fr.

into Mid. Eng. in the 13th century from the Low Lat. _cara_, head; this

is generally referred to the Gr. [Greek: kara]. _Cara_ is used by the

6th-century poet Flavius Cresconius Corippus, "Postquam venere verendam

Caesaris ante caram" (_In Laudem Justini Minoris_). "Cheer" was at first

qualified with epithets, both of joy and gladness and of sorrow; compare

"She thanked Dyomede for alle ... his gode chere" (Chaucer, _Troylus_)

with "If they sing ... 'tis with so dull a cheere" (Shakespeare,

_Sonnets_, xcvii.). An early transference in meaning was to hospitality

or entertainment, and hence to food and drink, "good cheer." The sense

of a shout of encouragement or applause is a late use. Defoe (_Captain

Singleton_) speaks of it as a sailor's word, and the meaning does not

appear in Johnson. Of the different words or rather sounds that are used

in cheering, "hurrah," though now generally looked on as the typical

British form of cheer, is found in various forms in German,

Scandinavian, Russian (_ura_), French (_houra_). It is probably

onomatopoeic in origin; some connect it with such words as "hurry,"

"whirl"; the meaning would then be "haste," to encourage speed or onset

in battle. The English "hurrah" was preceded by "huzza," stated to be a

sailor's word, and generally connected with "heeze," to hoist, probably

being one of the cries that sailors use when hauling or hoisting. The

German _hoch_, seen in full in _hoch lebe der Kaiser_, &c., the French

_vive_, Italian and Spanish _viva_, _evviva_, are cries rather of

acclamation than encouragement. The Japanese shout _banzai_ became

familiar during the Russo-Japanese War. In reports of parliamentary and

other debates the insertion of "cheers" at any point in a speech

indicates that approval was shown by members of the House by emphatic

utterances of "hear hear." Cheering may be tumultuous, or it may be

conducted rhythmically by prearrangement, as in the case of the

"Hip-hip-hip" by way of introduction to a simultaneous "hurrah."

Rhythmical cheering has been developed to its greatest extent in America

in the college yells, which may be regarded as a development of the

primitive war-cry; this custom has no real analogue at English schools

and universities, but the New Zealand football team in 1907 familiarized

English crowds at their matches with a similar sort of war-cry adopted

from the Maoris. In American schools and colleges there is usually one

cheer for the institution as a whole and others for the different

classes. The oldest and simplest are those of the New England colleges.

The original yells of Harvard and Yale are identical in form, being

composed of _rah_ (abbreviation of _hurrah_) nine times repeated,

shouted in unison with the name of the university at the end. The Yale

cheer is given faster than that of Harvard. Many institutions have

several different yells, a favourite variation being the name of the

college shouted nine times in a slow and prolonged manner. The best

known of these variants is the Yale cheer, partly taken from the _Frogs_

of Aristophanes, which runs thus:

"Brekekekex, ko-ax, ko-ax,

Brekekekex, ko-ax, ko-ax,

O-op, O-op, parabalo[=u],

Yale, Yale, Yale,

Rah, rah, rah, rah, rah, rah, rah, rah, rah,

Yale! Yale! Yale!"

The regular cheer of Princeton is:

"H'ray, h'ray, h'ray, tiger,

Siss, boom, ah; Princeton!"

This is expanded into the "triple cheer":

"H'ray, h'ray, h'ray,

Tiger, tiger, tiger,

Siss, siss, siss,

Boom, boom, boom,

Ah, ah, ah,

Princeton, Princeton, Princeton!"

The "railroad cheer" is like the foregoing, but begun very slowly and

broadly, and gradually accelerated to the end, which is enunciated as

fast as possible. Many cheers are formed like that of Toronto

University:

"Varsity, varsity,

V-a-r-s-i-t-y (spelled)

VARSIT-Y (spelled _staccato_)

Var-si-ty,

Rah, rah, rah!"

Another variety of yell is illustrated by that of the School of

Practical Science of Toronto University:

"Who are we? Can't you guess?

We are from the S.P.S.!"

The cheer of the United States Naval Academy is an imitation of a

nautical syren. The Amherst cheer is:

"Amherst! Amherst! Amherst! Rah! Rah!

Amherst! Rah! Rah!

Rah! Rah! Rah! Rah! Rah! Rah! Amherst!"

Besides the cheers of individual institutions there are some common to

all, generally used to compliment some successful athlete or popular

professor. One of the oldest examples of these personal cheers is:

"Who was George Washington?

First in war,

First in peace,

First in the hearts of his countrymen,"

followed by a stamping on the floor in the same rhythm.

College yells are used particularly at athletic contests. In any large

college there are several leaders, chosen by the students, who stand in

front and call for the different songs and cheers, directing with their

arms in the fashion of an orchestral conductor. This cheering and

singing form one of the distinctive features of inter-collegiate and

scholastic athletic contests in America.

CHEESE (Lat. _caseus_), a solidified preparation from milk, the

essential constituent of which is the proteinous or nitrogenous

substance _casein_. All cheese contains in addition some proportion of

fatty matter or butter, and in the more valuable varieties the butter

present is often greater in amount than the casein. Cheese being thus a

compound substance of no definite composition is found in commerce of

many different varieties and qualities; and such qualities are generally

recognized by the names of the localities in which they are

manufactured. The principal distinctions arise from differences in the

composition and condition of the milk operated upon, from variations in

the method of preparation and curing, and from the use of the milk of

other animals besides the cow, as, for example, the goat and the ewe,

from the milk of both of which cheese is manufactured on a commercial

scale. For details about different cheeses and cheese-making, see DAIRY.

From the Urdu _chiz_ ("thing") comes the slang expression "the cheese,"

meaning "the perfect thing," apparently from Anglo-Indian usage.

A useful summary of the history and manufacture of all sorts of

cheeses, under their different names, is given in Bulletin 105 of the

Bureau of Animal Industry (United States Dep. of Agriculture),

_Varieties of Cheese_, by C.F. Doane and H.W. Lawson (Washington,

1908).

CHEESE CLOTH, the name given to cloth, usually made from flax or tow

yarns, of an open character, resembling a fine riddle or sieve, used for

wrapping cheese. A finer quality and texture is made for women's gowns.

A similar cloth is used for inside linings in the upholstery trade, and

for the ground of embroidery.

CHEETA (CHITA), or HUNTING-LEOPARD (_Cynaelurus jubatus_, formerly known

as _Gueparda jubata_), a member of the family _Felidae_, distinguished

by its claws being only partially retractile (see CARNIVORA). The cheeta

attains a length of 3 to 4 ft.; it is of a pale fulvous colour, marked

with numerous spots of black on the upper surface and sides, and is

nearly white beneath. The fur is somewhat crisp, altogether lacking the

sleekness which characterizes the fur of the typical cats, and the tail

is long and somewhat bushy at the extremity. In confinement the cheeta

soon becomes fond of those who are kind to it, and gives evidence of its

attachment in an open, dog-like manner. The cheeta is found throughout

Africa and southern Asia, and has been employed for centuries in India

and Persia in hunting antelopes and other game. According to Sir W.

Jones, this mode of hunting originated with Hushing, king of Persia, 865

B.C., and afterwards became so popular that certain of the Mongol

emperors were in the habit of being accompanied in their sporting

expeditions by a thousand hunting leopards. In prosecuting this sport at

the present day the cheeta is conveyed to the field in a low car without

sides, hooded and chained like hunting-birds in Europe in the days of

falconry. When a herd of deer or antelopes is seen, the car, which bears

a close resemblance to the ordinary vehicles used by the peasants, is

usually brought within 200 yds. of the game before the latter takes

alarm; the cheeta is then let loose and the hood removed from its eyes.

No sooner does it see the herd, than dropping from the car on the side

remote from its prey, it approaches stealthily, making use of whatever

means of concealment the nature of the ground permits, until observed,

when making a few gigantic bounds, it generally arrives in the midst of

the herd and brings down its victim with a stroke of its paw. The

sportsman then approaches, draws off a bowl of the victim's blood, and

puts it before the cheeta, which is again hooded and led back to the

car. Should it not succeed in reaching the herd in the first few bounds,

it makes no further effort to pursue, but retires seemingly dispirited

to the car. In Africa the cheeta is only valued for its skin, which is

worn by chiefs and other people of rank. It should be added that in

India the name cheeta (chita) is applied also to the leopard.

CHEFFONIER, properly CHIFFONIER, a piece of furniture differentiated

from the sideboard by its smaller size and by the enclosure of the

whole of the front by doors. Its name (which comes from the French for a

rag-gatherer) suggests that it was originally intended as a receptacle

for odds and ends which had no place elsewhere, but it now usually

serves the purpose of a sideboard. It is a remote and illegitimate

descendant of the cabinet; it has rarely been elegant and never

beautiful. It was one of the many curious developments of the mixed

taste, at once cumbrous and bizarre, which prevailed in furniture during

the Empire period in England. The earliest cheffoniers date from that

time; they are usually of rosewood--the favourite timber of that moment;

their "furniture" (the technical name for knobs, handles and

escutcheons) was most commonly of brass, and there was very often a

raised shelf with a pierced brass gallery at the back. The doors were

well panelled and often edged with brass-beading, while the feet were

pads or claws, or, in the choicer examples, sphinxes in gilded bronze.

Cheffoniers are still made in England in cheap forms and in great

number.

CHEH-KIANG, an eastern province of China, bounded N. by the province of

Kiang-su, E. by the sea, S. by the province of Fu-kien, and W. by the

provinces of Kiang-si and Ngan-hui. It occupies an area of about 36,000

sq. m., and contains a population of 11,800,000. With the exception of a

small portion of the great delta plain, which extends across the

frontier from the province of Kiang-su, and in which are situated the

famous cities of Hu Chow, Ka-hing, Hang-chow, Shao-Sing and Ning-po, the

province forms a portion of the Nan-shan of south-eastern China, and is

hilly throughout. The Nan-shan ranges run through the centre of the

province from south-west to north-east, and divide it into a northern

portion, the greater part of which is drained by the Tsien-t'ang-kiang,

and a southern portion which is chiefly occupied by the Ta-chi basin.

The valleys enclosed between the mountain ranges are numerous, fertile,

and for the most part of exquisite beauty. The hilly portion of the

province furnishes large supplies of tea, and in the plain which extends

along the coast, north of Ning-po, a great quantity of silk is produced.

In minerals the province is poor. Coal and iron are occasionally met

with, and traces of copper ore are to be found in places, but none of

these minerals exists in sufficiently large deposits to make mining

remunerative. The province, however, produces cotton, rice, ground-nuts,

wheat, indigo, tallow and beans in abundance. The principal cities are

Hang-chow, which is famed for the beauty of its surroundings, Ning-po,

which has been frequented by foreign ships ever since the Portuguese

visited it in the 16th century, and Wenchow. Opposite Ning-po, at a

distance of about 50 m., lies the island of Chusan, the largest of a

group bearing that general name. This island is 21 m. long, and about 50

m. in circumference. It is very mountainous, and is surrounded by

numerous islands and islets. On its south side stands the walled town of

Ting-hai, in front of which is the principal harbour. The population is

returned as 50,000.

CHEKE, SIR JOHN (1514-1557), English classical scholar, was the son of

Peter Cheke, esquire-bedell of Cambridge University. He was educated at

St John's College, Cambridge, where he became a fellow in 1529. While

there he adopted the principles of the Reformation. His learning gained

him an exhibition from the king, and in 1540, on Henry VIII.'s

foundation of the regius professorships, he was elected to the chair of

Greek. Amongst his pupils at St John's were Lord Burghley, who married

Cheke's sister Mary, and Roger Ascham, who in _The Schoolmaster_ gives

Cheke the highest praise for scholarship and character. Together with

Sir Thomas Smith, he introduced a new method of Greek pronunciation very

similar to that commonly used in England in the 19th century. It was

strenuously opposed in the University, where the continental method

prevailed, and Bishop Gardiner, as chancellor, issued a decree against

it (June 1542); but Cheke ultimately triumphed. On the 10th of July

1554, he was chosen as tutor to Prince Edward, and after his pupil's

accession to the throne he continued his instructions. Cheke took a

fairly active share in public life; he sat, as member for Bletchingley,

for the parliaments of 1547 and 1552-1553; he was made provost of King's

College, Cambridge (April 1, 1548), was one of the commissioners for

visiting that university as well as Oxford and Eton, and was appointed

with seven divines to draw up a body of laws for the governance of the

church. On the 11th of October 1551 he was knighted; in 1553 he was made

one of the secretaries of state, and sworn of the privy council. His

zeal for Protestantism induced him to follow the duke of Northumberland,

and he filled the office of secretary of state for Lady Jane Grey during

her nine days' reign. In consequence Mary threw him into the Tower (July

27, 1553), and confiscated his wealth. He was, however, released on the

13th of September 1554, and granted permission to travel abroad. He went

first to Basel, then visited Italy, giving lectures in Greek at Padua,

and finally settled at Strassburg, teaching Greek for his living. In the

spring of 1556 he visited Brussels to see his wife; on his way back,

between Brussels and Antwerp, he and Sir Peter Carew were treacherously

seized (May 15) by order of Philip of Spain, hurried over to England,

and imprisoned in the Tower. Cheke was visited by two priests and by Dr

John Feckenham, dean of St Paul's, whom he had formerly tried to convert

to Protestantism, and, terrified by a threat of the stake, he gave way

and was received into the Church of Rome by Cardinal Pole, being cruelly

forced to make two public recantations. Overcome with shame, he did not

long survive, but died in London on the 13th of September 1557,

carrying, as T. Fuller says (_Church History_), "God's pardon and all

good men's pity along with him." About 1547 Cheke married Mary, daughter

of Richard Hill, sergeant of the wine-cellar to Henry VIII., and by her

he had three sons. The descendants of one of these, Henry, known only

for his translation of an Italian morality play _Freewyl_ (_Tragedio del

Libero Arbitrio_) by Nigri de Bassano, settled at Pyrgo in Essex.

Thomas Wilson, in the epistle prefixed to his translation of the

Olynthiacs of Demosthenes (1570), has a long and most interesting

eulogy of Cheke; and Thomas Nash, in _To the Gentlemen Students_,

prefixed to Robert Greene's _Menaphon_ (1589), calls him "the

Exchequer of eloquence, Sir Ihon Cheke, a man of men, supernaturally

traded in all tongues." Many of Cheke's works are still in MS., some

have been altogether lost. One of the most interesting from a

historical point of view is the _Hurt of Sedition how greueous it is

to a Communewelth_ (1549), written on the occasion of Ket's rebellion,

republished in 1569, 1576 and 1641, on the last occasion with a life

of the author by Gerard Langbaine. Others are _D. Joannis Chrysostomi

homiliae duae_ (1543), _D. Joannis Chrysostomi de providentia Dei_

(1545), _The Gospel according to St Matthew ... translated_ (c. 1550;

ed. James Goodwin, 1843), _De obitu Martini Buceri_ (1551), (Leo

VI.'s) _de Apparatu bellico_ (Basel, 1554; but dedicated to Henry

VIII., 1544), _Carmen Heroicum, aut epitaphium in Antonium Deneium_

(1551), _De pronuntiatione Graecae ... linguae_ (Basel, 1555). He also

translated several Greek works, and lectured admirably upon

Demosthenes.

His _Life_ was written by John Strype (1821); additions by J. Gough

Nichols in _Archaeologia_ (1860), xxxviii. 98, 127.

CHELLIAN, the name given by the French anthropologist G. de Mortillet to

the first epoch of the Quaternary period when the earliest human remains

are discoverable. The word is derived from the French town Chelles in

the department of Seine-et-Marne. The climate of the Chellian epoch was

warm and humid as evidenced by the wild growth of fig-trees and laurels.

The animals characteristic of the epoch are the _Elephas antiquus_, the

rhinoceros, the cave-bear, the hippopotamus and the striped hyaena. Man

existed and belonged to the Neanderthal type. The implements

characteristic of the period are flints chipped into leaf-shaped forms

and held in the hand when used. The drift-beds of St Acheul (Amiens), of

Menchecourt (Abbeville), of Hoxne (Suffolk), and the detrital laterite

of Madras are considered by de Mortillet to be synchronous with the

Chellian beds.

See Gabriel de Mortillet, _Le Prehistorique_ (1900); Lord Avebury,

_Prehistoric Times_ (1900).

CHELMSFORD, FREDERIC THESIGER, 1ST BARON (1794-1878), lord chancellor of

England, was the third son of Charles Thesiger, and was born in London

on the 15th of April 1794. His father, collector of customs at St

Vincent's, was the son of a Saxon gentleman who had migrated to England

and become secretary to Lord Rockingham, and was the brother of Sir

Frederic Thesiger, naval A.D.C. to Nelson at Copenhagen. Young Frederic

Thesiger was originally destined for a naval career, and he served as a

midshipman on board the "Cambrian" frigate in 1807 at the second

bombardment of Copenhagen. His only surviving brother, however, died

about this time, and he became entitled to succeed to a valuable estate

in the West Indies, so it was decided that he should leave the navy and

study law, with a view to practising in the West Indies and eventually

managing his property in person. Another change of fortune, however,

awaited him, for a volcano destroyed the family estate, and he was

thrown back upon his prospect of a legal practice in the West Indies. He

proceeded to enter at Gray's Inn in 1813, and was called on the 18th of

November 1818, another change in his prospects being brought about by

the strong advice of Godfrey Sykes, a special pleader in whose chambers

he had been a pupil, that he should remain to try his fortune in

England. He accordingly joined the home circuit, and soon got into good

practice at the Surrey sessions, while he also made a fortunate purchase

in buying the right to appear in the old palace court (see LORD

STEWARD). In 1824 he distinguished himself by his defence of Joseph Hunt

when on his trial at Hertford with John Thurtell for the murder of Wm.

Weare; and eight years later at Chelmsford assizes he won a hard-fought

action in an ejectment case after three trials, to which he attributed

so much of his subsequent success that when he was raised to the peerage

he assumed the title Lord Chelmsford. In 1834 he was made king's

counsel, and in 1835 was briefed in the Dublin election inquiry which

unseated Daniel O'Connell. In 1840 he was elected M.P. for Woodstock. In

1844 he became solicitor-general, but having ceased to enjoy the favour

of the duke of Marlborough, lost his seat for Woodstock and had to find

another at Abingdon. In 1845 he became attorney-general, holding the

post until the fall of the Peel administration on the 3rd of July 1846.

Thus by three days Thesiger missed being chief justice of the common

pleas, for on the 6th of July Sir Nicholas Tindal died, and the seat on

the bench, which would have been Thesiger's as of right, fell to the

Liberal attorney-general, Sir Thomas Wilde. Sir Frederic Thesiger

remained in parliament, changing his seat, however, again in 1852, and

becoming member for Stamford. During this period he enjoyed a very large

practice at the bar, being employed in many _causes celebres_. On Lord

Derby coming into office for the second time in 1858, Sir Frederic

Thesiger was raised straight from the bar to the lord chancellorship (as

were Lord Brougham, Lord Selborne and Lord Halsbury). In the following

year Lord Derby resigned and his cabinet was broken up. Again in 1866,

on Lord Derby coming into office for the third time, Lord Chelmsford

became lord chancellor for a short period. In 1868 Lord Derby retired,

and Disraeli, who took his place as prime minister, wished for Lord

Cairns as lord chancellor. Lord Chelmsford was very sore at his

supersession and the manner of it, but, according to Lord Malmesbury he

retired under a compact made before he took office. Ten years later Lord

Chelmsford died in London on the 5th of October 1878. Lord Chelmsford

had married in 1822 Anna Maria Tinling. He left four sons and three

daughters, of whom the eldest, Frederick Augustus, 2nd Baron Chelmsford

(1827-1905), earned distinction as a soldier, while the third, Alfred

Henry Thesiger (1838-1880) was made a lord justice of appeal and a privy

councillor in 1877, at the early age of thirty-nine, but died only three

years later.

See _Lives of the Chancellors_ (1908), by J.B. Atlay, who has had the

advantage of access to an unpublished autobiography of Lord

Chelmsford's.

CHELMSFORD, a market town and municipal borough, and the county town of

Essex, England, in the Chelmsford parliamentary division, 30 m. E.N.E.

from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 12,580. It is

situated in the valley of the Chelmer, at the confluence of the Cann,

and has communication by the river with Maldon and the Blackwater

estuary 11 m. east. Besides the parish church of St Mary, a graceful

Perpendicular edifice, largely rebuilt, the town has a grammar school

founded by Edward VI., an endowed charity school and a museum. It is the

seat of the county assizes and quarter sessions, and has a handsome

shire hall; the county gaol is near the town. Its corn and cattle

markets are among the largest in the county; for the first a fine

exchange is provided. In the centre of the square in which the corn

exchange is situated stands a bronze statue of Lord Chief-Justice Tindal

(1776-1846), a native of the parish. There are agricultural implement

and iron foundries, large electric light and engineering works,

breweries, tanneries, maltings and extensive corn mills. There is a

race-course 2 m. south of the town. The borough is under a mayor, 6

aldermen and 18 councillors. Area 2308 acres.

A place of settlement since Palaeolithic times, Chelmsford

(_Chilmersford, Chelmeresford, Chelmesford_) owed its importance to its

position on the road from London to Colchester. It consisted of two

manors: that of Moulsham, which remained in the possession of

Westminster Abbey from Saxon times till the reign of Henry VIII., when

it was granted to Thomas Mildmay; and that of Bishop's Hall, which was

held by the bishops of London from the reign of Edward the Confessor to

1545, when it passed to the crown and was granted to Thomas Mildmay in

1563. The medieval history of Chelmsford centred round the manor of

Bishop's Hall. Early in the 12th century Bishop Maurice built the bridge

over the Chelmer which brought the road from London directly through the

town, thus making it an important stopping-place. The town was not

incorporated until 1888. In 1225 Chelmsford was made the centre for the

collection of fifteenths from the county of Essex, and in 1227 it became

the regular seat of assizes and quarter-sessions. Edward I. confirmed

Bishop Richard de Gravesend in his rights of frank pledge in Chelmsford

in 1290, and in 1395 Richard II. granted the return of writs to Bishop

Robert de Braybroke. In 1377 writs were issued for the return of

representatives from Chelmsford to parliament, but no return of members

has been found. In 1199 the bishop obtained the grant of a weekly market

at the yearly rent of one palfrey, and in 1201 that of an annual fair,

now discontinued, for four days from the feast of St Philip and St

James.

CHELSEA, a western metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded E.

by the city of Westminster, N.W. by Kensington, S.W. by Fulham, and S.

by the river Thames. Pop. (1901) 73,842. Its chief thoroughfare is

Sloane Street, containing handsome houses and good shops, running south

from Knightsbridge to Sloane Square. Hence King's Road leads west, a

wholly commercial highway, named in honour of Charles II., and recalling

the king's private road from St James's Palace to Fulham, which was

maintained until the reign of George IV. The main roads south

communicate with the Victoria or Chelsea, Albert and Battersea bridges

over the Thames. The beautiful Chelsea embankment, planted with trees

and lined with fine houses and, in part, with public gardens, stretches

between Victoria and Battersea bridges. The better residential portion

of Chelsea is the eastern, near Sloane Street and along the river; the

western, extending north to Fulham Road, is mainly a poor quarter.

Chelsea, especially the riverside district, abounds in historical

associations. At _Cealchythe_ a synod was held in 785. A similar name

occurs in a Saxon charter of the 11th century and in Domesday; in the

16th century it is _Chelcith_. The later termination _ey_ or _ea_ was

associated with the insular character of the land, and the prefix with a

gravel bank (_ceosol_; cf. Chesil Bank, Dorsetshire) thrown up by the

river; but the early suffix _hythe_ is common in the meaning of a haven.

The manor was originally in the possession of Westminster Abbey, but its

history is fragmentary until Tudor times. It then came into the hands of

Henry VIII., passed from him to his wife Catharine Parr, and thereafter

had a succession of owners, among whom were the Howards, to whom it was

granted by Queen Elizabeth, and the Cheynes, from whom it was purchased

in 1712 by Sir Hans Sloane, after which it passed to the Cadogans. The

memorials which crowd the picturesque church and churchyard of St Luke

near the river, commonly known as the Old Church, to a great extent

epitomize the history of Chelsea. Such are those of Sir Thomas More (d.

1535); Lord Bray, lord of the manor (1539), his father and son; Lady

Jane Guyldeford, duchess of Northumberland, who died "at her maner of

Chelse" in 1555; Lord and Lady Dacre (1594-1595); Sir John Lawrence

(1638); Lady Jane Cheyne (1698); Francis Thomas, "director of the china

porcelain manufactory, Lawrence Street, Chelsea" (1770); Sir Hans Sloane

(1753); Thomas Shadwell, poet laureate (1602); Woodfall the printer of

_Junius_ (1844), and many others. More's tomb is dated 1532, as he set

it up himself, though it is doubtful whether he lies beneath it. His

house was near the present Beaufort Street. In the 18th and 19th

centuries Chelsea, especially the parts about the embankment and Cheyne

Walk, was the home of many eminent men, particularly of writers and

artists, with whom this pleasant quarter has long been in favour. Thus

in the earlier part of the period named, Atterbury and Swift lived in

Church Lane, Steele and Smollett in Monmouth House. Later, the names of

Turner, Rossetti, Whistler, Leigh Hunt, Carlyle (whose house in Cheyne

Row is preserved as a public memorial), Count D'Orsay, and Isambard

Brunel, are intimately connected with Chelsea. At Lindsey House Count

Zinzendorf established a Moravian Society (c. 1750). Sir Robert

Walpole's residence was extant till 1810; and till 1824 the bishops of

Winchester had a palace in Cheyne Walk. Queen's House, the home of D.G.

Rossetti (when it was called Tudor House), is believed to take name from

Catharine of Braganza.

Chelsea was noted at different periods for two famous places of

entertainment, Ranelagh (q.v.) in the second half of the 18th century,

and Cremorne Gardens (q.v.) in the middle of the 19th. Don Saltero's

museum, which formed the attraction of a popular coffee-house, was

formed of curiosities from Sir Hans Sloane's famous collections. It was

Sloane who gave to the Apothecaries' Company the ground which they had

leased in 1673 for the Physick Garden, which is still extant, but ceased

in 1902 to be maintained by the Company. At Chelsea Sir John Danvers (d.

1655) introduced the Italian style of gardening which was so greatly

admired by Bacon and soon after became prevalent in England. Chelsea was

formerly famous for a manufacture of buns; the original Chelsea

bun-house, claiming royal patronage, stood until 1839, and one of its

successors until 1888. The porcelain works existed for some 25 years

before 1769, when they were sold and removed to Derby. Examples of the

original Chelsea ware (see CERAMICS) are of great value.

Of buildings and institutions the most notable is Chelsea Royal Hospital

for invalid soldiers, initiated by Charles II. (according to tradition

on the suggestion of Nell Gwynne), and opened in 1694. The hospital

itself accommodates upwards of 500 men, but a system of out-pensioning

was found necessary from the outset, and now relieves large numbers

throughout the empire. The picturesque building by Wren stands in

extensive grounds, which include the former Ranelagh Gardens. A

theological college (King James's) formerly occupied the site; it was

founded in 1610 and was intended to be of great size, but the scheme was

unsuccessful, and only a small part of the buildings was erected. In the

vicinity are the Chelsea Barracks (not actually in the borough). The

Royal Military Asylum for boys, commonly called the Duke of York's

school, founded in 1801 by Frederick, duke of York, for the education of

children connected with the army, was removed in 1909 to new quarters at

Dover. Other institutions are the Whitelands training college for

school-mistresses, in which Ruskin took deep interest; the St Mark's

college for school-masters; the Victoria and the Cheyne hospitals for

children, a cancer hospital, the South-western polytechnic, and a public

library containing an excellent collection relative to local history.

The parliamentary borough of Chelsea returns one member, and includes,

as a detached portion, Kensal Town, north of Kensington. The borough

council consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area, 659.6

acres.

CHELSEA, a city of Suffolk county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., a suburb of

Boston. Pop. (1890) 27,909; (1900) 34,072, of whom 11,203 were

foreign-born; (1910) 32,452. It is situated on a peninsula between the

Mystic and Chelsea rivers, and Charlestown and East Boston, and is

connected with East Boston and Charlestown by bridges. It is served by

the Boston & Maine and (for freight) by the Boston & Albany railways.

The United States maintains here naval and marine hospitals, and the

state a soldiers' home. Chelsea's interests are primarily industrial.

The value of the city's factory products in 1905 was $13,879,159, the

principal items being rubber and elastic goods ($3,635,211) and boots

and shoes ($2,044,250.) The manufacture of stoves, and of mucilage and

paste are important industries. Flexible tubing for electric wires

(first made at Chelsea 1889) and art tiles are important products. The

first settlement was established in 1624 by Samuel Maverick (c. 1602-c.

1670), the first settler (about 1629) of Noddle's Island (or East

Boston), and one of the first slave-holders in Massachusetts; a loyalist

and Churchman, in 1664 he was appointed with three others by Charles II.

on an important commission sent to Massachusetts and the other New

England colonies (see NICOLLS, RICHARD), and spent the last years of his

life in New York. Until 1739, under the name of Winnisimmet, Chelsea

formed a part of Boston, but in that year it was made a township; it

became a city in 1857. In May 1775 a British schooner in the Mystic

defended by a force of marines was taken by colonial militia under

General John Stark and Israel Putnam,--one of the first conflicts of the

War of Independence. A terrible fire swept the central part of the city

on the 12th of April 1908.

See Mellen Chamberlain (and others), _History of Chelsea_ (2 vols.,

Boston, 1908), published by the Massachusetts Historical Society.

CHELTENHAM, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Gloucestershire,

England, 109 m. W. by N. of London by the Great Western railway; served

also by the west and north line of the Midland railway. Pop. (1901)

49,439. The town is well situated in the valley of the Chelt, a small

tributary of the Severn, under the high line of the Cotteswold Hills to

the east, and is in high repute as a health resort. Mineral springs were

accidentally discovered in 1716. The Montpellier and Pittville Springs

supply handsome pump rooms standing in public gardens, and are the

property of the corporation. The Montpellier waters are sulphated, and

are valuable for their diuretic effect, and as a stimulant to the liver

and alimentary canal. The alkaline-saline waters of Pittville are

efficacious against diseases resulting from excess of uric acid. The

parish church of St Mary dates from the 14th century, but is almost

completely modernized. The town, moreover, is wholly modern in

appearance. Assembly rooms opened in 1815 by the duke of Wellington were

removed in 1901. A new town hall, including a central spa and assembly

rooms, was opened in 1903. There are numerous other handsome buildings,

especially in High Street, and the Promenade forms a beautiful broad

thoroughfare, lined with trees. The town is famous as an educational

centre. Cheltenham College (1842) provides education for boys in three

departments, classical, military and commercial; and includes a

preparatory school. The Ladies' College (1854), long conducted by Miss

Beale (q.v.), is one of the most successful in England. The Normal

Training College was founded in 1846 for the training of teachers, male

and female, in national and parochial schools. A free grammar school was

founded in 1568 by Richard Pate, recorder of Gloucester. The art gallery

and museum may be mentioned also. The parliamentary borough returns one

member. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18

councillors. Area, 4726 acres. The urban district of Charlton Kings

(pop. 3806) forms a south-eastern suburb of Cheltenham.

The site of a British village and burying-ground, Cheltenham

(_Celtanhomme_, _Chiltham_, _Chelteham_) was a village with a church in

803. The manor belonged to the crown; it was granted to Henry de Bohun,

earl of Hereford, late in the 12th century, but in 1199 was exchanged

for other lands with the king. It was granted to William de Longespee,

earl of Salisbury, in 1219, but resumed on his death and granted in

dower to Eleanor of Provence in 1243. In 1252 the abbey of Fecamp

purchased the manor, and it afterwards belonged to the priory of

Cormeille, but was confiscated in 1415 as the possession of an alien

priory, and was granted in 1461 to the abbey of Lyon, by which it was

held until, once more returning to the crown at the Dissolution, it was

granted to the family of Dutton. The town is first mentioned in 1223,

when William de Longespee leased the benefit of the markets, fairs and

hundred of Cheltenham to the men of the town for three years; the lease

was renewed by Henry III. in 1226, and again in 1230 for ten years. A

market town in the time of Camden, it was governed by commissioners from

the 18th century in 1876, when it was incorporated; it became a

parliamentary borough in 1832. Henry III. in 1230 had granted to the men

of Cheltenham a market on each Thursday, and a fair on the vigil, feast

and morrow of St James. Although Camden mentions a considerable trade in

malt, the spinning of woollen yarn was the only industry in 1779. After

the discovery of springs in 1716, and the erection of a pump-room in

1738, Cheltenham rapidly became fashionable, the visit of George III.

and the royal princesses in 1788 ensuring its popularity.

See S. Moreau, _A Tour to Cheltenham Spa_ (Bath, 1738).

CHELYABINSK, a town of Russia, in the Orenburg government, at the east

foot of the Urals, is the head of the Siberian railway, 624 m. by rail

E.N.E. of Samara and 154 m. by rail S.S.E. of Ekaterinburg. Pop. (1900)

25,505. It has tanneries and distilleries, and is the centre of the

trade in corn and produce of cattle for the Ural iron-works. The town

was founded in 1658.

CHELYS (Gr. [Greek: chelus], tortoise; Lat. _testudo_), the common lyre

of the ancient Greeks, which had a convex back of tortoiseshell or of

wood shaped like the shell. The word _chelys_ was used in allusion to

the oldest lyre of the Greeks which was said to have been invented by

Hermes. According to tradition he was attracted by sounds of music while

walking on the banks of the Nile, and found they proceeded from the

shell of a tortoise across which were stretched tendons which the wind

had set in vibration (_Homeric Hymn to Hermes_, 47-51). The word has

been applied arbitrarily since classic times to various stringed

instruments, some bowed and some twanged, probably owing to the back

being much vaulted. Kircher (_Musurgia_, i. 486) applied the name of

_chelys_ to a kind of viol with eight strings. Numerous representations

of the _chelys_ lyre or _testudo_ occur on the Greek vases, in which the

actual tortoiseshell is depicted; a good illustration is given in _Le

Antichita, di Ercolano_ (vol. i. pl. 43). Propertius (iv. 6) calls the

instrument the _lyra testudinea_. Scaliger (on Manilius, _Astronomicon_,

Proleg. 420) was probably the first writer to draw attention to the

difference, between _chelys_ and _cithara_ (q.v.). (K. S.)

CHEMICAL ACTION, the term given to any process in which change in

chemical composition occurs. Such processes may be set up by the

application of some form of energy (heat, light, electricity, &c.) to a

substance, or by the mixing of two or more substances together. If two

or more substances be mixed one of three things may occur. First, the

particles may be mechanically intermingled, the degree of association

being dependent upon the fineness of the particles, &c. Secondly, the

substances may intermolecularly penetrate, as in the case of

gas-mixtures and solutions. Or thirdly they may react chemically. The

question whether, in any given case, we have to deal with a physical

mixture or a chemical compound is often decided by the occurrence of

very striking phenomena. To take a simple example:--oxygen and hydrogen

are two gases which may be mixed in all proportions at ordinary

temperatures, and it is easy to show that the properties of the products

are simply those of mixtures of the two free gases. If, however, an

electric spark be passed through the mixtures, powerful chemical union

ensues, with its concomitants, great evolution of heat and consequent

rise of temperature, and a compound, water, is formed which presents

physical and chemical properties entirely different from those of its

constituents.

In general, powerful chemical forces give rise to the evolution of large

quantities of heat, and the properties of the resulting substance differ

vastly more from those of its components than is the case with simple

mixtures. This constitutes a valuable criterion as to whether mere

mixture is involved on the one hand, or strong chemical union on the

other. When, however, the chemical forces are weak and the reaction,

being incomplete, leads to a state of chemical equilibrium, in which

all the reacting substances are present side by side, this criterion

vanishes. For example, the question whether a salt combines with water

molecules when dissolved in water cannot be said even yet to be fully

settled, and, although there can be no doubt that solution is, in many

cases, attended by chemical processes, still we possess as yet no means

of deciding, with certainty, how many molecules of water have bound

themselves to a single molecule of the dissolved substance (_solute_).

On the other hand, we possess exact methods of testing whether gases or

solutes in dilute solution react one with another and of determining the

equilibrium state which is attained. For if one solute react with

another on adding the latter to its solution, then corresponding to the

decrease of its concentration there must also be a decrease of vapour

pressure, and of solubility in other solvents; further, in the case of a

mixture of gases, the concentration of each single constituent follows

from its solubility in some suitable solvent. We thus obtain the answer

to the question: whether the concentration of a certain constituent has

decreased during mixing, i.e. whether it has reacted chemically.

When a compound can be obtained in a pure state, analysis affords us an

important criterion of its chemical nature, for unlike mixtures, the

compositions of which are always variable within wider or narrower

limits, chemical compounds present definite and characteristic

mass-relations, which find full expression in the atomic theory

propounded by Dalton (see ATOM). According to this theory a mixture is

the result of the mutual interpenetration of the molecules of

substances, which remain unchanged as such, whilst chemical union

involves changes more deeply seated, inasmuch as new molecular species

appear. These new substances, if well-defined chemical compounds, have a

perfectly definite composition and contain a definite, generally small,

number of elementary atoms, and therefore the law of constant

proportions follows at once, and the fact that only an integral number

of atoms of any element may enter into the composition of any molecule

determines the law of multiple proportions.

Nature of chemical forces.

These considerations bring us face to face with the task of more closely

investigating the nature of chemical forces, in other words, of

answering the question: what forces guide the atoms in the formation of

a new molecular species? This problem is still far from being completely

answered, so that a few general remarks must suffice here.

It is remarkable that among the most stable chemical compounds, we find

combinations of atoms of one and the same element. Thus, the stability

of the di-atomic molecule N2 is so great, that no trace of dissociation

has yet been proved even at the highest temperatures, and as the

constituent atoms of the molecule N2 must be regarded as absolutely

identical, it is clear that "polar" forces cannot be the cause of all

chemical action. On the other hand, especially powerful affinities are

also at work when so-called electro-positive and electro-negative

elements react. The forces which here come into play appear to be

considerably greater than those just mentioned; for instance, potassium

fluoride is perhaps the most stable of all known compounds.

It is also to be noticed that the combinations of the electro-negative

elements (metalloids) with one another exhibit a metalloid character,

and also we find, in the mutual combinations of metals, all the

characteristics of the metallic state; but in the formation of a _salt_

from a metal and a metalloid we have an entirely new substance, quite

different from its components; and at the same time, the product is seen

to be an electrolyte, i.e. to have the power of splitting up into a

positively and a negatively charged constituent when dissolved in some

solvent. These considerations lead to the conviction that forces of a

"polar" origin play an important part here, and indeed we may make the

general surmise that in the act of chemical combination forces of both a

non-polar and polar nature play a part, and that the latter are in all

probability identical with the electric forces.

It now remains to be asked--what are the laws which govern the action

of these forces? This question is of fundamental importance, since it

leads directly to those laws which regulate the chemical process.

Besides the already mentioned fundamental law of chemical combination,

that of constant and multiple proportions, there is the law of chemical

mass-action, discovered by Guldberg and Waage in 1867, which we will now

develop from a kinetic standpoint.

_Kinetic Basis of the Law of Chemical Mass-action._--We will assume that

the molecular species A1, A2, ... A'1, A'2, ... are present in a

homogeneous system, where they can react on each other only according to

the scheme