THE ARMY
By no means the least of the Prince's tasks was the reorganisation
and training of the Roumanian army, which at the time of his
accession was in the most deplorable condition. Moulded on the
pattern of the French army of 1859, and trained by a French _mission
militaire_, it reproduced many of the defects of the army, which
failed so utterly in 1870, and yet missed those qualities which
saved the Imperial army of France from dishonour in the field.
The young Prince was fully aware of the potent influence for good
that a well-disciplined army exerts upon the welfare of a nation,
and determined from the first to employ the highest moral and
material resources of his country to establish an army which, if
not formidable in numbers, should at least be worthy of respect in
point of quality. His nine years' service in the Prussian artillery
and cavalry had given him a thorough knowledge of the minutiæ of
military routine and discipline, whilst his active service on the
staff of the Crown Prince in 1864, and his familiar intercourse
with the leaders of the Prussian army had helped to train him in
the art of command. Prince Charles realised that a weak State like
Roumania, surrounded by its powerful neighbours, Russia, Austria,
and Turkey, must place its army, on a thoroughly satisfactory
footing, unless it were content to play the unsatisfactory part of
being forced to side, possibly against its will, with whatever State
was first to mobilise its forces, whilst its very weakness might
be the cause of a war. The safety and welfare of Roumania, he was
firmly convinced, rested on a sound military constitution, by means
of which its independence would some day be achieved on the field
of battle. No pains, therefore, and no exertions were too great to
devote to the training of his troops, who soon learnt to look up to
him as their example in all that a soldier should be. His absolute
impartiality and justice, his care for their well-being, and his
knowledge of every detail of warfare, made him as popular with his
officers as with his men.
From the outset Prince Charles endeavoured to mould the spirit of
his officers on that to which he had been accustomed in Prussia.
Shortly after his accession, he received a round robin from the
officers of the army, desiring that those officers who had taken
part in the Revolution of February 23, 1866, should be dismissed
from the army. Prince Charles received the deputation in the Palace
and addressed them as follows:
"I have accepted your address, first, because I respect the
feeling which has dictated this step; and secondly, that I might
have an occasion of informing you of my views upon military
honour and the duties of a soldier.
"An address is apt to assume the appearance of moral pressure,
such as no soldier can be permitted to exercise over the supreme
head of the army.
"The soldier's oath demands absolute obedience. Neither the
acts of the head of the army, nor the motives which lead to
them, admit of criticism; politics must have no influence on the
soldier, whose sole duty it is to defend with his last breath
his Sovereign and his country against every enemy.
"I am fully convinced that you share my views, and recognise
that your action is from every military standpoint inadmissible.
It is on that account that I desire you to trust to my military
judgment, and to leave to me to act in all that concerns the
army according to my own conviction and sense of duty.
"At the same time, I repeat, I appreciate the honourable feeling
on which this address is based; but I also again urge that I
demand at all times devotion and unreserved obedience from each
one of you.
"I have been and am still a soldier by inclination; and it is
for that reason, as well as on account of the importance to
the country of a well-disciplined army, that one of my most
cherished aims will be to secure for it the position to which
it has every right to aspire. I shall endeavour to become well
acquainted with the army and its leaders, that I may be able to
decide according to merit and justice, by utterly rejecting all
party or personal interest.
"Reckon confidently on this promise, and remember that I have
come to create a future, and not to rely upon the precedents
of a past which I ignore, and of which I would even prefer to
remain ignorant."
The spirit of insubordination was even more rife amongst the
National Guard, as the following incident will show. Prince
Charles ordered the National Guard of Bucharest to assemble at the
parade-ground of Cotroceni on July 2, 1866. The President of the
Ministry reported to the Prince the day before that the National
Guard would refuse to muster as ordered, as a rumour had gained
currency that they were to be disarmed on account of their party
tendencies. They intended, therefore, to parade before the Chamber,
and invoke the protection of the Deputies against such a step.
The Prince, however, refused to change his order, and insisted
upon its execution. On arriving at Cotroceni the following day,
he found that only a couple of hundred men had assembled there.
An aide-de-camp was at once despatched to Bucharest to enforce
the order, whilst Prince Charles set himself at the head of those
present and marched with bands playing into the capital. Companies
then appeared from all sides, until some three thousand men were
collected on the Theatre Square. The Guard then marched past and
cheered their Sovereign again and again, though their behaviour had
given him every reason to consider them an element of danger rather
than of safety to the State.
The projected army reforms were hampered at every turn by the want
of money; on one occasion the Prince was even obliged to advance
money out of his private purse for the purchase of two batteries of
rifled guns from Krupp's factory.
The strength of the army, which the Sublime Porte had limited to
30,000 men, was to be organised into a standing force of 20,000 with
a reserve of 10,000 men; whilst a Militia of 30,000 and a Landsturm
of 50,000 were to be instituted. Every Roumanian who was fit for
service was liable to serve from the ages of twenty to forty in one
or the other category. Though the total number of men available thus
amounted to over 100,000, the great bulk remained untrained, and of
very little value for service in the field. The frequent reviews and
inspections which Prince Charles initiated proved that the troops
lacked cohesion, and their officers the ability to lead their men in
accordance with the principles of modern warfare.
The first attempt at practical and systematic manœuvres for the
Roumanian troops took place near Cotroceni on October 14 and 15,
1867, when the garrison of Bucharest, consisting of five battalions,
three batteries of four guns each, and one regiment of cavalry,
practised the three phases of an engagement. The operations were
directed by the Prince in person, who also bivouacked with his
troops after a march of about twenty-two miles. The march back to
Bucharest the following day gave an opportunity for skirmishing and
manœuvring. Before entering the town Prince Charles assembled
the superior officers, and pointed out the great want of training
displayed, and how much remained to be done before the army could be
fit to take the field; he did not, however, forget to mention that
the officers had hitherto had but little opportunity to practise
themselves in leading their men, and none at all in handling a force
of the three arms at manœuvres.
On the occasion of these first manœuvres a number of officers
received special promotion, but considerable excitement was caused
by this step, as two of them were not on the best of terms with
the Ministry. The Minister of War also complained that his opinion
was not asked before the promotions took place. Prince Charles,
however, exercised the right of promotion intentionally in order to
make good several cases of injustice which had arisen from party
feeling. The effect of this independent action on the army was
excellent, as it was clearly seen that from henceforth the army
would not be affected by the influence of the political party of the
day.
The rifle selected by Prince Charles for the rearmament of his
infantry was the celebrated needle-gun of Prussia, 5000 of which
were to be delivered in March 1868, to be followed by another 15,000
during the course of the year. The ready aid offered by King William
to Prince Charles was promptly recognised by the Roumanians: "The
Prussians have sent us their best, whilst the French send us what
they have cast off."
Even in the matter of uniform the Prince insisted rather on utility
than show. The heavy gold lace of the officers was abolished; the
infantry received blue tunics (the artillery brown tunics), grey
trousers, and greatcoats; the cavalry were clothed as Hussars
instead of as Lancers.
The degrading corporal punishment of the bastinado was abolished
by a letter from Prince Charles to the Minister of War, dated May
21, 1868, and published in the official _Moniteur_. Prince Charles
retorted to the increasing interference of the foreign Powers in
Roumanian affairs with a redoubled zeal for the improvement of his
army, and hoped to raise the feeling of military honour among his
troops by abolishing so barbarous a punishment.
Another organisation for the army was passed by the Chamber on June
13, 1868, according to which the following five classes were to be
created for the defence of the country:
(1) The Standing Army and its Reserve.
(2) The Active Militia (Dorobanz and Frontier Battalions).
(3) The Sedentary Militia.
(4) The Citizen Guard, and
(5) The Landsturm.
Service in the first category was to consist of three years with the
colours and four in the reserve; only a third of the second category
was to serve with the colours whilst the remainder were allowed
furloughs; the third class only were called upon during a war; the
fourth was of no military importance, as it was formed from the
census classes, and permitted to elect its own officers; while the
fifth comprised the whole male population from the age of seventeen
to fifty not included in the former categories. This important
increase in the armed strength of the nation was achieved at the
trifling cost of £192,000, the total vote for the army amounting to
£320,000.
The 8th Infantry Regiment was raised on August 18, 1868, when the
existing Line Regiments received their 3rd battalions, and no less
than thirty-three Militia battalions were also to be organised. One
hundred and fifty non-commissioned officers were promoted to fill
the vacancies caused by this increase to the army.
A tradition had arisen in Roumania that the Minister of War was
ex-officio Commander-in-Chief of the army, and this led to the
political fluctuations and struggles being transplanted to the army
itself. Prince Charles, therefore, appointed a civilian, Bratianu,
Minister of War, to show that the Command in Chief was vested in the
person of the Sovereign, thereby enabling the army to devote itself
to its work of preparation for war without becoming involved in the
politics of the day.
Lieut.-Colonel von Krenski, of the Prussian army, arrived on October
8, 1868, to assist the Prince in his work of reorganisation; this
step caused the greatest excitement in French official circles,
where the absurd rumour gained ground that 6000 Prussian soldiers
had found their way into Roumania in disguise! The French _mission
militaire_, under Colonel Lamy, was thereupon withdrawn, and a
formal crusade against Colonel Krenski, the "representative of this
foreign policy," was set in motion. On his return to Berlin the
gallant Colonel was greeted with the pointed remark from his General
that his mission to Bucharest had caused more correspondence than
all the North German forces put together!
Prince Charles determined to establish a standing camp of
instruction for his troops, and finally settled on Furceni, in
Moldavia, on the left bank of the Seret, where plenty of wood for
huts was available. The regiments moved into camp in succession,
commencing in April 1869. In a letter to his father the Prince
alludes to his camp life as follows: "I am fairly well satisfied
with my stay in camp. The troops are capitally housed in the
barracks they have built themselves. The situation is fairly
healthy, as proved by the number of sick--200 out of 12,000 men;
whilst at Bucharest the proportion is 230 to 3000. Those troops
whose barracks are not completed remain under canvas. On my
arrival I found seven Line Regiments, four Rifle and two Engineer
battalions, the 2nd Artillery Regiment, one squadron of gendarmes,
and two of Dorobanz Cavalry, in addition to the Train, Sanitary, and
Supply Departments. I inspected a regiment every day, and lunched
with the officers of the various corps.... Both officers and men
like the camp, and the prevailing spirit is excellent. I promise
myself favourable results from camp life, especially with regard to
discipline and _esprit de corps_."... On his return from Livadia
the Prince attended the manœuvres before closing the camp, and
noticed a very marked progress, especially on the occasion of the
passage of the river Seret being forced.
The following year, 1870, Prince Charles demanded an even higher
standard of efficiency at his inspections, as the troops had
had ample time to become acquainted with their new drill and
regulations. Though the spirit of the regulars and militia left
little to be desired, the National Guard repeatedly proved their
worthlessness and want of reliability, especially during the
excitement of elections at Plojeschti, where the local National
Guard had to be disbanded.
Some slight changes in organisation took place in April 1871,
when the term of service with the colours was increased to four
years. The Dorobanz and Frontier units were now formed into a
Territorial Army, the infantry of which was now termed "Dorobanzi,"
and the cavalry "Calaraschi," the cavalry of the Line being named
"Roschiori." The Fire Brigades, hitherto organised in companies
and battalions, now formed part of the Territorial Army, and were
trained as gunners.
Prince Charles made the acquaintance of Colonel Charles Gordon, who
was then a member of the European Commission, on April 20, 1872.
The conversation turned chiefly on military matters, particularly
the great strategical value of Galatz, which Gordon declared could
easily be made into a strong fortress, as its position between the
Danube, the Prut, and the Seret would only render necessary works
against the approaches from the north. Colonel Gordon created a
most favourable impression upon the Prince, who showed the greatest
interest in his many war services in the Crimea and in China.
A Roumanian military decoration for long and loyal service for
officers was founded in June 1872, in silver for eighteen, and in
gold for twenty-five years' service. The oval medal was to be worn
with a blue ribbon, bordered with yellow. A similar medal in silver,
to which a pension of 300 francs was added, was struck for the
benefit of non-commissioned officers who had served as such with
credit for twelve years.
Late in September 1872, 11,000 men were assembled in a bivouac at
Baneassa, north of Bucharest, to take part in manœuvres near
Tirgoveschte. A series of engagements was practised over a deeply
intersected and wooded country, and gave the artillery in particular
an opportunity of distinguishing itself. At the close of the
exercises Prince Charles presented the first medals for good conduct
to a number of deserving non-commissioned officers.
In reply to the Prince's inquiry as to the best method of spending
the 8,000,000 francs voted by the Chamber for either barracks or
fortifications, Count von Moltke replied, in the spring of 1874,
that he could not understand the Roumanian desire for a large
standing army, as a peace strength of 10,000 men, to be increased
to 25,000 men in war, would be ample, as their only task was
to maintain order at home. Roumania was in the happy situation
of not requiring an army at all, and could employ the vast sums
which military establishments required elsewhere in furthering the
progress of the country. "How happy should we be, if we were not
forced to keep up so large an army, and could employ the hundreds of
millions for other purposes!" He declared, on the other hand, that
a Landwehr system would be of excellent service in educating and
disciplining the nation.
A longer report from the General Staff advocated the contrary view:
"In the event of a war with Turkey it would appear most suitable for
the Roumanian army to concentrate at Bucharest or near the Danube,
to oppose invasion at that point, and to stop or delay the hostile
advance.
"Turkey will make use of the Varna-Rustchuk railway to effect the
concentration of her forces, and will attempt to cross the Danube
near Rustchuk, making Bucharest her first objective.... If the
Roumanian army is assembled at the commencement of the war in a
fortified camp near the Carpathians instead of near the Danube, it
might easily happen that the enemy would seize the opportunity of
raiding the exposed capital....
"It would be better to avoid delusion and the expenditure of large
sums on projects from which the country can expect neither safety
nor utility. The army is the support of the State, and in Roumania,
where so many possibilities have to be considered, the training and
care of the army is of paramount importance."
The manœuvres of 1874 were attended by Russian, Austrian,
Prussian, Servian, Dutch, and English officers. The First Division
was to force the passage of the Buseu River and occupy the town of
Buseu, which the Second Division was to defend. The leading of the
troops on the first day, however, was not very satisfactory, and
Prince Charles was forced to speak very plainly at the _critique_.
But the operations of the following days gave great satisfaction,
and Colonel Asis Bey remarked to Colonel Morris: "This is serious.
I had not expected so much!" At the conclusion of the manœuvres
Prince Charles presented thirty-two colours and standards to various
regiments, and afterwards reviewed the troops. Colonel Morris,
in replying to a toast given at a gala-dinner the same evening,
remarked: "All that I have seen of this young army has filled me
with astonishment, and I shall report to my Government how Roumania
has progressed." Prince Charles wrote his father the following
account of the incident: "I thanked him for his praises, and said
that, coming from the mouth of an Englishman, they possessed
especial value, as his countrymen were in absolute ignorance of the
state of our affairs.... The Turk remarked to the Englishman that it
would be best to give Roumania her independence, and to conclude a
treaty of alliance with it. Most significant!"
The threatening situation in Eastern Europe in October 1876 led
to a partial concentration of the Roumanian army in anticipation
of the mobilisation order, which it was felt could not be long
delayed. Four Divisions were made up to their war strength to take
part in manœuvres, and at the same time to be ready to meet any
eventuality. A report from the Minister of War showed that only
25,000 Peabody rifles with insufficient ammunition were available.
Prince Charles wisely insisted that the First and Second Division
should be armed with this rifle, and the Third and Fourth should
receive the now practically obsolete needle-gun. The greatest
activity prevailed in the War Office, and eight new Dorobanz
Regiments of two battalions each were raised at once.
The unceasing care with which Prince Charles had watched the
training of his army in peace was to bear its fruit in the great
war which now ensued. The Roumanian troops proved that, though they
lacked the glorious traditions of the older armies, they were fully
their equals in discipline, courage, and endurance; and they more
than justified the confidence which their Prince placed in them.