ADMINISTRATION OF LINCOLN (CONTINUED), 1861-1865.
WAR FOR THE UNION (CONTINUED), 1862.
Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson--Change in the Confederate Line of
Defense--Capture of Island No. 10--Battle of Pittsburg Landing or
Shiloh--Capture of Corinth--Narrow Escape of Louisville--Battle of
Perryville--Battle of Murfreesboro' or Stone River--Battle of Pea
Ridge--Naval Battle Between the _Monitor_ and _Merrimac_--Fate of the
Two Vessels--Capture of New Orleans--The Advance Against
Richmond--McClellan's Peninsula Campaign--_The First Confederate
Invasion of the North_--_Battle of Antietam or Sharpsburg_--_Disastrous
Union Repulse at Fredericksburg_--_Summary of the Wars Operations_--_The
Confederate Privateers_--_The Emancipation Proclamation_--_Greenbacks
and Bond Issues_.
CAPTURE OF FORTS HENRY AND DONELSON.
The fighting of the second year of the war opened early. General Albert
Sidney Johnston, one of the ablest leaders of the Confederacy, was in
chief command in the West. The Confederate line ran through southern
Kentucky, from Columbus to Mill Spring, through Bowling Green. Two
powerful forts had been built in Tennessee, near the northern boundary
line. One was Fort Henry on the Tennessee River, and the other Fort
Donelson, twelve miles away, on the Cumberland.
Opposed to this strong position were two Union armies, the larger,
numbering 100,000, under General Don Carlos Buell, in central Kentucky,
and the lesser, numbering 15,000, commanded by General U.S. Grant, at
Cairo. Under Buell was General George H. Thomas, one of the finest
leaders in the Union army. In January, with a division of Buell's army,
he attacked the Confederates, routed and drove them into Tennessee. In
the battle, General Zollicoffer, the Confederate commander, was killed.
Embarking at Cairo, General Grant steamed up the Tennessee River,
intending to capture Fort Henry. Before he could do so, Commodore Andrew
H. Foote, with his fleet of gunboats, compelled it to surrender, though
most of the garrison escaped across the neck of land to Fort Donelson.
CAPTURE OF FORT DONELSON.
Upon learning that Fort Henry had fallen, Grant steamed up the
Cumberland to attack Fort Donelson, which was reinforced until the
garrison numbered some 20,000 men. It was a powerful fortification,
with many rifle-pits and intrenchments on the land side, and powerful
batteries commanding the river. The political General Floyd was in chief
command, the right wing being under General Simon B. Buckner and the
left in charge of General Gideon J. Pillow.
On the afternoon of February 14th, Commodore Foote opened the attack
with two wooden vessels and four ironclad gunboats. The garrison made no
reply until the boats had worked their way to within a fourth of a mile
of the fort, the elevation of which enabled it to send a plunging fire,
which proved so destructive that two of the boats were disabled and
drifted down current, the other following. Some fifty men were killed,
and among the wounded was Commodore Foote. He withdrew to Cairo,
intending to wait until a sufficient force could be brought up from that
point.
[Illustration: UNITED STATES 12-INCH BREECH-LOADING MORTAR, OR
HOWITZER.]
But General Grant, like the bull-dog to which he was often compared,
having inserted his teeth in his adversary, did not mean to let go.
Placing his troops in front of the works, it did not take him long to
invest the whole Confederate left, with the exception of a swampy strip
near the river. The weather, which had been unusually mild for the
season, now became extremely cold, and some of the Union men were frozen
to death in the trenches. The garrison also suffered greatly, but the
siege was pressed with untiring vigor. Seeing the inextricable coils
closing round them, the defenders made an attempt to cut their way out,
but Grant with true military genius saw the crisis and ordered an
advance along the whole line, the gunboats giving all the help they
could.
The situation of the garrison was so dangerous that a council of war was
held that night. Floyd and Pillow were frightened nearly out of their
wits. They rated themselves so high as prizes for the Federals that they
determined to make their escape before the surrender, which was
inevitable, was forced. Buckner was another sort of man. Disgusted with
the cowardice of his associates, he quietly announced that he would stay
by his men to the last. Floyd stole out of the fort with his brigade and
crossed the river in boats, while Pillow followed in a scow, a large
number of the cavalry galloping by the lower road to Nashville.
Grant was ready for the assault at daylight the next morning, when he
received a note from General Buckner proposing an armistice until noon
in order to arrange terms of capitulation. Grant's reply became famous:
"No terms except immediate and unconditional surrender can be accepted;
I propose to move immediately upon your works." Buckner was
disappointed, but he had no choice except to submit. He was greatly
relieved to find that his conqueror was a chivalrous man, who granted
better terms than he expected. The privates were allowed to retain their
personal baggage and the officers their side-arms. The number of
prisoners was 15,000, and the blow was the first really severe one that
the South had received. As may be supposed, the news caused great
rejoicing in the North and was the beginning of Grant's fame as a
military leader--a fame which steadily grew and expanded with the
progress of the war.
Jefferson Davis saw the mistake he had made in intrusting important
interests to political generals. He deprived Floyd of his command, and
that officer dropped back to the level from which he never ought to have
been raised. Pillow had done some good work in the Mexican War, but he
was erratic and unreliable, and he, too, was summarily snuffed out.
Buckner, a West Point graduate, upon being exchanged soon afterward, was
assigned to an important command and proved himself an excellent
soldier.
CHANGE IN THE CONFEDERATE LINE OF DEFENSE.
The capture of Forts Henry and Donelson compelled a change in the
Confederate line of defense. General Albert Sidney Johnston withdrew
from Bowling Green to Nashville, but fell back again upon learning of
the fall of Fort Donelson, and assumed position near Murfreesboro',
Tennessee. All the northern part of that State, including the Cumberland
River, was given up by the Confederates, and, when the new line was
established, the centre was held by Beauregard at Jackson, the left by
Polk at New Madrid, and the right by Johnston at Murfreesboro'. Thus the
Confederates were driven out of Kentucky and the northern part of
Tennessee. It was a serious check for the Confederacy.
CAPTURE OF ISLAND NO. 10.
General Grant gave the enemy no rest. In order to retain possession of
Island No. 10, it was necessary for them to hold the outpost of New
Madrid. In the latter part of February, General Pope led an expedition
against that place, while Commodore Foote made a demonstration in front
with his gunboats. Through cold and storm the Unionists bravely pushed
their way, and the garrison of New Madrid were compelled to take refuge
on Island No. 10, and in the works on the Kentucky side of the river.
Operations were then begun against Island No. 10. By digging a canal
twelve miles long, which permitted the gunboats to pass around the
defenses, and by energetic operations in all directions, the Confederate
position was rendered untenable, and the post, with a large amount of
war material, was surrendered to Commodore Foote.
Meanwhile, General Grant, after the occupation of Nashville, went down
the Tennessee River to Pittsburg Landing, while General Buell, with the
other portion of the Union army, started for the same point by land.
Aware of this division of the Federal forces, General Albert Sidney
Johnston hastily concentrated his own divisions with the intention of
crushing the two Union armies before they could unite. When Johnston
arrived in the vicinity of Pittsburg Landing on the 3d of April he had
40,000 men, divided into three corps and a reserve.
BATTLE OF PITTSBURG LANDING.
Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, as it is called in the South, consists of
a high bluff, a half-mile in extent, where General W.T. Sherman had been
ordered to take position and prepare for the arrival of 100,000 men.
Grant was not prepared for the unexpected attack. Buell was some
distance away with 40,000 troops, and the Union commander had a somewhat
less force on his side of the Tennessee River. Only a few defenses had
been thrown up, and the men were scattered over the ground, when at
daylight on Sunday morning, April 6th, the Confederates furiously
assailed the outlying divisions of the Union army and drove them back
upon the main body. They steadily gained ground, and it looked as if
nothing could save the Union army from overwhelming disaster.
When the attack was made Grant was on the opposite side of the river in
consultation with Buell. Hurrying to the scene of the furious conflict,
it looked as if his army was on the edge of inevitable destruction, but
he handled his demoralized forces with such masterly skill that the
panic was checked, and on the river bank, over which they had been
well-nigh driven, an effective stand was made and the Confederates were
checked, the gunboats giving invaluable assistance in saving the army
from defeat. The night closed with all the advantage on the side of the
Confederates.
The darkness, however, was of immeasurable value to the Federals.
Buell's army was brought across the river and other reinforcements
arrived, so that in the morning Grant found himself in command of fully
50,000 well-equipped troops. The greatest advantage gained by the
Federals, however, came during the previous day's fighting, when
everything was going the way of their enemies. General Albert Sidney
Johnston, while directing operations, was struck by a shot which
shattered his knee and mortally wounded him. He spoke only a few words
as he was lifted from his horse, and the command devolved upon
Beauregard, much his inferior in ability. He was unable to restrain the
troops from plundering the captured Union camps; and when on the second
day Grant launched his regiments against them, they were driven
pell-mell from the field, and did not stop their retreat until they
reached Corinth, Mississippi.
[Illustration: A RAILROAD BATTERY.]
Little fear of the Union troops being caught a second time at such a
disadvantage. They were established on the upper part of the Tennessee,
prepared to strike blows in any direction.
EVACUATION OF CORINTH.
The withdrawal of Beauregard to Corinth made that point valuable to the
Unionists, because of the large number of railroads which centre there.
It was strongly fortified, and no one expected its capture without a
severe battle. General Halleck, who was high in favor with the
government, assumed command of the Union armies and began an advance
upon Corinth. He moved slowly and with great caution, and did not reach
the front of the place until the close of May. While making preparations
to attack, Beauregard withdrew and retired still further southward. No
further Union advance was made for some time. The important result
accomplished was in opening up the Mississippi from Cairo to Memphis and
extending the Union line so that it passed along the southern boundary
of Tennessee.
Beauregard resembled McClellan in many respects. He was excessively
cautious and disposed to dig trenches and throw up fortifications rather
than fight. Jefferson Davis always had a warm regard for General Braxton
Bragg, whom he now put in the place of Beauregard. By the opening of
September, Bragg had an army of 60,000 men. Kirby Smith's corps was at
Knoxville and Hardee and Polk were with Bragg at Chattanooga.
They were ordered to march through Kentucky to Louisville, threatening
Cincinnati on the way. Kirby Smith's approach threw that city into a
panic, but he turned off and joined Bragg at Frankfort.
A RACE FOR LOUISVILLE.
By this time the danger of Louisville was apparent, and Buell, who was
near Nashville, hastened to the defense of the more important city.
Bragg ran a race with him, but the burning of a bridge, spanning the
river at Bardstown, stopped him just long enough to allow Buell to reach
Louisville first. This was accomplished on the 25th of September, and
Buell's army was increased to 100,000 men.
BATTLE OF PERRYVILLE.
Disappointed in securing the main prize, Bragg marched to Frankfort,
where he installed a provisional governor of Kentucky and issued a
high-sounding proclamation, to which few paid attention. Bragg had
entered one of the richest sections of the State, and he secured an
enormous amount of supplies in the shape of cattle, mules, bacon, and
cloth. His presence in the State was intolerable to the Union forces,
and Buell, finding a strong army under his command, set out to attack
him. Bragg started to retreat through the Cumberland Mountains on the
1st of October, with Buell in pursuit. A severe but indecisive battle
was fought at Perryville, and the Confederates succeeded in carrying
away their immense booty to Chattanooga, while the Union army took
position at Nashville.
The government was dissatisfied with the sluggishness of Buell and
replaced him with General William S. Rosecrans. He posted a part of his
army at Nashville and the remainder along the line of the Cumberland
River. Advancing against Bragg, he faced him in front of Murfreesboro',
some forty miles from Nashville. On the 30th of December brisk firing
took place between the armies, and when they encamped for the night
their fires were in plain sight of each other.
BATTLE OF MURFREESBORO' OR STONE RIVER.
The opposing forces were on both sides of Stone River (this battle is
generally referred to in the South by that name), a short distance to
the northwest of Murfreesboro'. By a curious coincidence, each of the
respective commanders formed the same plan of attack, it being to mass
his forces on the left and crush his enemy's right wing. A terrific
engagement lasted all day, and night closed without any decisive
advantage to either side, though the Confederates had succeeded in
driving back the Union right upon the left and occupying a considerable
portion of the field formerly held by the Federals.
The exhaustion of the armies prevented anything more than skirmishing on
New Year's day, 1863, but on the afternoon of January 2d the furious
battle was renewed. Rosecrans ordered an advance of the whole line, and
the Confederate right wing was broken and the flank so endangered that
Bragg was compelled to withdraw his entire army. The only way for him to
retain Tennessee was to abandon Murfreesboro'. Accordingly, he retreated
to a point beyond Duck River, about fifty miles south of Murfreesboro',
which was occupied by the Federals, January 5, 1863.
Other important events took place in the West. General Sterling Price
wintered in Springfield, Missouri, in the southern part of the State,
and gained a good many recruits and a large amount of needed supplies.
He was attacked by Sigel and Curtis on the 12th of February, and
continued his retreat to the Boston Mountains, where he was reinforced
by McCulloch, Van Dorn, and Albert Pike, and felt himself strong enough
to turn about and attack Curtis, who was in the neighborhood of Pea
Ridge.
BATTLE OF PEA RIDGE.
The Union right was commanded by General Sigel, the left by General
Carr, and the centre by General Jefferson C. Davis. Sigel was surprised
and came very near being cut off, but he was master of the art of
retreating rather than of advancing, and he extricated his Germans with
astonishing skill and joined the main army. General Curtis changed his
front, and in the attack his right wing was driven back, obliging him
that night to take a new position a mile to the rear. The fighting next
day was at first in favor of the Confederates, and for a time the Union
army was in a critical position; but with great bravery and skill the
enemy's left was turned, the centre broken, and their forces driven in
disorder from the field.
In this battle Albert Pike used 2,000 Indian allies. They belonged to
the "civilized" tribes, and good service was expected from them; but
they were unaccustomed to fighting in the open, could not be
disciplined, and in the excitement of the struggle it is alleged they so
lost their heads that they scalped about as many of the Confederates as
Unionists. At any rate, the experiment was a failure, and thereafter
they cut no figure in the war.
INDECISIVE FIGHTING.
The enemy were so badly shaken that they retreated toward the North to
reorganize and recruit. Reinforcements from Kansas and Missouri also
joined Curtis, who advanced in the direction of Springfield, Missouri,
upon learning that Price was making for the same point. Nothing
followed, and Curtis returned to Arkansas. He had been at Batesville in
that State a few months when he found himself in serious peril. His
supplies were nearly exhausted, and it was impossible to renew them in
the hostile country by which he was surrounded. An expedition for his
relief left Memphis in June, but failed. Supplies from Missouri,
however, reached him early in July.
Curtis marched to Jacksonport, and afterward established himself at
Helena on the Mississippi. In September he was appointed commander of
the department of Missouri, which included that State, Arkansas, and the
Indian Territory. There were many minor engagements, and the Unionists
succeeded in keeping the Confederates from regaining their former
foothold in Missouri and north of Arkansas. It may be said that all the
fighting in that section produced not the slightest effect on the war as
a whole. The best military leaders of the Confederacy advised President
Davis to withdraw all his forces beyond the Mississippi and concentrate
them in the East, but he rejected their counsel, and his stubbornness
greatly weakened the Confederacy.
Having given an account of military operations in the West, it now
remains to tell of the much more important ones that occurred on the
coast and in the East, for they were decisive in their nature, and
produced a distinct effect upon the progress of the war for the Union.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE MERRIMAC.
It has been stated that early in the war the Norfolk navy yard was
burned to prevent its falling into the possession of the Confederates.
Among the vessels sunk was the frigate _Merrimac_, which went down
before much injury was done to her. She was a formidable craft of 3,500
tons, 300 feet in length, and had mounted 40 guns. The Confederates
succeeded in raising her, and proceeded to work marvelous changes in
her structure, by which she was turned into the first real armor-clad
ever constructed. She was protected by layers of railroad iron, which
sloped like the roof of a house, and was furnished with a prow of cast
iron which projected four feet in front. Pivot guns were so fixed as to
be used for bow and stern chasers, and the pilot-house was placed
forward of the smoke-stack and armored with four inches of iron. She
carried ten guns, one at the stern, one at the bow, and eight at the
sides, and fired shells. Her iron armor sloped down at the sides, so
that she looked like an enormous mansard-roof moving through the water.
Her commanding officer was Commodore Franklin Buchanan, formerly of the
United States navy, while under him were Lieutenant Catesby R. Jones,
the executive officer, six other lieutenants, six midshipmen, surgeons,
engineers, and subordinate officers, in addition to a crew of 300 men.
She was rechristened the _Virginia_, but will always be remembered as
the _Merrimac_.
[Illustration: SECRETARY STANTON'S OPINION ABOUT THE MERRIMAC.
"The whole character of the war will be changed."]
Of necessity this craft, being the pioneer of its kind, had many
defects. She could move only very slowly, and her great length of 300
feet and poor steering apparatus required a half-hour for her to make a
complete turn, while her draft of 22 feet confined her to the narrow
channel of the Roads. Still she could go faster than an ordinary sailing
vessel, and her resistless momentum and iron prow enabled her to crush
any vessel afloat as if it were an egg-shell.
Great pains were taken by the Confederates to keep secret the
particulars of her building; but it was known in Washington that a
strange craft was in course of construction at Norfolk, with which it
was expected to capture Washington and devastate the leading cities
along the Atlantic seaboard. Ericsson, the famous Swedish inventor, was
engaged near New York in building a smaller vessel upon the same
principle, and he was pressed to make all possible haste in finishing
it; for, though the government did not suspect the terrible
effectiveness of the _Merrimac_, they meant to take all reasonable
precautions against it.
AWFUL WORK OF THE MERRIMAC.
There were lying at Hampton Roads at that time five Union vessels,
which, being so close to the dangerous craft, were on the alert day and
night for her appearance. About noon on March 8th a column of dark smoke
in the direction of the Norfolk navy yard, followed by the forging into
sight of the huge hulk, left no doubt that the long-expected _Merrimac_
was coming forth upon her errand of death and destruction. In her
company were three gunboats ready to aid her in any way possible. The
steam frigate _Minnesota_ and _Roanoke_ and the sailing frigates
_Congress_, _Cumberland_, and _St. Lawrence_ immediately cleared their
decks for action.
The _Minnesota_ and _Roanoke_ moved out to meet the _Merrimac_, but both
got aground. In the case of the _Minnesota_ this was due to the
treachery of the pilot, who was in the employ of the Confederates. The
_Cumberland_ swerved so as to bring her broadsides to bear, and opened
with her pivot guns, at the distance of a mile. The aim was accurate,
but the iron balls which struck the massive hide of the _Merrimac_
bounded off like pebbles skipping over the water. Then the _Congress_
added her broadsides to those of the _Cumberland_, but the leviathan
shed them all as if they were tiny hailstones, and, slowly advancing in
grim silence, finally opened with her guns, quickly killing four marines
and five sailors on the _Cumberland_. Then followed her resistless
broadsides, which played awful havoc with officers and men. Swinging
slowly around, the _Merrimac_ next steamed a mile up the James, and,
turning again, came back under full speed. Striking the _Cumberland_
under the starboard bow, she smashed a hole into her through which a
horse might have entered. The ship keeled over until her yardarms were
close to the water. The terrific force broke off the prow of the
_Merrimac_, but her frightful shots riddled the _Cumberland_ and set
her on fire. The flames were extinguished, and the _Cumberland_
delivered broadside after broadside, only to see the enormous missiles
fly off and spin harmlessly hundreds of feet away.
Lieutenant George U. Morris, of the _Cumberland_, ran up the red flag
meaning "no surrender," and with a heroism never surpassed maintained
the unequal fight, if fight it can be called where there was absolutely
no hope for him. Finally the _Cumberland_ went down to her cross-trees,
in fifty-four feet of water. Lieutenant Morris succeeded in saving
himself by swimming, but of the crew of 376, 121 lost their lives.
The _Cumberland_ being destroyed, the _Merrimac_ headed for the
_Congress_, which had run aground. She replied with her harmless
broadsides, but the _Merrimac_ held her completely at her mercy, raking
her fore and aft, and killing 100 of the crew, including the commander.
It being evident that not a man could escape, the white flag was run up
in token of surrender. The hot firing from the shore preventing
Commodore Buchanan from taking possession of the _Congress_, whereupon
he fired her with hot shot.
During the fighting, Commodore Buchanan fearlessly exposed himself on
the upper deck of the _Merrimac_, and was badly wounded in the thigh by
a Union sharpshooter, whereupon the command was assumed by Lieutenant
Jones. By that time it was growing dark and the _Merrimac_ steamed back
to Sewall's Point, intending to return the next morning and complete her
appalling work of destruction.
CONSTERNATION IN THE NORTH.
The news of what she had done caused consternation throughout the North.
President Lincoln called a special cabinet meeting, at which Secretary
Stanton declared, in great excitement, that nothing could prevent the
monster from steaming up the Potomac, destroying Washington, and laying
the principal northern cities under contribution. The alarm of the bluff
secretary was natural, but there was no real ground for it.
THE MONITOR.
The Swedish inventor, John Ericsson, had completed his _Monitor_, which
at that hour was steaming southward from New York. Although an ironclad
like the _Merrimac_, she was as different as can be conceived in
construction. She resembled a raft, the upper portion of which was 172
feet long and the lower 124 feet. The sides of the former were made of
oak, twenty-five inches thick, and covered with five-inch iron armor.
The turret was protected by eight-inch plates of wrought iron,
increasing in thickness to the port-holes, near which it was eleven
inches through. It was nine feet high, with a diameter of twenty-one
feet. She drew only ten feet of water, and was armored with two
eleven-inch Dahlgren guns, smooth bore, firing solid shot weighing 180
pounds.
The pilot-house was made of nine-inch plates of forged iron, rose four
feet above the deck, and would hold three men by crowding. The _Monitor_
was one-fifth the size of the _Merrimac_, and her appearance has been
likened to that of a cheese-box on a raft. She was in command of
Lieutenant John L. Worden, with Lieutenant S. Dana Green as executive
officer. Her crew consisted of sixteen officers and forty-two men, and
she left New York on the morning of March 6th, in tow of a tug-boat. The
greatest difficulty was encountered in managing her, the men narrowly
escaping being smothered by gas, and, had not the weather been unusually
favorable, she would have foundered; but providentially she steamed into
Hampton Roads, undiscovered by the enemy, and took her position behind
the _Minnesota_, ready for the events of the morrow.
[Illustration: JOHN ERICSSON.
The famous constructor of the Monitor.]
The _Merrimac_ was promptly on time the next morning, and was
accompanied by two gunboats; but while steaming toward the remaining
Union vessels the _Monitor_ darted out from behind the _Minnesota_ and
boldly advanced to meet her terrible antagonist. They silently
approached each other until within a hundred yards, when the _Monitor_
fired a shot, to which the _Merrimac_ replied. The firing was rapid for
a time and then became slower, with the intervening space varying from
fifty yards to four times that distance. A number of the _Merrimac's_
shots struck the _Monitor's_ pilot-house and turret, the crash doing no
harm except almost to deafen the men within. Most of the shells,
however, missed or skipped over the low deck of the smaller boat.
The latter was able to dodge the rushes of the larger craft and play all
around her, but the terrible pounding worked damage to both, the
_Monitor_ suffering the most. The iron plate of the pilot-house was
lifted by a shell, which blinded Lieutenant Worden, and so disabled him
that he was forced to turn over the command to Lieutenant Green. Worden,
who lived to become an admiral, never fully recovered from his injuries.
The firing, dodging, ramming, and fighting continued for four hours, but
the _Merrimac_ was unable to disable her nimble antagonist, and slowly
steamed back to Norfolk, while the _Monitor_ returned to her former
position, and was carefully kept in reserve by the government against
future perils of a similar character.
FATE OF THE MERRIMAC AND MONITOR.
Neither of the vessels was permitted to do further service. Some months
later, upon the evacuation of Norfolk, the _Merrimac_ was blown up to
prevent her falling into the hands of the Unionists, and the _Monitor_
foundered off Hatteras in December, 1862. The battle wrought a complete
revolution in naval warfare. The days of wooden ships ended, and all the
navies of the world are now made up mainly of ironclads.
More important work was done by the Union fleets during this year. The
government put forth every energy to build ships, with the result that
hundreds were added to the naval force, many of which were partial and
others wholly ironclad.
OTHER COAST OPERATIONS.
A month before the fight between the _Monitor_ and _Merrimac_, a
formidable naval expedition under Commodore Goldsborough and General
Ambrose E. Burnside passed down the Atlantic coast and captured Roanoke
Island. St. Augustine and a number of other places in Florida were
captured by troops from Port Royal. Siege was laid to Fort Pulaski, at
the mouth of the Savannah River, and it surrendered April 11th. The
advantage of these and similar captures was that it gave the blockading
fleets control of the principal harbors, and made it easier to enforce a
rigid blockade. There were two ports, however, which the Union vessels
were never able to capture until the close of the war. They were
Charleston and Wilmington, North Carolina. The latter became the chief
port from which the Confederate blockade-runners dashed out or entered
and were enabled to bring the most-needed medical and other supplies to
the Confederacy, while at the same time the owners and officers of the
ships reaped fortunes for themselves.
CAPTURE OF NEW ORLEANS.
One of the primal purposes of the war was to open the Mississippi, which
was locked by the enemy at Vicksburg and New Orleans. As a necessary
step in the opening of the great river, an expedition was fitted out for
the capture of New Orleans. Well aware of what was coming, the
Confederates had done all they could to strengthen the defenses of the
city. Thirty miles from the mouth of the Mississippi were the powerful
Forts Jackson and St. Philip, on opposite sides of the river. They
mounted 100 heavy guns, and six powerful chains were stretched across,
supported by an immense raft of cypress logs. Thus the river was closed
and no fleet could approach New Orleans until these obstructions were
removed or overcome. When this should be done, it was still seventy-five
miles to New Orleans.
Above the boom of hulks and logs was a fleet of fifteen Confederate
vessels, including the ironclad ram _Manassas_, and a partly completed
floating battery armored with railroad iron, and known as the
_Louisiana_. It has been stated that the ironclads of those days were
only partly protected by armor.
The naval and military expedition which sailed for New Orleans in the
spring of 1862 consisted of six sloops of war, sixteen gunboats, five
other vessels, and twenty-one mortar-schooners, the last being under
charge of Captain David D. Porter, while Commodore David G. Farragut had
command of the fleet. The troops, mostly from New England, were
commanded by General B.F. Butler.
Farragut crossed the bar, April 8th, and spent several days in making
his preparations for bombarding Forts Jackson and St. Philip. The
bombardment began April 27th, 1,400 shells being thrown in one day.
Farragut then called his captains together and told them he had resolved
to run by the forts. The only question, therefore, was as to the best
means of doing it. It was decided to make the attempt at night. The
darkness, however, was of little benefit, since the enemy's huge
bonfires on both shores lit up the river as if it were noonday. Previous
to this, Lieutenant C.H.B. Caldwell, in the gunboat _Itasca_, had
ascended the river undiscovered in the darkness and opened a way through
the boom for the fleet.
Farragut arranged the fleet in two columns, his own firing upon Fort
Jackson, while the other poured its broadsides into Fort St. Philip. The
flagship _Hartford_ led the way under cover of Porter's mortar-boats and
the others followed. There was a furious fight between the fleets, but
every Confederate was either captured or destroyed.
Farragut steamed on to the city, silencing the batteries along the
banks, and, at noon, a messenger was sent ashore with a demand for the
surrender of the city. General Lovell was in command of 3,000 troops,
intended for the defense of New Orleans, but he fled. The mayor refusing
to haul down the secession flag, the Union troops took possession,
raised the Union banner over the mint, and placed the city in charge of
General Butler. The citizens were in such a savage mood that Commodore
Farragut had to bring them to their senses by a threat to bombard the
city.
General Butler ruled with great strictness, and virtually held New
Orleans under martial law. A Confederate won the applause of his friends
by climbing to the top of the mint, hauling down the flag, dragging it
through the mud, and then tearing it to shreds. Butler brought him to
trial before a military commission, and, being found guilty of the
unpardonable insult to the flag, he was hanged.
The fall of New Orleans, one of the leading cities, was a severe blow to
the Confederacy. The only points where the Mississippi was strongly held
by the enemy were at Vicksburg and Port Hudson, and attention was
already turned to them. Farragut having completed his work, for the time
took command in the Gulf of Mexico.
[Illustration: LIBBY PRISON IN 1865.]
The most momentous events of the year occurred in the east and marked
the struggle between the Army of the Potomac and the Confederate Army of
Northern Virginia, as it came to be called.
THE ADVANCE AGAINST RICHMOND.
McClellan continued to drill and train his army through the fall of
1861, and well into the following year. It numbered nearly 200,000 men
and was one of the finest organizations in the world. In reply to the
expressions of impatience, the commander invariably replied that a
forward movement would soon be begun, but the weeks and months passed
and the drilling went on, and nothing was done. Finally, the government
gave the commander to understand that he must advance.
McClellan's plan was to move against Richmond, from the lower part of
Chesapeake Bay, by way of Urbana on the Rappahannock. While this had
many advantages, its fatal objection in the eyes of the President was
that it would leave Washington unprotected. He issued an order on the
27th of January directing that on the 22d of February there should be a
general land and naval movement against the enemy's position on the
Potomac, and that, after providing for the defense of Washington, a
force should seize and occupy a point upon the railway to the southwest
of Manassas Junction. McClellan was offended by the act of the President
and protested, but Mr. Lincoln clung in the main to his plan, and, since
the delay continued, he issued orders directing the formation of the
army into corps and naming the generals to command them. Another order
made arrangements for the intended advance, and it was left to McClellan
to carry them out.
[Illustration: LIBBY PRISON IN 1884, BEFORE ITS REMOVAL TO CHICAGO.]
Reliable information reached Washington that General Joseph E. Johnston,
commander of the Confederate forces at Manassas, was engaged in
withdrawing his lines with a view of taking a stronger position nearer
Richmond. General McClellan began a forward movement with the Army of
the Potomac on the 10th of March. The truth was that Confederate spies
in Washington had apprised Johnston of the intended advance of McClellan
from the lower Chesapeake, and his action was with a view of checkmating
the Union commander. Instead of carrying out this plan, McClellan
marched to Centreville and occupied the vacated intrenchments of the
enemy. The general hope was that Johnston would be forced to give
battle, but the roads in Virginia, at that season, were one sea of mud,
which made progress so slow that the Confederates had time in which to
withdraw at their leisure.
Crossing the Potomac into Virginia, with the main army, McClellan made
his first headquarters at Fairfax Court-House. About that time he
received news that he was relieved of the command of the other
departments, his authority being confined to the direction of the Army
of the Potomac. He was directed by the President to garrison Manassas
securely, see that Washington was protected, and, with the rest of his
force, assume a new base at Fort Monroe, or "anywhere between here and
there," and, above all things, to pursue the enemy "by _some_ route."
McClellan's four corps commanders were Sumner, McDowell, Heintzelman,
and Keyes, and they and he agreed upon a plan of campaign. The
difficulties of transporting nearly 100,000 men to Fort Monroe were so
great that two weeks were occupied in completing the transfer. In order
to prevent the Confederates from getting in his rear, McClellan directed
Banks to rebuild the railroad from Washington to Manassas and Strasburg,
thus keeping open communication with the Shenandoah Valley, where the
enemy were in force, a fact which caused the government much uneasiness
for the national capital. Indeed, it was a part of the effective plan of
Johnston to embarrass the campaign against Richmond.
Banks occupied Winchester about the middle of March and sent a force
under Shields to Strasburg. He found Stonewall Jackson there with such a
strong force that he fell back to Winchester, where, after the
withdrawal of the main body by Banks, he was attacked by Jackson, who
was repulsed.
In pursuance of the new plan of campaign, McClellan made Fort Monroe his
first base of operations, using the route through Yorktown and West
Point for the advance to Richmond. He expected to fight a great battle
on the way thither, for the enemy could not fail to read the meaning of
his movements. McClellan reasoned that this battle would take place
between West Point and Richmond, and his intention was to advance
without delay to the former position and use it as his chief depot for
supplies. His plan was to make a combined naval and military attack on
Yorktown, send a strong force up the York River, aided by the gunboats,
and thus establish his new base of operations within twenty-five miles
of the Confederate capital.
It was not long before he began calling for reinforcements, and the
government, instead of aiding him, took away piecemeal many of the
troops upon which the commander had counted to aid him in his campaign.
He wanted 150,000 men and a large increase of cannon. The 10,000 men,
composing Blenker's division, were detached, as the President informed
him, to support Fremont, but Mr. Lincoln promised to withdraw no more
from the main army.
McClellan remained at his headquarters near Alexandria until most of his
forces were well on the road to the Yorktown peninsula. He left on the
1st of April and the troops were landed three days later. Then a force
of 56,000 men with 100 guns started for Yorktown.
But for the inherent timidity and distrust of McClellan, he might have
captured Richmond, by marching straight ahead to the city, for the
Confederate force opposed to him was but a fragment of his own, and
could have been trampled underfoot. The Confederate intrenchments were a
dozen miles in length, and were defended by Magruder with a force that
allowed less than a thousand men for each mile.
Instead of pushing on, McClellan began a regular siege of Yorktown.
Immense siege guns were dragged through the muddy swamps, and the musket
was laid aside for the spade and shovel, which the men applied week
after week, until worn out and with thousands prostrated by sickness.
The delay, as a matter of course, was improved by the Confederates in
strengthening the defenses of their capital. At the end of a month, the
Union army advanced, whereupon Magruder fell back to other
fortifications nearer Richmond. The whole month had been worse than
thrown away by McClellan, for it had given the enemy all the time they
needed to complete their defenses.
The Confederate army was increased, and reinforcements were sent to
McClellan, whose forces were fully 20,000 in excess of those under
Johnston, but the Union leader magnified the strength of the enemy and
continued to call for more troops. It was this unvarying demand that
brought the impatient remark from Secretary of War Stanton:
"If I gave McClellan a million men, he would swear the rebels had two
millions, and sit down in the mud and refuse to move until he had three
millions."
The Confederates fell back to Williamsburg, at the narrowest part of the
peninsula, between the James and York Rivers, and began fortifying their
position. The Union gunboats ascended to Yorktown, where the Federal
depots were established. Longstreet, in command of the Confederate rear,
halted and gave battle with a view of protecting his trains.
The engagement took place on May 5th. The Unionists were repulsed at
first, but regained and held their ground, the night closing without any
decided advantage to either army. Longstreet, however, had held the
Federals in check as long as was necessary, and when he resumed his
retreat McClellan did not attempt to pursue him.
The Confederates continued falling back, with McClellan cautiously
following. The delay secured by the enemy enabled them to send their
baggage and supply trains into Richmond, while the army stripped for the
fray. They abandoned the Yorktown peninsula altogether and evacuated
Norfolk, which was occupied by General Wool. It was this movement which
caused the blowing up of the _Merrimac_, referred to elsewhere.
From this it will be seen that both shores of the James were in
possession of the Union forces. The Confederate army withdrew within the
defenses of Richmond on the 10th of May, and the Federal gunboats, after
steaming up the river to within twelve miles of the city, were compelled
to withdraw before the plunging shots of the batteries, which stood on
the tops of the high bluffs.
Following the line of the Pamunkey, McClellan's advance-guard reached
the Chickahominy on the 21st of May, and could plainly see the spires
and steeples of Richmond, which was thrown into a state of great alarm.
Rain fell most of the time, and the rise of the Chickahominy carried
away the bridges, made the surrounding country a swamp, and badly
divided the Union army.
[Illustration: MOIST WEATHER AT THE FRONT.]
One of the most effective means employed by the Confederate commander
against the Union advance was by creating a diversion in the Shenandoah
Valley and fear for the safety of Washington. Rather than lose that, our
government would have sacrificed the Army of the Potomac. General
Johnston had sent Stonewall Jackson into the Valley, where Banks was in
command. He was another of the political generals, wholly unfitted for
the responsibilities placed in his hands.
At the opening of hostilities, Banks was so confident that he
telegraphed the government that Jackson was on the eve of being crushed;
but it proved the other way. Banks was completely outgeneraled and sent
flying toward Washington. His troops marched more than thirty miles a
day, and would have been captured or destroyed to a man had Jackson
continued his pursuit, but his forces were fewer in numbers, and he
allowed the exhausted and panic-stricken fugitives to find refuge in
Washington.
This routing of Banks frightened Washington again, and McDowell was
hastily called from Fredericksburg to the defense of the capital. This
was the very thing for which the Confederates had planned, since it kept
those reinforcements away from McClellan, who was ordered by President
Lincoln to attack at once or give up his plan. Still cautious and
wishing to feel every foot of the way, McClellan pushed a reconnaissance
in the direction of Hanover Court-House.
When fire was opened on the Confederates most of them fell back to
Richmond. General Jo Johnston, perceiving that the Union army was
divided by the swollen Chickahominy, quickly took advantage of it, and
prepared to hurl a force of 50,000 against the Union corps, which
numbered a little more than half as many. A violent rain so interfered
with his plans that 10,000 of his troops were unable to take part in the
battle. In the disjointed struggle which followed, the Confederates were
successful at what is known as the battle of Seven Pines, but were
defeated at Fair Oaks. Both were fought on June 1st.
GENERAL LEE BECOMES CONFEDERATE COMMANDER.
In the fighting on the morrow, General Johnston, while directing the
attack of the right, was desperately wounded by an exploding shell,
which broke several ribs and knocked him from his horse. General G.W.
Smith succeeded him in command, but three days later gave way to General
R.E. Lee, who in time became the supreme head of the military forces of
the Confederacy, and retained his command to the last.
McCLELLAN'S TARDINESS.
The corps commanders believed that if McClellan would press matters
Richmond could be captured, but the Union leader devoted several weeks
to building bridges. It rained incessantly and the health of the men
suffered. Many more died from disease than from bullets and wounds, and
McClellan's tardiness gave the enemy the time they needed in which to
make their combinations as strong as possible. Stonewall Jackson,
although placed in a perilous position in the Shenandoah Valley,
skillfully extricated himself and united his corps with the troops that
were defending Richmond.
GENERAL STUART'S RAID.
While McClellan was engaged in constructing bridges over the
Chickahominy, and no important movement was made by either army, General
J.E.B. Stuart, the famous cavalry leader, left Richmond, June 13th, with
a strong mounted force, and, by rapid riding and his knowledge of the
country, passed entirely around the Federal army, cutting telegraph
wires, burning bridges, capturing wagons and supplies, frightening
McClellan, and returning to Richmond, after two days' absence, with the
loss of only a single man.
The Union commander was discouraged by the withdrawal of McDowell to the
defense of Washington, by the uncertainty regarding the disposition of
the enemy's corps, and by the belief that they were much more numerous
than was the fact. He decided to change the base of his operations from
the Pamunkey to the James. Both he and Lee fixed upon the same day--June
26th--for an offensive movement; but Lee was the first to act. On the
afternoon of that day a vehement attack was made upon the Union right.
The assault was repulsed, after a furious struggle, and it marked the
beginning of that fearful series of battles known as the Seven Days'
Fight.
THE SEVEN DAYS' FIGHT.
Feeling insecure, McClellan fell back, and the terrific fighting,
beginning June 26th, at Mechanicsville, continued with scarcely any
intermission until July 1st. Both armies were well handled and fought
bravely, but McClellan kept steadily falling back. Lee was not satisfied
with simply defeating the Union army; he strained every nerve to destroy
it, but he was defeated in his purpose, and, as the hot afternoon of
June 30th was drawing to a close, the last wagon train of the Union army
reached Malvern Hill, and preparations were hurriedly made to resist the
assault that every one knew would soon come.
Malvern Hill was a strong position. In addition the Federals had the aid
of the gunboats. Indeed, the place was so well-nigh impregnable that the
warmest admirers of General Lee must condemn his furious and repeated
assaults upon it. He suffered a disastrous repulse, and in the end
withdrew to the defenses of Richmond, while McClellan took position at
Harrison's Landing. All the Union troops had arrived by the night of
July 3d, and their commander began to study out a new plan for another
advance against the Confederate capital. Before anything could be done,
he was peremptorily ordered to withdraw his army from the peninsula. The
movement was begun with the purpose of uniting the troops with those of
General Pope, who was to the southeast of Washington, and placing them
all under his command.
Pope had 40,000 troops between Fredericksburg and Washington. Learning
the situation, Lee kept enough men to hold Richmond, and sent the rest,
under Stonewall Jackson, against Pope in the north. Jackson executed the
task intrusted to him in his usual meteoric fashion. Despite the risk
involved, he threw himself between Pope and Washington and struck here,
there, and everywhere so rapidly that the Union general became
bewildered, his associate officers disgusted, and everything was
involved in inextricable confusion.
SECOND BATTLE OF BULL RUN.
The second battle of Bull Run, or Manassas, opened early on August 29th
and lasted until dusk. The fighting was desperate, Jackson standing
mainly on the defensive and waiting for Longstreet, who was hurrying
forward through Thoroughfare Gap. At night Jackson withdrew so as to
connect with Longstreet. Believing the movement meant a retreat, Pope
telegraphed to that effect to Washington. But he was grievously
mistaken, for the Confederates were rapidly reinforced, as was
discovered the next day, when the battle was renewed and pressed
resistlessly against the Federals. In the afternoon Lee arrived on the
ground, and, taking command, ordered an advance. Pope retreated, and
that night crossed Bull Run and took position behind the field works at
Centreville. Other corps joined him, and on the 1st of September Lee
made a demonstration against the Union right flank. Pope now became
terrified, as he saw that Washington was threatened, and he began a
tumultuous retreat toward the capital, pursued and harassed by the
Confederates, until at last the whole disorganized army found rest and
safety behind the fortifications at Washington. Pope had been
disastrously defeated, and the second campaign against Richmond was one
of the worst failures conceivable.
McCLELLAN RECALLED TO COMMAND.
Pope had done the best he knew how, but the task was beyond his ability,
and he was glad enough to be relieved of his command, which was assumed
once more by McClellan, who still retained a great deal of his
popularity with the rank and file. Pope's division had been styled the
Army of Virginia, but the name was now dropped, and the consolidated
forces adopted the title of the Army of the Potomac, by which it was
known to the close of the war.
The success of the Confederates had been so decisive that the Richmond
authorities now decided to assume the aggressive and invade the North.
It was a bold plan thus to send their principal army so far from its
base, and General Lee did not favor it, but the opportunity was too
tempting for his superiors to disregard. One great incentive was the
well-founded belief that if the Confederacy gained a marked advantage,
England and France would intervene and thus secure the independence of
the South.
The neighboring State of Maryland was viewed with longing and hopeful
eyes by Lee and his army. It was a slave State, had furnished a good
many men to the Confederate armies, and, had it been left to itself,
probably would have seceded. What more likely, therefore, than that its
people would hasten to link their fortunes with the Confederacy on the
very hour that its most powerful army crossed her border?
THE CONFEDERATE ADVANCE INTO MARYLAND.
The Confederate army began fording the Potomac at a point nearly
opposite the Monocacy, and by the 5th of September all of it was on
Maryland soil. The bands struck up the popular air, "Maryland, my
Maryland," the exultant thousands joining in the tremendous chorus, as
they swung off, all in high spirits at the belief that they were
entering a land "flowing with milk and honey," where they would find
abundant food and be received with outspread arms.
Frederick City was reached on the 6th, and two days later Lee issued an
address to the people of Maryland, inviting them to unite with the
South, but insisting that they should follow their free-will in every
respect. The document was a temperate one, and the discipline of the
troops was so excellent that nothing in the nature of plundering
occurred.
But it did not take Lee long to discover he had made a grievous mistake
by invading Maryland. If the people were sympathetic, they did not show
it by anything more than words and looks. They refused to enlist in the
rebel army, gave Lee the "cold shoulder," and left no doubt that their
greatest pleasure would be to see the last of the ragged horde.
While at Frederick, Lee learned that the Union Colonel Miles was at
Harper's Ferry with 12,000 troops, held there by the direct order of
General Halleck, who was the acting commander-in-chief of the United
States forces. Lee determined to capture the whole body, and, detaching
Stonewall Jackson with three divisions, ordered him to do so and return
to him with the least possible delay.
Military critics have condemned this act of Lee as one of the gravest
blunders of his career. His advance thus far had been resistless, and it
was in his power to capture Baltimore, and probably Philadelphia and
Washington; but the delay involved in awaiting the return of Jackson
gave McClellan, who was a skillful organizer, time to prepare to meet
the Confederate invasion.
Jackson lost not an hour in capturing Harper's Ferry, the defense of
which was so disgraceful that had not Colonel Miles been killed just as
the white flag was run up he would have been court-martialed and
probably shot. Many suspected him of treason, but the real reason was
his cowardice and the fact that he was intoxicated most of the time. Be
that as it may, Harper's Ferry surrendered with its garrison of 11,500
men, who were immediately paroled. The Confederates obtained seventy-two
cannon, 13,000 small arms, and an immense amount of military stores.
Scarcely had the surrender taken place, when Jackson, who had hardly
slept for several days and nights, received orders from Lee to join him
at once. He started without delay, but he and his men were almost worn
out. It is likely that by this time Lee was aware of the mistake he had
made when he stopped for several days while his leading assistant went
off to capture a post that was of no importance to either side.
McCLELLAN'S PURSUIT OF LEE.
Leaving a strong garrison to defend Washington, McClellan, at the head
of 100,000 troops, set out to follow Lee, who had about 70,000 under his
immediate command. The Union leader reached Frederick on the 12th of
September, and there a curious piece of good fortune befell him.
In the house which had been used as the headquarters of General D.H.
Hill was found a copy of an order issued by General Lee, which detailed
his projected movements, and contained his instructions to his various
leaders. It was priceless information to General McClellan, who made
good use of it.
Lee manoeuvred to draw McClellan away from Washington and Baltimore,
that he might attack them before the Union commander could return to
their defense. Lee left Frederick on September 10th, after Jackson had
started for Harper's Ferry, and, marching by South Mountain, aimed for
Boonsboro'. Stuart and his cavalry remained east of the mountains to
watch McClellan, who was advancing with every possible precaution. Lee
expected Harper's Ferry would fall on the 13th, but the surrender did
not take place until two days later. The Confederate army being divided,
McClellan tried to take advantage of the fact, hoping to save Colonel
Miles at Harper's Ferry. It did not take Lee long to perceive from the
actions of the Union commander that in some way he had learned of his
plans.
It would not be interesting to give the details of the many manoeuvres
by each commander, but before long Lee saw he could not hold his
position at South Mountain, and he retreated toward Sharpsburg, near the
stream of water known as Antietam Creek. He was thus on the flank of any
Federal force that might attempt to save Harper's Ferry. Naturally he
held the fords of the Potomac, so that in case of defeat the way to
Virginia was open.
[Illustration: GENERAL LEE'S INVASION OF THE NORTH.
The Confederate army under General Lee twice invaded the north. The
first invasion was brought to a disastrous end by the Battle of
Antietam, September 17, 1862. The second invasion ended with greater
disaster at Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. Gettysburg was the greatest and
Antietam the bloodiest battles of the war.]
Still Lee and Jackson were separated by a wide stretch of mountain,
river, and plain, and McClellan was aware of the fact. He had the
opportunity to cut off each division in detail, but lacked the nerve and
dash to do it. There were subordinates in the Army of the Potomac who
yearned for just such a chance, but McClellan's timidity and excessive
caution deprived him of another golden opportunity, as it had done
before and was soon to do again.
The position of Lee was among a range of hills, which, following the
form of a crescent, extended from the lower point of Antietam Creek to a
bend in the Potomac. Jackson was straining every nerve to join Lee, but
his men were taxed beyond endurance, and many of them fell by the
roadside from utter exhaustion, only a portion reaching Sharpsburg on
the 16th. The full Confederate army did not exceed 40,000, while
McClellan, who arrived on the opposite side of Antietam Creek, that
afternoon, had 70,000. Instead of attacking at once, he waited two days,
and thus gave Lee time to gather many thousand stragglers.
[Illustration: ANTIETAM BRIDGE.]
BATTLE OF ANTIETAM OR SHARPSBURG.
Finally, when McClellan had no excuse for further delay, and the enemy
was in fine form, he opened the attack on the morning of the 17th. To
reach Lee the Union commander had to cross the creek, which was spanned
by three bridges, each defended by Confederate batteries.
The first attack was by Hooker on the enemy's left, where he drove
Jackson back, after he had been reinforced by Hood, cleared the woods,
and took possession of the Dunker Church, which stood slightly north of
Sharpsburg. A little way beyond the Confederates made a stand, and,
being reinforced, recovered most of the ground they had lost. General
Mansfield was killed and Hooker received a painful wound in the foot.
When their two corps were retreating in confusion, Sumner arrived,
rallied them, and made a successful stand. Seeing the critical
situation, Lee hurried every available man to that point. This left only
2,500 troops in front of the bridge, where Burnside had 14,000.
McClellan sent repeated orders for him to advance, but he paid no
attention until one o'clock, when he crossed without trouble, and then
remained idle for three more hours. The heights were soon captured, and
a position secured from which the rebel lines could be enfiladed. A.P.
Hill arrived at this juncture from Harper's Ferry with 4,000 men, and
drove Burnside in a panic to the creek. Fighting soon ceased, both sides
too much exhausted to keep up the terrific struggle, the position of the
two armies being much the same as at first.
This fierce battle had wrenched and disorganized both armies, but
McClellan, who had much the larger body, could have destroyed or
captured those in front of him, had he followed the urgent advice of his
officers, and given the enemy no rest. But he decided to await
reinforcements, which arrived to the number of 14,000 that night. Then
he resumed his preparations, and on the morning of the 19th advanced
against the enemy, only to find there was none in front of him.
LEE'S RETREAT.
The retreat of Lee was deliberate. Having accurately gauged the
commander in front of him, he spent all of the 18th in completing his
preparations, and made no move until the next morning. Then, protected
by batteries on the opposite bank, he crossed the Potomac, and on the
20th drove back a Union reconnaissance. The government, impatient with
McClellan's tardiness, urged and almost ordered him to follow up Lee,
but the commander preferred to guard against being followed up himself
by the Army of Northern Virginia. Thus again a golden opportunity
slipped away unimproved.
Naturally each side claimed a victory at Antietam or Sharpsburg, as it
is called in the South, but such a claim in either case is hardly
justifiable. It may be said, on the one hand, that Lee's invasion of the
North was brought to a disastrous end by his check at Antietam, but the
claim of Lee was that his failure to secure the expected recruits from
Maryland, and his distance from the base of supplies, necessitated such
a withdrawal on his part, for it is established that he was opposed to
the northward advance from the first.
On the other hand, he had received a serious check, but his army
remained intact and was as well prepared as ever to contest the campaign
against Richmond, a campaign which had to be pushed to a successful
conclusion before the war could end. The one grand opportunity of
General McClellan's life was presented to him at the close of the battle
of Antietam, and, failing to seize it, it never came again, and his
military career ended with failure.
Antietam was, in comparison to numbers engaged, the bloodiest battle of
the Civil War. The Union loss was 2,108 killed; 9,549 wounded; 753
missing; total, 12,410. The Confederate loss was 1,886 killed; 9,348
wounded; 1,367 captured and missing; total, 12,601.
The government was insistent that McClellan should push his advance
against Richmond, but the favorable autumn wore away and the wet season
arrived before a plan of campaign was formulated. This was to cross the
Blue Ridge Mountains from Harper's Ferry, following the southeastern
side of the range, leaving detachments to guard all the passes, and thus
threaten the Confederate communications in the Shenandoah Valley.
McCLELLAN SUPERSEDED BY BURNSIDE.
Accordingly, on the 25th of October, the Army of the Potomac once more
faced toward the Confederate capital. In the course of a week, it held
the whole region southwest of the Blue Ridge and was near the army of
General Lee, who fell back, cautiously followed at a safe distance by
the Union commander. On the night of November 7th, while McClellan was
talking in his tent with Burnside, a messenger arrived from Washington
with an official order, relieving McClellan of the command of the Army
of the Potomac and appointing Burnside as his successor. McClellan
promptly turned over the care of the army to him, and, as directed,
proceeded to Trenton, N.J., to await further orders.
It may be added that General McClellan never served again in the army.
He resigned in 1864, and was nominated the same year for President of
the United States, but received only 21 electoral votes. He was
Democratic governor of New Jersey 1878-1881, and died at his home in
Orange, N.J., October 29, 1885.
Burnside, although a fine corps commander, was not qualified to command
the splendid body over which he was thus placed. He devoted a number of
days to acquainting himself with his vastly enlarged duties. The six
corps were united into three divisions of two corps each, Sumner
commanding the right, Hooker the centre, and Franklin the left, while
General Sigel had charge of a body of reserve.
After consulting with General Halleck, it was decided that the Army of
the Potomac should make a rapid march down the Rappahannock, cross by
pontoon-bridges at Fredericksburg, and then advance upon Richmond by way
of Hanover Court-House.
Everything depended upon initiating the movement before it was
discovered by the enemy, but the delays, which perhaps were unavoidable,
revealed the truth to Lee. When Sumner's division reached a point
opposite Fredericksburg they saw the Confederates on the other side
awaiting them. Still the force was so meagre that Sumner wished to cross
and crush it, but Burnside would not permit. The delay gave Lee time to
bring up his whole army and make his position impregnable. He stationed
a battery some miles below the town to prevent any Union gunboats coming
up stream, while every ford was closely guarded.
Burnside faltered before the position that was like a mountain wall, but
the North was clamorous for something to be done, and he decided to make
the hopeless attack. One hundred and forty-seven cannon were posted, on
the night of December 10th, so as to command the town and cover the
crossing of the river. Unable to prevent this, Lee made his preparations
to annihilate the Unionists after they had crossed.
UNION DISASTER AT FREDERICKSBURG.
In the face of a brisk fire, a force was sent over the river and
occupied the town, while Franklin laid his bridges two miles below and
crossed without trouble. When the cold, foggy morning of December 13th
broke, the whole Army of the Potomac was on the southern shore and the
Confederate army was on the heights behind Fredericksburg.
As the fog had cleared to some extent, General Franklin advanced against
the Confederate right, but, misunderstanding Burnside's order, he made
only a feint. Fighting was kept up throughout the day, and once General
Meade forced a gap in the enemy's line, but he was not reinforced, and
was driven back with severe loss.
The attack on the right having failed, Sumner threw himself against the
left. This required the seizure of Marye's Hill, and was hopeless from
the first. As the Union troops emerged from the town they were in fair
range of an appalling fire that mowed down scores. Still they pressed on
with a courage that could not be surpassed until one-half lay dead and
dying, when the rest staggered backward out of the furnace-blast of
death. The gallant Hancock gathered up the fragments of the shattered
line, and, uniting them with his own men, numbering 5,000 in all, he led
a charge, which in a brief while stretched 2,000 dead or wounded. Still
the survivors held their ground and were joined by others, who fell so
fast that it was soon evident that every man would be killed. Then
grimly remarking, "I guess we have had enough killed to satisfy
Burnside," Hancock ordered the brave fellows to fall back.
Burnside was frantic over the repeated failures. He was determined that
the heights should be carried, and ordered Hooker, his only remaining
general, to do it. Hooker went across with his three divisions, made a
careful reconnoissance, and saw that to carry out the command meant the
massacre of all his troops. He returned to Burnside and begged him to
recall his order. He refused, and Hooker attempted to obey, leading
4,000 of as brave men as ever shouldered a musket; but before they could
reach the stone wall 1,700 lay helpless on the icy earth and the
remainder fled.
Had not night been at hand, Burnside would have ordered another charge
and sacrificed hundreds of more lives, but he concluded to let the men
live until the next morning. Already 1,200 had been killed, almost
10,000 wounded, and several thousand were missing. The commanders
gathered around Burnside and insisted that the army should be brought
across the river before it was annihilated, but he refused. He was
resolved on sacrificing several thousand more under the ghastly name of
a "charge." At last, however, he became more reasonable and listened to
his officers. Perhaps the shrieks of the wounded, who lay for two days
and nights where they had fallen without help, produced some effect in
awaking him to a sense of his horrible blundering and incompetency, for,
when the bleak, dismal morning dawned, the intended "charge" was not
ordered. The Army of the Potomac had been wounded so well-nigh unto
death that it could not stand another similar blow.
[Illustration: LATEST MODEL OF GATLING GUN.]
On the cold, rainy night of December 15th, the wretched forces tramped
back over the river on the pontoon-bridges, having suffered the worst
defeat in the army's whole history. It was in the power of Lee to
destroy it utterly, but it slipped away from him, just as it had
slipped away from McClellan after the battle of Antietam.
The Union losses at Fredericksburg were: Killed, 1,284; wounded, 9,600;
missing, 1,769; total, 12,653. The Confederate losses were: Killed, 596;
wounded, 4,068; captured and missing, 651. Total, 5,315.
SUMMARY OF THE YEAR'S OPERATIONS.
The eventful year had been one of terrible fighting. It had opened with
the Union successes of Forts Henry and Donelson, followed by Pea Ridge,
Pittsburg Landing, and Corinth in the West, the naval battle between the
_Merrimac_ and _Monitor_, the capture of Roanoke Island and of New
Orleans. Bragg's invasion of Kentucky was injurious to the Union cause,
while, as we have seen, the campaign against Richmond had been a series
of disastrous failures. Still, taken as a whole, the year showed a
decisive step forward. The Union line had been advanced across the State
of Tennessee, substantial progress had been made in opening the
Mississippi, and the blockade was enforced with a rigidity that caused
great distress in the Confederacy.
Both sides felt the terrific strain of the war. The Confederacy in April
passed a conscription act, which made all able-bodied males between the
ages of eighteen and thirty-five years soldiers for the war. All such
were taken from the control of the State of which they were residents
and placed at the disposal of President Davis until the close of the
war. This conscription act was soon made much more severe in its
provisions.
THE CONFEDERATE PRIVATEERS.
One source of help to the Confederacy was her privateers, which wrought
immense damage to northern shipping. England assisted in fitting them
out. Despite the protests of Minister Adams, many of these were allowed
to put to sea. One of the first was the _Oreto_, afterward known as the
_Florida_. She succeeded in eluding the blockade at Mobile, through
flying the British flag, delivered her valuable freight, received her
armament, and came forth again in the latter part of December and began
her wholesale destruction of American merchantmen.
The privateer _Sumter_ was driven into Gibraltar, and so closely watched
by the _Tuscarora_ that Captain Semmes, her commander, sold her, and
made his way to England, where the English built for him the most famous
privateer the Confederacy ever had--the _Alabama_--of which much more
will be told further on.
THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION.
The national government had learned by this time the full measurement
of the gigantic task before it. By the close of the year, 1,300,000
volunteers had been called for, and the daily expenses amounted to
$3,000,000. The conviction, too, was growing that slavery was the real
cause of the war, and the time had come to treat it with less
consideration than many leading officers and men whose patriotism could
not be doubted were disposed to show toward the "peculiar institution."
President Lincoln was one of the wisest men who ever sat in the
executive chair, and none read so unerringly the signs of the times as
he. The Abolitionists were impatient with his slowness, while many of
the doubting thought he went too fast. He waited until the right hour,
and then issued his Emancipation Proclamation.
[Illustration: UNITED STATES MILITARY TELEGRAPH WAGON.]
This appeared soon after the battle of Antietam, and it is said was the
fulfillment of the pledge President Lincoln had made to heaven that, if
Lee's invasion was turned back, he would issue the great paper, which,
in effect, would see free 4,000,000 bondsmen. In it he warned the
seceding States that in every one which failed to return to its
allegiance by the first of January, 1863, he would declare the slaves
free. The warning was received with scorn, as was expected. From the
date named, therefore, all the armed forces of the Union treated the
slaves as free wherever encountered. Before long colored men were
enlisted as soldiers and sailors, and they bore no inconsiderable part
in the prosecution of the war.
"GREENBACKS."
It will be understood that the revenue of the government was altogether
unequal to the vast demands upon it. Taxation was increased, and, in
1862, the government began the issue of its own paper money. The backs
of the bills being printed in green ink, these bills were known as
"greenbacks." They were made a legal tender, despite considerable
opposition to the measure. The law gave any person owing a debt, no
matter if contracted in gold and silver, the right to pay the same with
greenbacks. Since it is impossible to regulate the value of money except
by the law of supply and demand, the bills, as compared with gold,
depreciated a good deal in value.
The act of February 25, 1862, authorized the issue of $150,000,000, and
further issues were made on June 11, 1862, and March 3, 1863. The
depreciation of greenbacks was such that the price of gold averaged 2.20
throughout 1864, and at one time reached 2.85. In other words, a
greenback dollar was worth only thirty-five cents. Another method of
raising money was through the sale of bonds, of which many millions were
issued. To encourage their sale, the National Banking System was
established in 1863. This required all banks that issued currency to
deposit a slightly larger amount of bonds in Washington. Thus the banks
were compelled to help the government by loaning it money.
[Illustration: THE BATTLE OF MALVERN HILL, JULY 1, 1862
Malvern Hill was a very strong position taken by General McClellan in
his retreat before the army of Lee. General Lee made furious and
repeated assaults upon this well-nigh impregnable position, each time to
meet an inevitable repulse, and in the end a defeat accompanied by
severe losses, which necessitated his withdrawal to Richmond.]