ADMINISTRATIONS OF MADISON, 1809-1817.
THE WAR OF 1812.
James Madison--The Embargo and the Non-Intercourse Acts--Revival of the
Latter Against England--The _Little Belt_ and the _President_--Population
of the United States in 1810--Battle of Tippecanoe--Declaration of War
Against England--Comparative Strength of the Two Nations on the
Ocean--Unpopularity of the War in New England--Preparations Made by
the Government--Cowardly Surrender of Detroit--Presidential Election
of 1812--Admission of Louisiana and Indiana--New National Bank
Chartered--Second Attempt to Invade Canada--Battle of Queenstown
Heights--Inefficiency of the American Forces in 1812--Brilliant Work
of the Navy--The _Constitution_ and the _Guerriere_--The _Wasp_ and
the _Frolic_--The _United States_ and the _Macedonian_--The
_Constitution_ and the _Java_--Reorganization and Strengthening of the
Army--Operations in the West--Gallant Defense of Fort Stephenson--American
Invasion of Ohio and Victory of the Thames--Indian Massacre at Fort
Mimms--Capture of York (Toronto)--Defeat of the Enemy at Sackett's
Harbor--Failure of the American Invasion of Canada--The _Hornet_
and _Peacock_--Capture of the _Chesapeake_--"Don't Give Up the
Ship"--Captain Decatur Blockaded at New London--Capture of the
_Argus_ by the Enemy--Cruise of the _Essex_--The Glorious Victory of
Commodore Perry on Lake Erie--Success of the American Arms in
Canada--Battle of the Chippewa--Of Lundy's Lane--Decisive Defeat of the
Enemy's Attack on Plattsburg--Punishment of the Creek Indians for the
Massacre at Fort Mimms--Vigorous Action by the National
Government--Burning of Washington by the British--The Hartford
Convention.
JAMES MADISON.
James Madison, the fourth President of the United States, was born at
Port Conway, Virginia, March 16, 1751, and died June 28, 1836. He
received the best educational facilities and graduated from Princeton
College at the age of twenty. He devoted himself so closely to study
that he permanently injured his health. In 1776, he was elected a member
of the Virginia Legislature, and was offered the mission to France,
after the return of Jefferson, but declined it. Again he had the chance
of becoming Jefferson's successor, when the latter resigned as secretary
of State, but refused through fear of causing differences in
Washington's cabinet. He was a Federalist at first, but changed his
views and became an earnest Republican. Jefferson made him his secretary
of State, and he served throughout both administrations. He was a
cultured gentleman, an ardent friend of Jefferson, and carried out his
policy when he became President.
THE NON-INTERCOURSE ACT.
Just before the close of Jefferson's last term, Congress repealed the
Embargo Act and passed the Non-Intercourse Act, which forbade all trade
with England. This was in 1809, and the law was abrogated in the
following year. Our relations with England, however, continued to grow
more irritating, until it became clear that war was at hand. Congress
gave notice that if either Great Britain or France would repeal their
offensive decrees, the Non-Intercourse Act would be revived against the
other. Bonaparte immediately announced that he revoked his decrees, but
instead of doing so, he enforced them more rigidly than before, thus
accomplishing what he sought, that of arraying the United States against
Great Britain. The Non-Intercourse Law was revived against Great
Britain, whose conduct became more exasperating than ever. Our whole
coast was under surveillance, and many of our merchant vessels were
captured without any excuse whatever.
[Illustration: JAMES MADISON. (1751-1836.) Two terms, 1809-1817.]
In the dusk of early evening, May 16, 1811, the British sloop _Little
Belt_, while occupied in holding up American vessels, hailed the frigate
_President_ off the coast of Virginia. Deeming the reply of the American
not sufficiently respectful, the _Little Belt_ fired a shot at the
_President_, which instantly let fly with a broadside, followed by
several others, that killed eleven men and wounded twenty-one. The
incident added to the angry excitement in both countries and brought war
nearer.
BATTLE OF TIPPECANOE.
The population of the United States in 1810 was 7,239,881, somewhat more
than a third of Great Britain and Ireland. Our growth in the West was
rapid. There was a continual stream of emigration thither, and the
Indians, seeing how rapidly their hunting grounds were passing from
them; combined to resist the invasion. This was done under the
leadership of Tecumseh, the ablest Indian that ever lived. In this
course he was incited by British agents, who, knowing that war was
coming, were anxious to do the Americans all the harm they could. The
outrages of the red men became so numerous that General William Henry
Harrison, governor of the Northwest Territory, gathered a large, force
and marched against them. Near the present city of Lafayette, while
encamped at a place called Tippecanoe, he was furiously assailed (Nov.
7, 1811) by the Indians. Tecumseh was absent at the time, and the battle
was brought on, against his orders, by his brother, called "The
Prophet." The loss was severe on both sides, but the Indians were
decisively defeated.
By this time the American people were clamoring more loudly than ever
for war with England. The congressional candidates were obliged to
declare whether they favored or opposed the war. Those who opposed it
were beaten at the polls. Congress, which had been making preparations
for some time for hostilities, declared war against England, June 18,
1812. It is a regrettable fact that we could not know that almost on the
same day England suspended the Orders of Council, so far as they
affected this country. Had the Atlantic cable been in existence at the
time, there would have been no war.
ENGLAND'S OVERWHELMING NAVAL STRENGTH.
England had been fighting so continuously with her neighbors that her
strength on the ocean was overwhelming when compared with ours. She had
1,036 vessels, of which 254 were ships-of-the-line, not one of which
carried less than seventy-four guns. This immense navy was manned by
144,000 men. The American navy numbered 12 vessels, besides a few
gunboats of little value. Indeed, the relative strength of the warring
nations was so disproportionate that the intention of the United States
at first was not to attempt a conflict on the ocean. Captains Bainbridge
and Stewart, however, persuaded the government to allow our little navy
to try its hand.
Despite the seeming hopelessness of such a struggle, it had some
advantages for the Americans. In the first place, it was easier for them
to find the enemy than for the latter to find them, because of the
disproportion between the number of their vessels. More important,
however, than all was the fact that our navy contained no politicians.
The men were brave sailors, and marvelously skillful in handling guns.
With these conditions they were sure to win glory on the ocean.
Still another fact must be mentioned, for it will explain many of the
incidents recorded in the following pages. England had been triumphant
so long on the ocean that she had become unduly confident and careless.
She held the surrounding nations in light esteem, and had good warrant
for doing so. Naturally this led her greatly to underestimate the
insignificant American navy. When such a mistake is made the
consequences are sure to be disastrous to the one committing the
blunder.
Truth compels the statement that in every war in which our country has
been engaged since the Revolution, the disasters have been mainly due to
the politicians. They have the "pull," as it is called, with the
government, and secure the appointment of men as leaders who are
totally lacking in military skill. When defeat has followed defeat, with
exasperating regularity, the government gradually awakes to the fact
that the most criminal thing it can do is to place a politician in
charge of a body of brave men, or to appoint a callow youth to the same
position, merely because his father was a good soldier and has become a
politician.
THE WAR UNPOPULAR IN SOME SECTIONS.
Moreover, it must be remembered that our country was by no means a unit
in favoring the second war with England. It was popular in most of the
Middle States and the South, but bitterly opposed in New England. When
the news reached Boston of the declaration of war, the shipping hung
their flags at half-mast. Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Jersey,
through their Legislatures, protested against it, but, as in the
Revolution, the general enthusiasm swept away all opposition.
An increase of the regular army was ordered to 25,000 men, in addition
to the call for 50,000 volunteers, while the States were asked to summon
100,000 militia, to be used in defense of the coast and harbors. The
government authorized a loan of $11,000,000, and Henry Dearborn, of
Massachusetts, was made the first major-general and commander-in-chief
of the army, while the principal brigadiers were James Wilkinson,
William Hull, Joseph Bloomfield, and Wade Hampton, the last being father
of the general of the same name who became famous as a Confederate
leader in the War for the Union.
A SHAMEFUL SURRENDER.
The opening battle of the war was one of the most shameful affairs that
ever befell the American arms. General William Hull, who had made a
creditable record in the Revolution, was governor of Michigan Territory.
He was ordered to cross the river from Detroit, which was his home, and
invade Canada. He showed great timidity, and learning that a British
force, under General Brock, was advancing against him, he recrossed the
river and returned to Detroit, before which General Brock appeared, on
the 12th of August, at the head of 700 British soldiers and 600 Indians.
In demanding the surrender of the post, he frightened Hull, whose
daughter and her children were with him, by telling him he would be
unable to restrain the ferocity of his Indians, if the Americans made a
defense.
The soldiers were brave and eager to fight, but, to their inexpressible
disgust, the siege had been pressed but a short time when Hull ran up a
white flag and surrendered, August 16th. With the submission of Detroit
went the whole territory northwest of Ohio.
The country was angered and humiliated by the act. Twenty-five men were
given in exchange for Hull, and he was placed on trial, charged with
treason, cowardice, and conduct unbecoming an officer. He was convicted
on the last two charges and sentenced to be shot. In recognition of his
services in the Revolution, however, the President pardoned him, and he
died, without ever having gained the respect of his countrymen, in 1825.
PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1812.
Before proceeding with the history of the war, a few incidents not
connected with it should be recorded. In the presidential election of
1812, the electoral vote was: for President, James Madison, Republican,
128; De Witt Clinton, of New York, Federalist, 89. For Vice-President,
Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, Republican, 131; Jared Ingersoll, of
Pennsylvania, Federalist, 86. Vacancy, 1. Thus Madison and Gerry were
elected.
Louisiana was admitted as a State in 1812, being a part of the immense
territory of that name purchased from France in 1803. Indiana was
admitted in 1816, and was the second of the five States carved out of
the old Northwest Territory. It will be recalled that the United States
Bank was chartered in 1791 for twenty years. Its charter, therefore,
expired in 1811. In 1816, Congress chartered a new bank, on the same
plan and for the same length of time. The public money was to be
deposited in it or its branches, except when the secretary of the
treasury choose to order its deposit elsewhere.
BATTLE OF QUEENSTOWN HEIGHTS.
Returning to the history of the war, it has to be said that the second
attempt to invade Canada was more disastrous if possible than the first,
and more disgraceful to American arms. The troops on the Niagara
frontier were mainly New York militia, with a few regulars and recruits
from other States, all under the command of Stephen Van Rensselaer.
Resolved to capture the Heights of Queenstown, he sent two columns
across the river on the morning of October 13, 1812. They were led by
Colonel Solomon Van Rensselaer, cousin of the general and a brave
officer. The engagement was a brisk one, the colonel being wounded early
in the fight, but his troops gallantly charged the Heights and captured
the fortress. General Brock was reinforced and attacked the Americans,
but was repulsed, Brock being killed. The fierceness of the battle is
shown by that fact that the three commanders who succeeded Brock were
either killed or severely wounded.
Under the attack of superior forces, the Americans had managed to hold
their ground and they now began to intrench. Meanwhile, the 1,200 New
York militia on the other side of the river had become frightened by the
sounds of battle, and when called upon to cross refused to do so, on the
cowardly plea that they had enlisted to defend only their State.
Lieutenant-Colonel Winfield Scott had taken command of the brigade and
was engaged in intrenching, when the enemy, again reinforced, drove his
troops, after two attacks, to the river, where they were hemmed in and
compelled to surrender. The American loss in killed and wounded was
fully a thousand. General Van Rensselaer was so disgusted with the
conduct of his militia that he resigned his command, and was succeeded
by General Alexander Smyth, of Virginia, whose conduct led to the
general conviction that he was mentally about as near to being an idiot
as it is possible for a man to be and still retain a little ground for
being thought otherwise.
The first thing General Smyth did was to issue a proclamation of so
bombastic a character that his friends were humiliated. He made several
starts toward Canada, but in each instance recalled his troops, and
acted so inexplicably that the militia were on the point of revolting,
when he was deprived of his command. This closed the military operations
for the year 1812, and the story is enough to crimson the cheek of every
American with shame.
BRILLIANT WORK OF THE AMERICAN NAVY.
On the ocean, however, the record was brilliant and as astonishing to
friends as to enemies. Hardly had the news of the declaration of war
reached New York, when Commodore John Rodgers put to sea in the
_President_, the same vessel that had taught the _Little Belt_ her
severe lesson. Some time later Rodgers sighted the frigate _Belvidera_
and gave chase. He killed a number of the crew, but the vessel managed
to escape. Continuing his cruise, he captured a number of merchantmen
and retook an American prize. The luckiest ship in the American navy was
said to be the _Constitution_, afterward popularly known as "Old
Ironsides." Under command of Captain Isaac Hull, nephew of the disgraced
general of Detroit, she engaged the sloop-of-war _Guerriere_ off the
coast of Massachusetts. The battle was a desperate one, but
extraordinary marksmanship prevailed, and the enemy were compelled to
strike their flag after a loss of 79 killed and wounded, while that of
the Americans was 7 killed and 7 wounded.
The victory caused deep chagrin in England and corresponding rejoicing
in the United States. Congress gave Captain Hull a gold medal and
distributed $50,000 among his crew.
In October, the sloop-of-war _Wasp_, Captain Jacob Jones, met the
British brig _Frolic_ off Cape Hatteras. Since the vessels were of
precisely the same strength, the contest could not have been a more
perfect test of the bravery and efficiency of the ships of England and
our own country. As respects bravery, it was equal, for the men on both
sides fought with a courage that could not have been surpassed. When
the crew of the _Wasp_ boarded the _Frolic_, they found no one on deck
except the man at the wheel and two wounded officers. The vessels were
so damaged that on the same day the British ship _Poicters_ captured
both.
During the same month (October 25th), Commodore Stephen Decatur, in
command of the frigate _United States_, encountered the British frigate
_Macedonian_ off the Island of Madeira, and captured her after a battle
of two hours, in which he lost twelve men, while that of the enemy was
more than a hundred. The _Macedonian_ was so shattered that only with
the greatest difficulty was she brought into New London.
The command of the _Constitution_ was now turned over to Bainbridge, who
sighted the frigate _Java_ off the coast of Brazil, December 29th. In
the terrific battle that followed he lost 34 men, but killed 120 of the
enemy, tore out every mast, and burst her hull with round shot. The
_Java_ was blown up, and the prisoners and wounded were taken to Boston,
where Bainbridge received a right royal welcome.
[Illustration: THE ARTS OF PEACE AND THE ART OF WAR.]
This ends the history of the first half-year of the war of 1812. While
everything went wrong on land, the ocean showed only a succession of
brilliant victories. England, chagrined and humiliated, declared that
her flag had been disgraced "by a piece of striped bunting flying at the
mast-heads of a few fir-built frigates, manned by a handful of outlaws."
REORGANIZATION OF THE ARMY.
Congress took measures for strengthening and reorganizing the army. The
pay and bounty of the soldiers were increased; the President was
empowered to raise twenty additional regiments of infantry, to borrow
money, and to issue treasury notes, and provisions were made for adding
four ships-of-the-line, six frigates, and as many vessels of war on the
Great Lakes as might be needed. The army was organized into three
divisions: the Army of the North, under General Wade Hampton, to act in
the country about Lake Champlain; the Army of the Centre, under the
commander-in-chief, General Henry Dearborn, to act on the Niagara
frontier and Lake Ontario; and the Army of the East, under General
Winchester, who soon after was superseded by General William Henry
Harrison.
IN THE WEST.
The last-named officer did his utmost to drive the British out of
Detroit. His troops were volunteers, brave but undisciplined, and
displayed their most effective work in scattered fighting and against
the Indians; but their success was not decisive. When the swamps and
lakes of the Northwest were sufficiently frozen to bear their weight,
Harrison repeated his attempts to expel the British from Detroit. His
advance, under General Winchester, was attacked on the River Raisin by
the British, led by General Proctor. Winchester was as prompt as General
Hull in surrendering. Proctor allowed his Indians to massacre the
wounded prisoners, most of whom were Kentuckians. Thereafter, when the
Kentucky troops rushed into battle they raised the war-cry, "Remember
the Raisin!"
The disaster to Winchester caused Harrison to fall back to Fort Meigs,
which stood near the site of the present town of Defiance. There, in the
spring of 1813, he was besieged by Proctor. A force of Kentuckians
relieved him, after severe loss, and Proctor retreated. Some months
later he again advanced against Fort Meigs, but was repulsed, and
marched to Fort Stephenson, where Fremont now stands.
The besiegers consisted of 3,000 British and Indians, while the garrison
numbered only 160, under the command of Major George Croghan, only
twenty years of age. When Proctor ordered the youth to surrender he
threatened that, in case of resistance, every prisoner would be
tomahawked. Major Croghan replied that when the surrender took place
there would not be a single man left to tomahawk. Although Croghan had
but a single cannon, he made so gallant a defense that his assailants
were repulsed, and Proctor, fearing the approach of Harrison, withdrew
from the neighborhood.
BATTLE OF THE THAMES.
Perry's great victory on Lake Erie in September, 1813, as related
further on, gave the Americans command of that body of water. Harrison's
troops were placed on board of Perry's vessels and carried across from
Ohio to Canada. They landed near Malden and Proctor fell back to
Sandwich, with the Americans following. He continued his retreat to the
Thames, where, with the help of Tecumseh, he selected a good
battle-ground and awaited the Americans, who attacked him on the 5th of
October. Proctor fled early in the battle, but his regulars fought
bravely. The 1,500 Indians, under the lead of Tecumseh, displayed
unusual heroism, but, when the great Tecumseh fell, they fled in a
panic. The American victory was overwhelming and complete.
Tecumseh's irresistible eloquence had roused the Creeks to take the
warpath in the South. The danger became so imminent that 500 of the
inhabitants took refuge in a stockade known as Fort Mimms, Alabama,
thirty-five miles above Mobile. The sentinels, believing there was no
danger, were careless, and on August 21, 1813, nearly a thousand Creeks
attacked the place, which was surprised and captured after feeble
resistance. More than 200 were tomahawked, the negroes being spared to
become slaves of the Indians.
CAPTURE OF TORONTO (YORK).
In April of this year, General Dearborn crossed Lake Ontario from
Sackett's Harbor to Toronto (then known as York), which was the capital
of Upper Canada and the chief depot for the supply of the western
garrisons. Under a sharp fire, General Zebulon Pike drove the enemy from
the works. The explosion of a magazine in the fort caused the death of
General Pike in the moment of victory.
The operations left Sackett's Harbor almost unprotected, and led to an
attack by the British admiral, Sir James Yeo, and General Prevost. The
commander of the garrison appealed to General Jacob Brown, a militia
officer of the neighborhood, who hurriedly gathered a small force and
added it to the defenders. In the attack which followed Brown showed
great skill, and General Prevost, believing his retreat was about to be
cut off, fled in a panic, leaving 300 dead and wounded. In the
engagements in that section during the remainder of the year, General
Brown was about the only officer who displayed any military ability, his
skill eventually placing him at the head of the United States army.
The fighting that followed was mainly in favor of the British, who
recaptured York. Eight hundred Americans were made prisoners at Beaver
Dams, and, as the autumn approached, the enemy found themselves in
command of a powerful squadron.
INCOMPETENT COMMANDERS.
There was much dissatisfaction with General Dearborn, the head of the
army. He was in ill-health, never led his troops in person, and missed a
good opportunity of capturing Montreal. He was relieved in June and
succeeded by General Wilkinson, who arrived at Sackett's Harbor in
August. He began preparations for invading Canada, but was so laggard in
his movements that the enemy had abundance of time in which to make
ready. The St. Lawrence seemed to be fortified at every point, but
General Brown, by brave fighting, opened the way for the flotilla.
General Wilkinson reached St. Regis, November 11th, at which point
General Wade Hampton was to co-operate with him. But that officer, owing
to a lack of provisions, had fallen back to Plattsburg, hoping to keep
open his communications with the St. Lawrence. This obliged General
Wilkinson to retreat, and Wilkinson, Hampton, and other officers
quarreled like so many children.
Disaster and disgrace seemed to follow the American land forces during
the first two years of the war, but the fault lay wholly with the
officers, who were incompetent, and many times lacking in patriotism.
The soldiers were brave, but were comparatively powerless with such poor
commanders.
Once again the American navy performed brilliant work, though,
unfortunately, the record was marred by a sad disaster. On February
24th, Captain James Lawrence, who had made several minor captures from
the enemy, riddled the English brig-of-war _Peacock_, while in command
of the _Hornet_, and, in a fierce engagement of fifteen minutes,
compelled her to surrender and hoist a signal of distress. She went down
so quickly that several of the _Hornet's_ crew, who were giving aid,
sank with her, besides thirteen of the enemy. Captain Lawrence treated
his prisoners so kindly that, upon reaching New York, they gave him a
letter of thanks.
CAPTURE OF THE CHESAPEAKE BY THE SHANNON.
Captain Lawrence's fine work caused him to be promoted to the command of
the _Chesapeake_, then refitting at Boston. Captain Broke (afterward Sir
Philip, B.V.), commander of the _Shannon_, cruising off Boston,
challenged Lawrence to come out and fight him. The American promptly
accepted the challenge. It was a piece of unwarrantable recklessness,
for the _Chesapeake_ was not yet ready for the sea, and his crew was
undisciplined and in a surly mood, because some promised prize money
had not been paid them. Moreover, it is said that most of the sailors
were under the influence of liquor.
The _Chesapeake_ sailed gaily out of the harbor on the 1st of June,
followed by a number of pleasure boats and barges crowded with
spectators, while the hills swarmed with people, many with glasses, all
anxious to witness the triumph of the gallant young captain. A woeful
disappointment awaited them.
The battle was a terrific one. In a short time the rigging of the
_Chesapeake_ was so mangled that she became unmanageable, and could not
escape a raking fire which did frightful execution. Captain Lawrence was
twice wounded, the last time mortally, and was carried below at the time
the enemy were preparing to board. He ordered that the colors should not
be struck. "Tell the men to fire faster," he cried; "_don't give up the
ship!_"
Boarders swarmed over the _Chesapeake_ and a few minutes later she was
captured, the loss of the Americans being 48 killed and 98 wounded, that
of the enemy being about half as great. Lawrence lived four days, most
of the time delirious, during which he continually repeated the appeal,
"_Don't give up the ship!_" The impressiveness of the circumstances and
the words themselves made them the motto of the American navy in many a
subsequent engagement.
[Illustration: MRS. JAMES MADISON
(DOLLY PAYNE).
During the burning of Washington in 1812 by the British, Dolly Madison's
heroism saved the Declaration of Independence from destruction. She
broke the glass case containing it and fled.]
Lawrence was one of the bravest of men, and entered the navy when only
seventeen years old. He helped Captain Decatur in burning the
_Philadelphia_, in the harbor of Tripoli, during the war with that
country. His body was taken to Halifax and buried with the honors of
war, several of the oldest captains in the British navy acting as
pall-bearers.
CAPTAIN DECATUR CHECKED.
An exasperating experience befell Captain Decatur. On the day of the
capture of the _Chesapeake_, he was compelled to take refuge in the
harbor of New London, to escape a powerful squadron. He was in command
of the _United States_, the _Macedonian_, and the _Hornet_. Chafing with
impatience, he made repeated attempts to get to sea, but he declared
that in every instance the blockading squadron were notified by means of
blue lights displayed by Tories on shore. He was thus held helpless
until the close of hostilities. This betrayal by his own countrymen
caused much resentment throughout the country, and the enemies of the
Federal party gave it the name of "Blue Lights," and Connecticut was
often taunted for her disloyal course in the war, though the offenders
were probably few in number.
By this time, England had acquired so wholesome a respect for the
American navy that orders were issued that two or three vessels should
always cruise in company, and under no circumstances should a single
vessel engage an American, where there was the least preponderance
against the British. The Americans were the only nation against whom
such an order was ever issued.
Captain William Henry Allen, in command of the brig _Argus_, boldly
entered the English Channel and destroyed much shipping of the enemy.
Many vessels were sent in search of him, and on the 14th of August he
was captured by the _Pelican_. Soon afterward the brig _Enterprise_
captured the British _Boxer_ off the coast of Maine. The fight was a
desperate one, both commanders being killed. They were buried side by
side in Portland.
THE CRUISE OF THE ESSEX.
In the spring of 1813, Captain David Porter (father of Admiral David
Dixon Porter), in command of the _Essex_, doubled Cape Horn and entered
the Pacific, where until then no American frigate had ever been seen. He
protected American vessels and nearly broke up the British whaling trade
in that ocean. He made so many captures that he soon had almost a fleet
under his command, and was able to pay his men with the money taken from
the enemy. Every nation in that region was a friend of England, and he
seized the Marquesas Islands, where he refitted his fleet and resumed
his cruise. Early in 1814, he entered the neutral harbor of Valparaiso,
where he was blockaded by two British vessels that had long been
searching for him. Regardless of international law, they attacked the
_Essex_, which was in a crippled condition and unable to close with
them, and finally compelled her surrender.
OPERATIONS ON THE LAKES.
Thus far our record of the exploits of the American navy has been
confined to the ocean, but the most important doings of all occurred on
the lakes. At the beginning, our force upon these inland waters was
weak. On Lake Ontario, there was but one small vessel, while the British
had several. Both sides began building war-vessels. The American fleet
was commanded by Commodore Chauncey and the British by Sir James Yeo.
They alternated in gaining command of the lake. Meanwhile, the
ship-builders were so busy that from about a dozen vessels on either
side they increased the number to more than a hundred each by the close
of the war.
PERRY'S GREAT VICTORY.
One of the grandest of all triumphs was gained by the American navy in
the early autumn of 1813. Captain Oliver Hazard Perry was sent to Lake
Erie to build a navy. Perry at that time was not thirty years old and
had never seen a naval battle. By August, he had a squadron of two large
and seven small vessels, carrying 54 guns and 416 men, with which he set
out to find Commodore Barclay, who had two large and four small vessels,
with 63 guns and 440 men.
The two squadrons met at the western end of Lake Erie on the 10th of
September. Barclay centred such a furious fire upon the _Lawrence_,
Perry's flagship, that in two hours she was in a sinking condition.
Perry entered a small boat, and, exposed to a sharp fire, was rowed to
the _Niagara_, on which he hoisted his flag. The battle was renewed,
and, while the enemy was trying to form a new line of battle, Perry ran
the _Niagara_ directly through the fleet, delivering broadsides right
and left. The other vessels were prompt in following her, and poured
such a raking fire into the enemy that fifteen minutes later Barclay
surrendered. The British commander had but one arm when the battle
opened, and, before it ended, his remaining arm was shot off. He lost
200 killed and wounded and 600 prisoners, while the Americans had 27
killed and 96 wounded.
It has already been shown that this victory was of the utmost
importance, for Proctor was waiting to invade Ohio, if it went his way,
while General Harrison was also waiting to invade Canada, in the event
of an American triumph. In sending news of his victory to General
Harrison, Perry, in his hastily written dispatch, used the words which
have been quoted thousands of times: "We have met the enemy and they are
ours." It will be recalled that Harrison immediately embarked his troops
on Perry's ships, and, crossing the lake, pursued Proctor to the Thames,
where he decisively defeated him and ended all danger of an invasion of
Ohio by the enemy.
The American government now began to heed the benefit of the severe
lessons of defeat. The worthless generals were weeded out, and the army
in western New York reorganized so effectually that the country was
cheered by a number of victories--proof that the rank and file were of
the best quality and that their previous defeats were due to their
leaders.
On July 3, 1814, Gens. Scott, Ripley, and Brown crossed the Niagara from
Black Rock to Erie with 3,000 men. Brown's ability had become so
manifest that by this time he was a major-general. When he appeared in
front of Fort Erie, it surrendered without resistance. Brown pursued a
British corps of observation down the river until it crossed Chippewa
Creek and joined the main body. Brown withdrew and united also with the
principal forces of the Americans, who attacked the British on the 5th
of July, in their strong intrenchments behind the Chippewa. They were
completely defeated, routed out of their defenses, and driven up the
shore of Lake Ontario. Their Indian allies were so disgusted with the
defeat of the British and the furious fighting of the Americans that all
deserted the British commander.
BATTLE OF LUNDY'S LANE.
The British army received reinforcements and turned back to meet the
Americans who were pursuing them. The armies met, July 25th, at Lundy's
Lane, within sight of Niagara Falls, where the fiercely contested
battle, beginning at sunset, lasted until midnight. The British
commander was wounded and captured and the enemy driven back. The loss
of the Americans was serious. Scott was so badly wounded that he could
take no further part in the war, Brown was less severely injured, and
Ripley withdrew with the army to Fort Erie.
An exploit of Colonel James Miller deserves notice. At a critical point
in the battle, General Brown saw that victory depended upon the
silencing of a battery of seven guns stationed on a hill, that was
pouring a destructive fire into the Americans.
"Colonel," said he, "can you capture that battery?"
"I can try," was the modest reply, and a few minutes later Colonel
Miller was in motion with his regiment. The darkness enabled the men to
conceal themselves under the shadow of a fence, along which they
silently crept until they could peep between the rails and see the
gunners standing with lighted matches awaiting the order to fire.
Thrusting the muzzles of their guns through the openings, they shot down
every gunner, and, leaping over the fence, captured the battery in the
face of a hot infantry fire. The enemy made three attempts to recapture
the battery, but were repulsed each time. When General Ripley retreated,
he left the guns behind, so that they again fell into the hands of the
British from whom they had been so brilliantly won.
The enemy soon received reinforcements and besieged the Americans in
Fort Erie. Brown, although still suffering from his wound, resumed
command and drove his besiegers once more beyond the Chippewa. The
Americans evacuated Fort Erie on the 5th of November, and recrossing the
Niagara went into winter quarters at Black Rock and Ontario. There were
no more military operations during the war between Lakes Erie and
Ontario.
THE ARMY OF THE NORTH.
General Wilkinson was so inefficient with the Army of the North that he
was superseded by General Izard, who advanced with his force to the aid
of General Brown at Fort Erie. This left Plattsburg uncovered, and the
British decided to attack it by land, and to destroy at the same time
the American flotilla on Lake Champlain.
Sir George Prevost, at the head of an army of 14,000 men, entered
American territory on the 3d of September, and three days later reached
Plattsburg. The garrison withdrew to the south side of the Saranac, and
prepared to dispute the passage of the stream. Commodore Downie appeared
off the harbor of Plattsburg, with the British squadron, September 11th.
The American squadron, under Commodore Macdonough, was in the harbor,
and consisted of two less barges than the enemy, 86 guns, and 820 men,
while the English commander had 95 guns and more than a thousand men.
During the battle which followed the British land forces made repeated
attempts to cross the Saranac, but were defeated in every instance. The
battle on the water lasted less than three hours, during which Commodore
Downie was killed, his vessel sunk, and the remainder sunk or captured.
The destruction of the British squadron was complete, and the land
forces withdrew during the night. England was so dissatisfied with the
action of Sir George Prevost that he was dismissed from command. No more
serious fighting took place in that section during the war.
PUNISHMENT OF THE CREEK INDIANS.
Mention has been made of the massacre at Fort Mimms in Alabama by the
Creeks, August 30, 1813. Tennessee acted with prompt vigor. General
Jackson at the head of 5,000 men marched into the Creek country and
punished the Indians with merciless rigor. After repeated defeats, the
Creeks made a stand at the Great Horseshoe Bend of the Tallapoosa River.
There a thousand warriors gathered, with their wives and children,
prepared to fight to the last. The desperate battle was fought March 27,
1814, and at its close 600 Indians were killed and the remainder
scattered. The spirit of the Creeks was crushed, and General Jackson's
exploit made him the most popular military leader in the Southwest.
Matters looked gloomy for the Americans at the beginning of 1814.
England sent a formidable force of veterans to Canada, and another to
capture Washington, while the main body expected to take New Orleans,
with the intention of retaining the city and province of Louisiana upon
the conclusion of peace.
PREPARING FOR THE FINAL STRUGGLE.
The American government gathered up her loins for the great struggle.
The President was authorized to borrow $25,000,000, and to issue
treasury notes to the amount of $5,000,000. Such sums are but bagatelles
in these days, but in 1814 the credit of the government was so poor that
the notes depreciated one-fifth of their face value. One hundred and
twenty-four dollars were offered as a bounty for every recruit, while
the pay, rations, and clothing were placed upon a generous scale. An
order was issued increasing the regular army to 66,000 men, and an
embargo laid with the aim of stopping trade under British licenses was
repealed in April.
The British cruisers kept the Atlantic coast in continual alarm.
Entering Delaware Bay they burned every merchant vessel in sight. When
the people of Lewiston refused to sell food to them, they bombarded
their homes. In Chesapeake Bay Admiral Cockburn plundered private
dwellings. Among the places sacked and burned were Lewes, Havre de
Grace, Fredericktown, and Georgetown. More leniency was shown the New
England coast because of her opposition to the war. Another inexcusable
proceeding on the part of the invaders was that of persuading many
slaves to leave their masters and join the enemy. This business
compelled England, after the close of the war, to pay the United States
one million and a quarter dollars, on the award of the Emperor of Russia
to whom the question was submitted.
CAPTURE AND BURNING OF WASHINGTON.
But this year saw the crowning disgrace to the American arms. The
mismanagement of affairs left our national capital defenseless. In
August, 1814, Sir Alexander Cochrane carried a British army up the
Chesapeake on board his squadron. Commodore Barney with his few ships
had taken shelter in the Patuxent. Paying no attention to him, Ross
landed his 5,000 veterans within 40 miles of Washington and advanced
against the city. The government had awakened to the threatened peril a
short time before, and placed 500 regulars and 2,000 undisciplined
militia under the command of General William H. Winder.
Winder took a strong position at Bladensburg and awaited Ross and
Cochrane. The British army met with no opposition, and, upon reaching
Marlborough, found that Commodore Barney, acting under the orders of the
secretary of war, had burned his fleet and hurried to Washington. The
English commander arrived in sight of Washington on the 24th of August.
His approach to Bladensburg was over a bridge defended by artillery from
Barney's flotilla, which were handled by Barney and his sailors. They
fought with the utmost heroism, repelling the British again and again;
but the militia fled, and, when Barney was wounded and his command
helpless, he surrendered. General Ross complimented him for his bravery
and immediately paroled him.
This was the only check encountered by the British in their advance upon
Washington. General Winder had learned enough of his militia to know
that no dependence could be placed upon them, and he fled to Georgetown.
The President, heads of departments, and most of the citizens joined in
the stampede, and the advance guard of General Ross entered the city
that evening.
[Illustration: BURNING OF WASHINGTON.]
The British commander offered to spare the city for a large sum of
money, but no one was within reach with authority to comply with his
demand. Ross claimed that his flag of truce had been fired on, and he
ordered the city to be burned. In the conflagration that followed, the
President's house, the department offices, numerous private dwellings,
the libraries and public archives, many works of art in the public
buildings, the navy yard and its contents, a frigate on the stocks, and
several small vessels were destroyed. The patent office and jail were
the only public property spared. The burning of Washington was an
outrage which was generally condemned in England.
After a rest and the reception of reinforcements, Ross marched against
Baltimore, which he declared should be his winter quarters. While on the
road he was mortally wounded by an American sharpshooter in a tree. Such
a brave defense was made by Forts McHenry and Covington, guarding the
narrow passage from the Patapsco into the harbor of Baltimore, that the
British fleet and the land forces were repelled. The success of this
defense inspired Francis S. Key to write our famous national song, _The
Star-Spangled Banner_.
THE HARTFORD CONVENTION.
The war became intensely unpopular in New England. Its shipping suffered
severely, and the demands for peace grew more clamorous. On the 15th of
December, 1814, a convention of delegates, appointed by the Legislatures
of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Vermont,
met in Hartford and held secret sessions for three weeks. An address was
agreed upon charging the national government with carrying on a policy
injurious to New England. Amendments were proposed to the Constitution,
and a committee was selected to confer with the government at Washington
and to propose that the revenues of New England should be applied to her
own defense. An agreement was made that if their proposed action failed,
and peace was not soon made, the convention should meet again in the
following June. There was open talk of a withdrawal from the Union, and
doubtless grave results would have followed had the war gone on. The
Hartford Convention and the "Blue Lights" of Connecticut gave the final
death-blow to the Federal party.
A TREATY OF PEACE SIGNED.
Despite the progress of the war, peace negotiations had been going on
for a long time. Russia, whose system of government has always been the
exact opposite of ours, has shown us marked friendship in many
instances. As early as 1813 she offered to mediate between Great Britain
and the United States. The President appointed five commissioners, John
Quincy Adams, James A. Bayard, Henry Clay, Jonathan Russell, and Albert
Gallatin, who were sent to Ghent, Belgium, where they were met by Lord
Gambier, Henry Goulburn, and William Adams, the commissioners for Great
Britain. After long negotiations, the commissioners reached an agreement
on the 24th of December, 1814. The treaty did not contain a word about
the search of American vessels for alleged deserters, which was the real
cause of the war, nor was any reference made to the wrongs done our
commerce, and the rights of neutral nations were not defined. The Orders
of Council, however, died of themselves, Great Britain never again
attempting to enforce them. It was agreed that all places captured by
either side during the progress of the war or afterward should be
surrendered, and provisions were made for fixing the boundary between
the United States and Canada.
In those days, when the ocean telegraph was not thought of and there
were no swift-going steamers, news traveled slowly, and it did not reach
Washington until February 4, 1815. Meanwhile, the most important battle
of the war had taken place and several captures were made on the ocean.
The Creek Indians had been so crushed by General Jackson that they ceded
a large part of their lands to the Americans. They were sullen, and when
a British squadron entered the Gulf of Mexico they eagerly did all they
could to help the enemy. The squadron, by permission of the Spanish
authorities took possession of the forts of Pensacola, and fitted out an
expedition against Fort Bower at the entrance to Mobile Bay. They
attacked the fort, September 15th, by sea and land, but were repulsed.
Among the land assailants were several hundred Creek warriors, who thus
received another lesson of the bravery of American soldiers.
General Jackson, in command of the southern military district, was
enraged by the course of the Spanish authorities. He marched from Mobile
at the head of 2,000 Tennessee militia and a number of Choctaws, stormed
Pensacola, November 7th, drove the British from the harbor, and
compelled the Spanish governor to surrender the town.
GENERAL JACKSON'S GREAT VICTORY AT NEW ORLEANS.
Having completed his work in this summary fashion, he returned to
Mobile, where he found an urgent call for him to go to the defense of
New Orleans, which was threatened by a powerful force of the enemy. The
invasion, to which we have referred in another place, was a formidable
one and had been arranged a long time before. General Jackson reached
New Orleans, December 2d, and began vigorous preparations. He enlisted
almost everybody capable of bearing arms, including negroes and
convicts. One of the most famous freebooters that ever ravaged the Gulf
of Mexico was Lafitte, to whom the British made an extravagant offer for
his help, but he refused, and gave his services to Jackson.
Jackson's vigor filled the city with confidence, but he was so strict
that dissatisfaction was expressed, whereupon he declared martial law;
in other words, he took the city government into his own hands and ruled
as he thought best. He neglected no precaution. Fort St. Philip,
guarding the passage of the Mississippi at Detour la Plaquemine, was
made stronger by new works, and a line of fortifications was built four
miles below the city, on the left of the river, and extended eastward to
an impassable cypress swamp. It was a disputed question for a time
whether Jackson used cotton bales in the defenses of New Orleans, but it
is established that he placed them on the tops of the intrenchments.
Cannon were also mounted at different points. The militia under General
Morgan, and the crews and guns of a part of the squadron of Commodore
Patterson, held the west bank of the river. These precautions enabled
the defenders to enfilade the approaching enemy. A detachment guarded
the pass of Bayou St. John, above the city, and a number of gunboats
awaited to dispute the passage of the river between Lake Pontchartrain
and Lake Borgne.
The British fleet appeared at the entrance to this channel, December
14th, and was immediately assailed by the American flotilla, which was
destroyed before it could inflict serious damage. Left free to select
the point of attack, the British sent a force in flat-bottomed boats to
the extremity of the lake, where they landed in a swamp. They repelled
an attack by Jackson, who fell back toward the city. On the 28th of
December the British were within half a mile of the American lines. They
began a fire of shells, but were repulsed by Jackson's artillery.
The defenders numbered some 3,000 militia, who were stationed in a line
of intrenchments a mile long and four miles from the town. This line was
protected by a ditch in front, flanked by batteries on the other side of
the river, and, in addition, eight other batteries were in position.
The British worked slowly forward until on the first day of the year
they were within less than a quarter of a mile of New Orleans. As the
best material at hand from which to erect breastworks they used
hogsheads of sugar and molasses, which were sent flying in fragments by
the American cannon. Several attacks upon the defenders were repulsed
and the final assault delayed for a number of days.
Sir Edward Pakenham, a veteran of the Peninsular wars, and a
brother-in-law of Wellington, the conqueror of Napoleon, was in command
of the reinforcements. While the advance went on slowly, 3,000 militia
joined Jackson. They were composed mainly of Kentucky and Tennessee
riflemen, the finest marksmen in the world. They were men, too, who did
not lose their heads in battle, but, kneeling behind their
intrenchments, coolly took aim and rarely threw away a shot.
On the morning of Jan. 8, 1815, the English army advanced against the
American intrenchments. They numbered nearly 8,000 veterans, and England
never placed a finer body of men in the field. The American riflemen,
with shotted cannon and leveled rifles, calmly awaited the command to
open on the advancing host. They were formed in two lines, those at the
rear loading for those in front, who were thus enabled to keep up an
almost continuous fire.
[Illustration: WEATHERSFORD AND GENERAL JACKSON.]
Before the outburst of flame the British dissolved like snow in the sun,
but the survivors with unsurpassable heroism persisted until it was
apparent that not a man would be left alive if they maintained their
ground. Then they fell back to decide upon some other method of attack.
Angered by his repulse, Pakenham ran to the head of a regiment bearing
scaling ladders and called upon his men to follow him. Only a few
succeeded in piercing the American lines. Pakenham fell, mortally
wounded; his successor was killed, and the third in command was so badly
injured that he could give no orders. "All that were left of them"
retreated. From the opening to the close of the battle was less than
half an hour, during which the British lost 2,500 in killed, wounded,
and prisoners, one-third being killed. On the American side eight were
killed and thirteen wounded. A few days later the British withdrew to
their ships and sailed for the West Indies, where they learned of the
signing of the treaty of peace.
WORK OF THE AMERICAN NAVY.
It will be noticed that as the war progressed the principal fighting
changed from the ocean to the land. Several encounters took place on the
sea, but they were mostly unimportant, and did not always result
favorably for us. In September, 1814, Captain Samuel C. Reid, in command
of the privateer _Armstrong_, while lying in the harbor of Fayal, one of
the Azores, was attacked by a fleet of boats from three British
frigates. He fought all through the night, and, although outnumbered
twenty to one, made one of the most remarkable defenses in naval annals.
On the 16th of January following, the _President_ was captured by the
British ship _Endymion_. On the 20th of February, while Captain Charles
Stewart was cruising off Cape St. Vincent, in the _Constitution_, with
no thought that peace had been declared, he fell in with two British
brigs, the _Cyane_ and the _Levant_. It was a bright moonlight night,
and, after a brief engagement, in which Stewart displayed consummate
seamanship, he captured both vessels.
But peace had come and was joyfully welcomed everywhere. The war had
cost us heavily in men, ships, and property; the New England factories
were idle, commerce at a standstill, and the whole country in a
deplorable state. But everything now seemed to spring into life under
the glad tidings. The shipping in New England was decked with bunting,
and, within twenty-four hours after the news arrived, the dockyards rang
with the sound of saw and hammer.
WAR WITH ALGIERS.
The Barbary States did not forget their rough treatment at the hands of
the United States a few years before. During the war they allowed the
British to capture American vessels in their harbors, and sometimes
captured them on their own account. In 1812 the Dey of Algiers compelled
the American consul to pay him a large sum of money to save himself,
family, and a few friends from being carried off into slavery. We were
too busily occupied elsewhere to give this barbarian attention, but in
March, 1815, war was declared against Algiers, and Commodores Decatur
and Bainbridge were sent to the Mediterranean with two squadrons to
conduct operations.
They did it to perfection. After capturing several frigates, they
approached the city of Algiers and demanded the immediate surrender of
every American prisoner, full indemnity for all property destroyed, and
the disavowal of all future claims to tribute. The terrified Dey eagerly
signed the treaty placed before him on the quarter-deck of Decatur's
ship. The Pasha of Tunis was compelled to pay a round sum on account of
the American vessels he had allowed the British to capture in his harbor
during the war. When he had done this, the Pasha of Tripoli was called
upon and forced to make a similar contribution to the United States
treasury.
FOUNDING OF THE NATIONAL COLONIZATION SOCIETY.
The negro had long been a disturbing factor in politics, and, in 1816,
the National Colonization Society was formed in Princeton, N.J., and
immediately reorganized in Washington. Its object was to encourage the
emancipation of slaves by obtaining a place for them outside the United
States, whither they might emigrate. It was hoped also that by this
means the South would be relieved of its free black population. The
scheme was so popular that branches of the society were established in
almost every State. At first free negroes were sent to Sierra Leone, on
the western coast of Africa, under the equator. Later, for a short time,
they were taken to Sherbrooke Island, but in 1821 a permanent location
was purchased at Cape Mesurado, where, in 1847, the colony declared
itself an independent republic under the name of Liberia. Its capital,
Monrovia, was named in honor of the President of the United States. The
republic still exists, but its functions were destroyed by the war for
the Union, which abolished slavery on this continent, and Liberia has
never been looked upon with great favor by the colored people of this
country.
PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1816.
It has already been shown that the course of the Federal party in the
War of 1812 ruined it. The Federal nominee for the presidency was Rufus
King, of New York. He was a native of Maine, a graduate of Harvard
College, and had served as a delegate to the Continental Congress. It
was he who in 1785 moved the provision against slavery in the Northwest
Territory, and he was an active member of the Constitutional Convention
of 1787, afterward returning to Massachusetts and giving all his
energies to bringing about the ratification of the Constitution. He was
United States senator from New York in 1789-1796; was minister to
London, 1796-1803; and again a United States senator, 1813-1825.
John Eager Howard, the candidate for the vice-presidency, had hardly a
less claim upon the recognition of his countrymen, for he joined the
patriot army at the outbreak of the Revolution, and fought with marked
gallantry at White Plains, Germantown, Monmouth, and Camden, and won
special honor at the Cowpens in 1781. He was afterward governor of
Maryland, declined the portfolio of war in Washington's cabinet, and was
United States senator from 1796 to 1803.
These facts are given to show the character and standing of the
candidates of the Federalists in the presidential election of 1816. The
following was the result: For President, James Monroe, of Virginia,
Republican, 133; Rufus King, of New York, Federalist, 34. For
Vice-President, Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York, Republican, 183; John
Eager Howard, of Maryland, Federalist, 22; James Ross, of Pennsylvania,
5; John Marshall, of Virginia, 4; Robert G. Harper, of Maryland, 3.
Vacancies, 4. Thus Monroe became President and Tompkins Vice-President.
[Illustration: FIRST TRAIN OF CARS IN AMERICA.]