ADMINISTRATIONS OF WASHINGTON, JOHN ADAMS, AND JEFFERSON--1789-1809.
Washington--His Inauguration as First President of the United
States--Alexander Hamilton--His Success at the Head of the Treasury
Department--The Obduracy of Rhode Island--Establishment of the United
States Bank--Passage of a Tariff Bill--Establishment of a Mint--The Plan
of a Federal Judiciary--Admission of Vermont, Kentucky, and
Tennessee--Benjamin Franklin--Troubles with the Western Indians--Their
Defeat by General Wayne--Removal of the National Capital Provided
for--The Whiskey Insurrection--The Course of "Citizen Genet"--Jay's
Treaty--Re-election of Washington--Resignation of Jefferson and
Hamilton--Washington's Farewell Address--Establishment of the United
States Military Academy at West Point--The Presidential Election of
1796--John Adams--Prosperity of the Country--Population of the Country
in 1790--Invention of the Cotton Gin--Troubles with France--War on the
Ocean--Washington Appointed Commander-in-Chief--Peace Secured--The Alien
and Sedition Laws--The Census of 1800--The Presidential Election of
1800--The Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution--Thomas
Jefferson--Admission of Ohio--The Indiana Territory--The Purchase of
Louisiana--Its Immense Area--Abolishment of the Slave Trade--War with
Tripoli--The Lewis and Clark Expedition--Alexander Hamilton Killed in a
Duel by Aaron Burr--The First Steamboat on the Hudson--The First Steamer
to Cross the Atlantic--England's Oppressive Course Toward the United
States--Outrage by the British Ship _Leander_--The Affair of the
_Leopard_ and _Chesapeake_--Passage of the Embargo Act--The Presidential
Election of 1808.
[Illustration: MARY BALL, AFTERWARD THE MOTHER OF GEORGE WASHINGTON.]
WASHINGTON.
The name of Washington will always stand peerless and unapproachable on
the pages of human history. In great crises, Heaven raises up men for
its appointed work. As soldier, statesman, and patriot, he combined in
his own personality the full requirements of the prodigious task than
which no greater was ever laid upon the shoulders of man. Through
trials, sufferings, discouragements, disappointments, abuse, ill
treatment, opposition, and misunderstandings, he never lost heart; his
lofty patriotism was never quenched; his sublime faith in God and the
destiny of his country never wavered, and, seeing with the eye of
undimmed faith the end from the beginning, he advanced with serene
majesty and unconquerable resolve to the conclusion and perfection of
his mighty work.
It has been said of Washington that he embodied within himself the
genius of sanity and the sanity of genius. We can conceive of Lincoln,
Grant, or any other great man losing his mind, but like the snowy crest
of a mountain, rising far above the plain, he stood by himself, and it
is impossible to think of him as losing even in the slightest degree the
magnificent attributes of his personality. As has been stated, his was
the single example in our history in which the fate of our country
rested with one man. Had he fallen in battle at any time between
Lexington and Yorktown, the Revolution would have stopped and
independence been postponed indefinitely. But when Heaven selects its
agent, it shields him in impenetrable armor, and, though Washington was
exposed to innumerable personal perils in the wilderness and in battle,
when his comrades were smitten with death around him, he never received
the slightest wound, and lived to see his work finished, when, in the
quiet of his own home at Mount Vernon, he lay down, folded his arms, and
passed to his reward.
[Illustration: GEORGE WASHINGTON (1732-1799.) Two terms, 1789-1797.]
George Washington was born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, February
22, 1732. There is a general misunderstanding as to his family. He had
three half-brothers, one half-sister, and three brothers and two
sisters. His half-brothers and sister, children of Augustine Washington
and Jane Butler, were: Butler (died in infancy), Lawrence, Augustine,
and Jane. His brothers and sisters, children of Augustine Washington and
Mary Ball, were: Betty, Samuel, John Augustine, Charles, and Mildred
(died in infancy).
Washington's father died when the son was eleven years old, and his
training devolved upon his mother, a woman of rare force of character.
He received a common school education, but never became learned in
books. He early showed a liking for military matters, was fond of the
sports of boyhood, and was manly, truthful, and so eminently fair in
everything, that his playmates generally selected him as umpire and
cheerfully accepted his decisions. He became an expert surveyor, and, at
the age of sixteen, was employed by Lord Fairfax to survey his immense
estate. The work, which continued for three years and was of the most
difficult nature, attended by much hardship and danger, was performed to
the full satisfaction of his employer.
[Illustration: INAUGURATION OF WASHINGTON.]
Washington grew to be a magnificent specimen of physical manhood. He was
six feet two inches tall, with a large frame and a strength surpassing
that of two ordinary men. No one in the neighborhood was his equal in
horsemanship, running, leaping, throwing, swimming, and all manner of
athletic sports. He was of the highest social rank, wealthy, and a
vestryman and member of the Episcopal Church. He was rather fond of pomp
and ceremony, somewhat reserved in manner, and at times seemed cold and
distant, but with a character that was without flaw or stain. It has
already been said that he served throughout the Revolution without
accepting a penny for his services. He kept an account of all he
received from the government, but sometimes forgot to note what he paid
out. In such cases he balanced his books by paying the deficit from his
own pocket, so that it may be truthfully said he not only won
independence for his country, but paid for the privilege of doing so.
Washington from his first services in the French and Indian War was so
identified with the history of his country that the account of one
includes that of the other. Having told of his election to the
presidency, it, therefore, remains to give the principal incidents of
his administration.
WASHINGTON'S INAUGURATION.
A special messenger reached Mount Vernon with news of Washington's
election on the 14th of April, and two days later he set out for New
York. The journey was one continual ovation, special honors being shown
him at Baltimore, Philadelphia, Trenton, and New York, where they
attained their culmination. He arrived on the 23d of April, and the
inauguration took place a week later. Amid impressive ceremonies, the
oath was administered by Robert R. Livingston, the chancellor of the
State of New York, in Federal Hall, on the present site of the
sub-treasury building. Washington stood in a balcony of the senate
chamber, in full view of the great multitude on the outside. He showed
considerable embarrassment, but was cheered to the echo and was greatly
touched by the manifestations of the love of his fellow-countrymen.
At the opening of his administration, Washington became ill and no
important business was done until September. On the 10th of that month,
Congress created a department of foreign affairs, a treasury department,
and a department of war. Thomas Jefferson was nominated to the first,
Alexander Hamilton to the second, and General Henry Knox to the third.
All were admirable appointments.
ALEXANDER HAMILTON.
Hamilton, the secretary of the treasury, was one of the most remarkable
men identified with the history of our country. He was born in the West
Indies in 1757, and, while a child, displayed extraordinary ability.
When fifteen years old, he was sent to New York City and entered King's
(now Columbia) College. A patriotic speech made when he was only
seventeen years old held his hearers spellbound by its eloquence. At
twenty, he organized a company of cavalry and performed excellent
service on Long Island and at White Plains. Washington was so impressed
by his brilliancy that he placed him on his staff and made him his
military secretary. Many of the best papers of the commander-in-chief
received their finishing touches from the master hand of Hamilton. He
was in Congress in 1782-1783, and helped to frame the Constitution.
When the New York Convention assembled to ratify the new Constitution,
three-fourths of its members were strongly opposed to it, but Hamilton
by the sheer force of his eloquent logic won them over and secured the
assent of the State to the adoption of the Constitution. He was one of
our most brilliant statesmen and the foremost Federalist of his time.
HAMILTON'S WISE MANAGEMENT OF THE FINANCES.
The greatest problem which confronted the country was that of finance,
and Hamilton grasped it with the skill of a master. Hardly had he
received his commission, when Congress called upon him for a plan to
provide for the public debt and to revive the dead national credit.
Hamilton's first answer was that the country would begin by being
honest, and that every dollar of the confederation, then amounting
almost to $80,000,000, should be paid, the United States assuming all
debts due to American citizens, as well as the war debt of each State.
This bold and creditable ground greatly improved public credit, before
any provision was made for the payment of the vast debt.
[Illustration: ALEXANDER HAMILTON.
(1757-1804).]
Hamilton's plan was to fund the entire debt and issue new certificates.
It was vehemently opposed, especially the provision that the State debts
should be assumed by the general government; but solely by his wonderful
ability he carried the measure through Congress. The debate sharpened
the lines between the Federalists and Anti-Federalists or Republicans.
It will be remembered that at that time neither North Carolina nor Rhode
Island had adopted the Constitution. The former called a convention,
and, on the 13th of November, 1789, ratified it, but Rhode Island
continued to sulk until Providence and Newport withdrew from the State,
and Massachusetts and Connecticut made ready to parcel the State between
them. This frightened her, and, on May 29, 1790, she joined her
sisters.
The following year Hamilton gave another proof of his power by carrying
through Congress, in the face of the strongest opposition, a measure for
the relief of the financial straits of the government. The only banks in
the country were one each in Philadelphia, New York, and Boston, all of
which were State institutions. He advocated the establishment of a bank
in which the government should be one-fifth owner of the capital stock
of $10,000,000 and a preferred borrower to the same amount. It was to be
under private management. In the face of the strong opposition, the act
creating it was passed, and it was chartered for twenty years. The
subscriptions required that one-fourth should be paid in specie and the
rest in six per cent. certificates of the bank. Within two hours after
the subscription books were opened the entire amount of stock was
subscribed. The United States Bank was destined to play an important
part in national affairs in after years.
PASSAGE OF A TARIFF BILL.
Having provided the means for funding the debt and for borrowing money,
it yet remained to find some way of earning the money. The method was so
apparent that Congress lost no time in passing a tariff bill. A law
placed a duty on imported and domestic spirits, and, in February, 1792,
a protective tariff bill was enacted. This provided that the materials
from which goods are manufactured should not be taxed, while articles
competing with those made in this country were prohibited. A mint was
also established in Philadelphia for coining money.
THE FEDERAL JUDICIARY ORGANIZED.
The plan for the Federal judiciary was perfected on the lines proposed
by Ellsworth, of Connecticut. The national judiciary consisted of a
supreme court, having a chief justice and five associate justices, who
were to hold two sessions annually at the seat of the Federal
government. Specified jurisdiction was given to the circuit and district
courts, and each State was made a district; the Territories of Maine and
Kentucky were provided for in the same manner, and the remaining
Territories were grouped into three circuits. When the matter in dispute
amounted to $2,000, an appeal could be taken from the lower courts to
the supreme court. The President was to appoint a marshal in each
district, possessing the general powers of a sheriff, and the interests
of the government were placed in the hands of a district attorney.
The first chief justice of the United States was John Jay, of New York,
while Edmund Randolph, of Virginia, was made attorney-general. The
associate judges were John Rutledge, of South Carolina; James Wilson, of
Pennsylvania; William Cushing, of Massachusetts; Robert H. Harrison, of
Maryland; and John Blair, of Virginia.
Vermont was admitted to the Union on March 4, 1791; Kentucky, June 1,
1792; and Tennessee exactly two years later. These three States were all
that were formed during the presidency of Washington.
[Illustration: BEN FRANKLIN MOULDING CANDLES IN HIS FATHER'S SHOP.]
Benjamin Franklin died in Philadelphia, April 17, 1790, at the age of
eighty-four years. Since he was one of the greatest of all Americans, he
is entitled to fitting notice. He was born in Boston in 1706, and was
the youngest of seventeen children. His father was a tallow chandler and
soap boiler, a trade which Benjamin detested. He was apprenticed to his
brother, who was a printer, and while a boy gave evidence of his
remarkable keenness and brilliant common sense. Rebelling against the
discipline of his brother, he ran away, tramping most of the distance
to Philadelphia. There he secured a situation and showed himself so
skillful and tasteful a printer that he never lacked for work. He
established a paper in Philadelphia in 1729, and began the publication
of _Poor Richard's Almanac_ in 1732, the year in which Washington was
born. The wit, homely philosophy, and keen penetration shown by Franklin
attracted wide attention and gave the almanac an enormous circulation,
which lasted as long as it was published. Many of his proverbs are still
popular and widely quoted.
In 1753, he was appointed deputy postmaster of the British colonies,
and, as a delegate to the Albany Convention in 1754, proposed an
important plan for colonial union. From 1757 to 1762, and again from
1764 to the Revolution, he was agent of Pennsylvania in England; part of
the time also for Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Georgia. Returning to
Philadelphia in 1775, he was at once chosen a delegate to the
Continental Congress. Few persons, in looking at his handsome signature
on the Declaration of Independence, would suspect that it was written
when he was seventy years old. It has been shown that he was one of the
committee of five who drew up the Declaration, and in the following
autumn was sent to Paris to join Arthur Lee and Silas Deane. His
services there were of the highest importance. He had a leading part in
the negotiations of the treaty of peace in 1783, after which he
negotiated a favorable treaty with Russia. He returned to America in
1785, and was chosen president of Pennsylvania, and again in 1786 and
1787. He was an influential member of the Constitutional convention, and
probably was second to Washington in popularity. His funeral in
Philadelphia was attended by more than 20,000 persons.
[Illustration: FRANKLIN'S GRAVE.]
Franklin's researches in electricity, though slight as compared with the
discoveries since made by Edison, Tesla, and others, extended his fame
to Europe. By means of the kite which he sent aloft in a thunderstorm,
he proved that the lightning in the atmosphere is identical with that
developed by frictional electricity. This discovery led to the invention
of the lightning-rod for buildings, which has been the means of saving
property beyond estimate. He was the inventor also of an economical
stove and other useful contrivances. He made himself wealthy, and the
fortune which he left at his death was the foundation of the splendid
institution of learning known as the University of Pennsylvania.
[Illustration: THE BATTLE OF FALLEN TIMBERS
In this memorable battle of August 20, 1794, General Wayne visited a
final defeat upon the Indians at Maumee Rapids, putting an end to the
war in the Northwest, which for nearly four years had terrorized and
devastated the territory now occupied by the States of Indiana, Ohio and
Illinois.]
DISASTROUS EXPEDITION AGAINST THE WESTERN INDIANS.
Returning to the history of Washington's presidency, mention must be
made of the troubles with the western Indians, who, as has been stated,
fought relentlessly against the advance of civilization into their
hunting grounds. Between 1783 and 1790, 1,500 persons were killed by the
red men near the Ohio. It being clear that peace could not be secured
except by a thorough chastisement of the Indians, Congress gave General
Arthur St. Clair, governor of the Northwest Territory, authority to call
for 500 militia from Pennsylvania and a thousand from Kentucky, to which
were added 400 regulars. Under General Harmar they marched against the
Indian villages.
In the campaign the Indians outgeneraled Harmar, who, after inflicting
some damage, was defeated and lost 200 men in killed and wounded. The
defeat encouraged the savages, who became more aggressive than ever.
General St. Clair organized a second expedition consisting of 2,000 men,
including cavalry and artillery, with which in October, 1793, he entered
the Indian country, only to suffer a more disastrous defeat than General
Harmar, and in which the losses were so dreadful that the news caused
consternation in Philadelphia. Washington had cautioned St. Clair
against the very mistakes he made, and he completely lost his temper. He
paced up and down his room, giving such expressions to his feelings that
those around him were awed into silence. By-and-by, he seemed to regret
the outburst, and, when the trembling St. Clair some time later
presented himself, the President received him without reproach; but St.
Clair was overwhelmed by his disgrace and resigned his command.
WAYNE'S VICTORY OVER THE INDIANS.
Washington determined that no more blunders should be made, and
appointed Anthony Wayne to the command of the next expedition. He raised
a large force, moved cautiously, and took every precaution against
surprise, as Washington had told him to do. He had 4,000 men under his
command, and the consummate woodcraft and tricks of the red men failed
to deceive him. At Fallen Timbers, near the present city of Toledo, he
met a large force, August 20, 1794, of Canadians and Indians, completely
routed them, killed a great many, with slight loss to himself, and so
crushed the confederation of tribes that they gave no more trouble for a
long time. A year later, 1,100 chiefs and warriors met the United States
commissioners at Fort Greenville and signed a treaty of peace, by which
they ceded to the government an immense tract of land lying in the
present States of Michigan and Indiana. An impetus was given to western
emigration, which suffered no interruption for many years.
THE WHISKEY INSURRECTION IN PENNSYLVANIA.
One of the acts of Congress was to declare that Philadelphia was to be
the national capital for ten years, from 1790, when it was to be removed
to a point on the Potomac River, where the city of Washington now
stands. One measure which Hamilton induced Congress to pass caused
trouble. It doubled the duty on imported spirits and taxed those
distilled in this country. So much dissatisfaction appeared in North
Carolina and Pennsylvania that the law was modified, but it did not end
the discontent. The officers sent to Pennsylvania to collect the taxes
were resisted and the militia sympathized with the rioters, whose
numbers swelled to 7,000 under arms. When they began to talk of
appealing to England, Washington lost patience and sent a large body of
Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey militia to the section.
They were under the command of General Henry Lee, governor of Virginia,
and arrived on the scene in October, 1794. Order was soon restored, and
the ringleaders, expressing sorrow for their acts, were not punished.
This seems to be the rule in our country, except that repentance on the
part of criminals is not required.
"CITIZEN GENET."
The action of "Citizen Genet" caused a flurry during Washington's
presidency. The "Reign of Terror" had begun in France, where the most
appalling revolution in history had taken place. The tyranny of the
rulers had driven the people to frenzied desperation, and, overthrowing
the government, their massacres were not checked until literally
hundreds of thousands of people were killed. Since their rebellion was
begun against tyranny, and France had helped us in our war for
independence, there was general sympathy for the people in our own
country, though everyone was shocked by the deeds that soon horrified
the civilized world.
Having established a government, the revolutionists sent Edward Charles
Genet to this country as its representative. He was warmly welcomed at
Charleston, where he landed in April, 1793. He was too discourteous to
go to Philadelphia to present his credentials, and began enlisting
recruits for France and intriguing for an alliance with us. Since France
was fighting England, Austria, Prussia, Sardinia, and Holland, it can be
understood how desirable such an alliance would have been to her.
Washington was too wise to be misled, and he issued a proclamation of
neutrality, forbidding citizens of the United States to equip vessels to
carry on hostilities against the belligerent powers. Genet paid no
attention to this, but kept on enlisting men and fitting out cruisers
in American waters. His course became so intolerable that Washington
demanded his recall. This demand was complied with, and he was ordered
to return home. No one knew better than he that if he showed himself in
France he would lose his head. So he stayed in this country until his
death in 1834.
JAY'S TREATY.
[Illustration: CHIEF JUSTICE JOHN JAY.]
The course of England became so unjust toward the commerce, because of
her war with France, that Chief Justice John Jay, in May, 1794, was sent
as envoy extraordinary to that country to demand redress. A treaty was
agreed upon and ratified by the Senate in June, 1795, which provided
that the British garrisons should be withdrawn from the western posts by
June 1, 1796; free inland navigation upon lakes and rivers was
guaranteed to both nations, except that the United States was excluded
from the territory of the Hudson Bay Company; British vessels were
admitted to the rivers and harbors on our seacoast, but our shipping was
shut out from the rivers and harbors of the British provinces, with the
exception of small vessels trading between Montreal and Quebec; our
northeastern boundary was to be fixed by a commission; the payments of
debts incurred before the war were guaranteed to British creditors, if
such debts were collectible by an American creditor; Great Britain was
to pay for losses resulting from irregular captures by her cruisers;
citizens of either country were allowed to hold landed possessions in
the territory of the other; private property was not to be confiscated
in time of war; trade between the United States and the West Indies was
free to the vessels of both nations, but American vessels were forbidden
to carry West Indian products from the islands or from the States to any
other part of the world. The last clause was to be in force only two
years, when further negotiation was to take place. In addition, the two
years' limit was applicable to the right of American vessels to trade
between the East Indies and the United States, but in time of war they
were not to take thither any rice or military stores; free commerce was
established between the British dominions in Europe and the United
States; the regulation of duties was provided for, as well as the
appointment of consuls and the rules of blockade; privateering was
regulated; what was contraband of war was defined, and it was agreed
that piracy should be punished; ships of war could enter the ports of
either country; criminals escaping from one country to the other were to
be surrendered; and, in the event of war between the two countries,
citizens in hostile territory were not to be molested.
Although this treaty possessed many good points, and was the best
obtainable by our envoy, it gave so many advantages to Great Britain
that it roused bitter enmity in this country. Public meetings were held
in the leading cities, where it was denounced as cowardly and made for
the express purpose of avoiding a war with England. The feeling rose so
high that Jay was burned in effigy, Hamilton was assaulted at a public
meeting, the British minister insulted, and even Washington himself
treated with disrespect. Better judgment prevailed, when the passions
cooled, and it is now admitted that Jay's treaty, when all the
circumstances are considered, was a commendable one.
SECOND ELECTION OF WASHINGTON.
It was Washington's wish to retire to private life on conclusion of his
first term, but he could not disregard the demand from all quarters. No
competitor appeared in the field against him, and for a second time he
was unanimously elected. His vote was 132; that cast for the candidates
for the minor office being, John Adams, Federalist, 77; George Clinton,
of New York, Republican, 50; Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, Republican,
4; Aaron Burr, of New York, Republican, 1; vacancies, 3. This vote made
John Adams again Vice-President.
Since Jefferson was the leader of the Republicans (or as now called the
Democrats), and Hamilton of the Federalists (afterward the Whigs), and
the two, as members of Washington's cabinet, were able and aggressive,
they were continually disputing. Sometimes they sorely tried
Washington's patience, who, appreciating the ability of both, often had
hard work to prevent an open rupture. On the last day in 1793, Jefferson
resigned his office as secretary of foreign affairs and retired to
private life at Monticello, Virginia. A year later Hamilton resigned as
minister of finance. Through his efforts public credit had been
restored, and industry and trade had revived. He well deserved the
eloquent tribute of Daniel Webster: "He smote the rock of the national
resources, and abundant streams of revenues burst forth. He touched the
dead corpse of public credit, and it sprung upon its feet."
As Washington's second term drew to a close, a universal demand was made
that he should serve again. Despite the fact that the two great
political parties were fairly organized, and each contained many able
men, no one would have had the temerity to offer himself as a
competitor; but he was growing old, his strength had been worn out in
the service of his country, and the rest he yearned for could no longer
be denied him. He, therefore, issued his immortal Farewell Address to
his countrymen and withdrew to Mount Vernon, where he peacefully passed
away December 14, 1799, mourned by the whole country and revered by the
civilized world.
The Farewell Address contains counsel that can never lose its value to
America. After thanking his fellow-countrymen for the confidence they
had always shown in him, and the support he had received from them, he
said that the love of liberty was so interwoven with every ligament of
their hearts that no recommendation of his was necessary to fortify that
attachment. The unity of government, by which they were made one people,
had also become very dear to them.
[Illustration: WASHINGTON'S BEDROOM, MT. VERNON, IN WHICH HE DIED.]
"It is justly so," he said, "for it is a main pillar in the edifice of
your real independence--the support of your tranquillity at home, your
peace abroad; of your safety, of your prosperity; of that very liberty
which you so highly prize. But, as it is easy to foresee that, from
different causes and from different quarters, much pains will be taken,
many artifices be employed to weaken in your minds the conviction of
this truth--as this is the point in your political fortress against
which the batteries of internal and external enemies will be most
constantly and actively (though often covertly and insidiously)
directed--it is of infinite moment that you should properly estimate the
immense value of your national union to your collective and individual
happiness; that you should cherish a cordial, habitual, and immovable
attachment to it; accustoming yourselves to think and speak of it as the
palladium of your political safety and prosperity; watching for its
preservation with jealous anxiety; discountenancing whatever may suggest
even a suspicion that it can in any event be abandoned, and indignantly
frowning upon the first dawning of every attempt to alienate any portion
of our country from the rest, or to enfeeble the sacred ties which now
link together the various parts. For this you have every inducement of
sympathy and interest. Citizens, by birth or choice, of a common
country, that country has a right to concentrate your affections. The
name of AMERICAN, which belongs to you in your national capacity, must
also exalt the just pride of patriotism more than any appellation
derived from local discriminations. With slight shades of difference,
you have the same religion, manners, habits, and political principles.
You have in a common cause fought and triumphed together; the
independence and liberty you possess are the work of joint counsels and
joints efforts; of common dangers, sufferings, and successes."
[Illustration: THE MOTHER OF WASHINGTON RECEIVING MARQUIS LAFAYETTE.
Previous to his departure for Europe, in the fall of 1784, the Marquis
de Lafayette repaired to Fredericksburg to pay his parting respects to
Washington's mother and to ask her blessing.
Conducted by one of her grandsons he approached the house, when, the
young gentleman observing, "There, sir, is my grandmother," the Marquis
beheld, working in her garden, clad in domestic-made clothes and her
gray head covered by a plain straw hat, the mother of "his hero, his
friend, and a country's preserver." The lady saluted him kindly,
observing, "Ah, Marquis, you see an old woman; but come, I can make you
welcome to my poor dwelling without the parade of changing my dress."]
Washington next pointed out the mutual advantages derived from one
another in the different sections of the Union, and impressively warned
his countrymen against the danger of sectional parties and the baneful
effects of party spirit. He commended the Constitution, which could be
amended, whenever the necessity arose, as beneficent in its provisions
and obligatory upon all. Other wholesome counsel, which he added, made
the Farewell Address a priceless heritage to the generations that came
after him.
The immediate effect of the paper was excellent. The various State
Legislatures voted thanks to Washington, and were warm in their praises
of his wise and patriotic services as President. The regret was
universal that the country was so soon to lose his valuable counsel and
guidance.
WEST POINT MILITARY ACADEMY ESTABLISHED.
During the Revolution Washington recommended the excellent location of
West Point as the proper one for a military school of instruction. An
act establishing the United States Military Academy at that place was
passed March 16, 1802. It provided that fifty students or cadets should
be given instruction under the senior engineer or officer, assisted by
the corps of engineers of the army. As the institution grew,
professorships of mathematics, engineering, philosophy, etc., were
added, and the academy was made a military body subject to the rules and
articles of war. A superintendent was designated in 1815, and the
present system of appointing cadets was instituted in 1843. The rigid
course, steadily elevated, probably prevents fully one-half of those
entering from graduating, and, a comparison of the West Point Military
Academy with similar institutions establishes the fact that it is the
finest of the kind in the world.
PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1796.
The presidential election of 1796 was a close one, the result being:
John Adams, Federalist, 71; Thomas Jefferson, Republican, 68; Thomas
Pinckney, of South Carolina, Federalist, 59; Aaron Burr, of New York,
Republican, 30; Samuel Adams, of Massachusetts, Republican, 15; Oliver
Ellsworth, of Connecticut, Independent, 11; George Clinton, of New York,
Republican, 7; John Jay, of New York, Federalist, 5; James Iredell, of
North Carolina, Federalist, 3; George Washington, of Virginia, John
Henry, of Maryland, and S. Johnson, of North Carolina, all Federalists,
2 votes each; Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, of South Carolina,
Federalist, 1 vote. Since it required 70 votes to elect, it will be seen
that John Adams was barely successful, with Jefferson close to him.
John Adams, the second President, was born at Braintree, Massachusetts,
October 19, 1735. He graduated at Harvard, at the age of twenty, and was
admitted to the bar three years later. He was one of the most active and
influential members of the First and Second Continental Congresses. It
was he who by his eloquent logic persuaded Congress to adopt the
Declaration of Independence. Jefferson, his strenuous political
opponent, declared that Adams was the pillar of its support and its
ablest advocate and defender. It was Adams who suggested the appointment
of General Washington as commander-in-chief of the Continental army.
During the progress of the war, he criticised the management of
Washington, but, long before the death of the Father of his Country,
candidly acknowledged the injustice of such criticism.
[Illustration: JOHN ADAMS.
(1735-1826.) One term, 1797-1801.]
The services of Adams were not confined to his early efforts in Congress
nor to his term as President. He did important work as commissioner to
France and Holland, and as minister plenipotentiary to negotiate a
treaty of peace with Great Britain. He obtained large loans and induced
leading European powers to make excellent treaties with his country.
Adams and Franklin framed the preliminary treaty of Versailles, and, as
the first American minister to England, he served until 1788. He
received the thanks of Congress for the "patriotism, perseverance,
integrity, and diligence" displayed while representing his country
abroad. When John Adams assumed the duties of the presidency, he found
the country comparatively prosperous and well governed.
The South was the most prosperous. Until 1793, its principal productions
were rice, indigo, tar, and tobacco. The soil and climate were highly
favorable to the growth of cotton, but its culture was unprofitable, for
its seeds were so closely interwoven in its texture that only by hard
work could a slave clean five pounds a day. In the year named, Eli
Whitney, a New England schoolteacher, living in Georgia, invented the
cotton gin, with which a man can clean a thousand pounds of cotton a
day. This rendered its cultivation highly profitable, gave an importance
to the institution of slavery, and, in its far-reaching effects, was the
greatest invention ever made in this country.
TROUBLES WITH FRANCE.
The matter which chiefly occupied public attention during the
administration of the elder Adams was our difficulties with France. That
country had hardly emerged from the awful Reign of Terror in which a
million of people were massacred, and it was under the control of a set
of bloody minded miscreants, who warred against mankind and believed
they could compel the United States to pay a large sum of money for the
privilege of being let alone. They turned our representatives out of the
country, enacted laws aimed to destroy our commerce, and instructed
their naval officers to capture and sell American vessels and cargoes.
[Illustration: THE COTTON GIN, INVENTED IN 1793.
A machine which does the work of more than 1,000 men.]
President Adams, who abhorred war, sent special ministers to protest
against the course of France. The impudent reply was there would be no
stoppage until the men who controlled the French government were paid
large sums of money. This exasperating notice brought the answer from
Charles Cotesworth Pinckney which has become historical: "Millions for
defense, but not one cent for tribute."
Although war was not declared, it prevailed on the ocean during the
latter half of 1798. Congress convened, abolished the treaties with
France, strengthened the navy, and ordered it to attack French vessels
wherever found. Several engagements took place, in all of which the
French men-of-war were whipped "to a standstill." The most important of
the naval battles was between the _Constitution_, under Commodore
Truxton, and the French frigate _L'Insurgente_, in which the latter was
captured. A messenger was sent to Mount Vernon, carrying the appointment
of Washington as commander-in-chief of the American army. He found the
great man in the harvest field; but when Washington donned his
spectacles and read the paper, he replied that he was then as always
ready to serve his country in whatever capacity he could. He accepted
with the understanding that he was not to be called into the field until
actual hostilities took place on the land, and that Alexander Hamilton
should until then be the commander-in-chief.
Doubtless a destructive war would have resulted, but for the fact that
Napoleon Bonaparte, as a stepping-stone to his marvelous career,
overturned the French government and installed himself as emperor. He
saw the folly of a war with the United States, when he was certain soon
to be embroiled with more powerful neighbors near home. He offered fair
terms of peace to our country in 1799, and they were accepted.
THE ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS.
One of the gravest mistakes made by the Federalists in Congress was the
passage of the Alien and Sedition Laws. Irritated by the mischief-making
of foreigners, a law was enacted which permitted the President to arrest
any alien in the country whose presence he considered dangerous. The
acts under which this was to be done were known as the Alien Laws. The
most detested measure, however, was that which authorized the arrest of
any person who should speak evil of the government, and was known as the
Sedition Law. There were arrests and punishments under its provisions,
and the majority of the people were bitterly hostile to it. It was
unquestionably a direct invasion of the liberty of speech. The claim
that no editor, public speaker, or private citizen should be allowed to
condemn an action of the government which he disproved was unbearable,
but it was in direct line with the Federal policy of a powerful central
government, and as directly opposed to Republican principles. The
feeling became so intense that at the next presidential election the
Federal party was defeated and never afterward gained control of the
government.
REMOVAL OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL TO WASHINGTON.
The census of 1800 showed that the population of the country had
increased to 5,308,483. In that year, the national capital was removed
from Philadelphia to the straggling, partly built village of Washington,
standing in the woods, and without any of the structures that have made
it one of the most attractive cities in the world.
The presidential election of 1800 was an exciting one. Thomas Jefferson
and Aaron Burr, both Republicans, received 73 electoral votes, while
John Adams, Federalist had 65; Charles C. Pinckney, Federalist, 64; John
Jay, Federalist 1. The vote between the leaders being a tie, the
election was thrown into the House of Representatives, where, after
thirty-eight ballots, Jefferson was elected, with Burr, the next highest
candidate, Vice-President. The preceding election, as will be
remembered, gave a President and Vice-President of different political
parties, always an undesirable thing, and this fact, added to the
difficulties of the election just over, led to the adoption in 1804 of
the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution, which requires the electors
to vote separately for the President and Vice-President.
THOMAS JEFFERSON.
Thomas Jefferson, third President of the United States, was born at
Shadwell, Albemarle County, Virginia, April 2, 1743. His father, a
wealthy planter, died when his son was fourteen years old, and he
entered William and Mary College, where he was the most assiduous
student in the institution. Jefferson was as fond as Washington of
athletic sports, and, though he was of less massive build, he attained
the same stature, six feet two inches. In college, he was an awkward,
freckle-faced, sandy haired youth, who, but for his superior mental
attainments, would have commanded little respect. Except for his
fondness for hunting and horseback riding, he never could have acquired
the physique which allowed him to spend ten, twelve, and sixteen hours
of every twenty-four in hard study.
[Illustration: THOMAS JEFFERSON.
(1743-1826.) Two terms, 1801-1809.]
Jefferson was undoubtedly the most learned of all our Presidents. He was
not only a fine mathematician, but a master of Latin, Greek, French,
Spanish, and Italian. He was an exquisite performer on the violin, and
it was said of him, by one of the most noted European musicians, that he
never heard an amateur play the king of instruments as well as the slim
Virginian.
Jefferson married a wealthy lady and named his attractive home
Monticello. His great ability caused his election to the Virginia
Legislature while a young man, and he was soon afterward sent to
Congress. Lacking the gifts of oratory, he had no superior as a writer
of fine, classical, forceful English. Among the many excellent laws he
secured for Virginia was the separation of Church and State. He was the
author of a parliamentary manual for the government of the United States
Senate, which is still an authority, and of our present system of
decimal currency; but the reader does not need to be reminded that his
fame will go down to posterity chiefly as the writer of the Declaration
of Independence; but Jefferson felt almost equally proud of the fact
that he was founder of the University of Virginia, which, abandoning the
old system, introduced the "free system of independent schools." He also
proposed for his State a comprehensive system of free public schools.
Although wealthy, he went almost to the extreme of simplicity. His dress
was as plain as that of the Quakers; he wore leathern shoestrings
instead of the fashionable silver buckles; and strove to keep his
birthday a secret, because some of his friends wished to celebrate it.
He was opposed to all pomp, ceremony, and titles. He is universally
regarded as the founder of the Democracy of the present day, and was
undeniably one of the greatest Presidents we have had.
WELCOME LEGISLATION.
The administration of Jefferson proved among the most important in the
history of our country. Congress promptly abolished the tax on distilled
spirits and a number of other manufactures, a step which enabled the
President to dismiss a large number of revenue collectors, whose
unwelcome duties had entailed considerable expense upon the country. The
obnoxious Sedition Law was repealed, and the Alien Law so modified that
it was shorn of its disagreeable features.
ADMISSION OF OHIO.
In the year 1800, a line was run through the Northwest Territory from
the mouth of the Great Miami to Fort Recovery and thence to Canada.
Three years afterward, the territory thus defined was admitted to the
Union as the State of Ohio. The Indiana Territory included the portion
west of the line named, with Vincennes as the capital. The Mississippi
Territory was organized so as to extend from the western boundaries of
Georgia to the Mississippi.
The punishment administered to France in 1798 naturally gave that
country a respect for the United States, and in 1802 our relations with
her became quite friendly. Bonaparte, having established a truce with
the nations around him, found time to give some attention to the
American republic. He seemed to believe he could establish a French
colonial empire, not only in the West Indies, but in the immense
province of Louisiana. Had Bonaparte succeeded, he would have acquired
control of the Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico. Nothing would have
pleased England more than to see so serious a check placed upon our
growth, and nothing would have displeased our countrymen more than to be
shut off from the Father of Waters and the right to emigrate westward.
They were ready to go to war before submitting to such deprivation.
PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA.
No one was more keenly alive to the situation than Jefferson. He
carefully instructed our envoy at Paris to make the strongest possible
representations to the French ruler of the grave mistake of the course
he had in mind, which must inevitably result in an alliance with Great
Britain in sweeping France from the seas and driving her from the West
Indies. Bonaparte was too wise not to perceive that this was no empty
threat, and that his visionary French empire in the West would prove an
element of weakness rather than strength. Nothing was plainer than the
truth that the stronger the United States became, the more dangerous
would it be for his traditional enemy, England. He, therefore, proposed
to sell Louisiana to the United States.
This was the very thing for which Jefferson had been skillfully working
from the first. The bargain was speedily completed. On April 30, 1803,
Louisiana came into our possession for the sum of $11,250,000, we
agreeing at the same time to pay certain debts due from France to
American citizens, amounting to $3,750,000, so that the total cost of
Louisiana was $15,000,000.
It must not be forgotten that the Territory of Louisiana, as purchased
by us, was vastly more extensive than is the present State of that name.
It included the area from which have been carved the States of
Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Minnesota, Iowa, the Dakotas,
Montana, part of Kansas, Wyoming and Colorado, and the Territory of
Oklahoma, the whole area being 1,171,931 square miles, as against
827,844, which was all the territory occupied previous to 1803.
Peaceable possession was taken on the 20th of December following. The
governorship of the Territory was offered to Lafayette, and declined by
him, but he received a grant of 12,000 acres within its limits.
SLAVE TRADE ABOLISHED.
At the time of the adoption of the Constitution, it was agreed that the
slave trade should be permitted for twenty years. It was abolished,
therefore, in 1808, and the penalty for engaging in it was made
punishable with death. At the time of the purchase of Louisiana, it was
believed that it included Texas, but the United States gave up this
claim in 1819 to Spain in return for the cession of Florida.
It seems incredible, but it was true, that for twenty years we had been
paying a large tribute to Algiers on condition that she would not molest
our commerce. Other nations did the same, because it was more convenient
than keeping a navy in those far-off waters. A treaty with Morocco had
been signed, in 1787, under which we also paid her tribute. The people
of the Barbary States naturally waxed insolent, and when we were slow in
sending our tribute they imposed a heavy penalty, which we meekly paid.
WAR WITH TRIPOLI.
One of the most disgusted men was Captain William Bainbridge, when
obliged to carry the tribute in 1800 to the Dey of Algiers, who informed
him that the Americans were his slaves, and must do as he ordered. The
indignant officer expressed the hope that the next tribute he delivered
would be from the mouths of his cannon. The following year the ruler of
Tripoli became ruffled because we did not send him as much tribute as he
thought he was entitled to, and actually declared war against us.
The flurry of 1798 with France had caused a considerable increase in our
navy, which was furnished with plenty of daring officers, who afterward
made names for themselves. They eagerly welcomed a war of that nature
which of necessity was a naval one. The operations were confined to the
Mediterranean, on whose shore are the Barbary States.
The first real fight took place in August, 1801, between the
_Enterprise_, a vessel of twelve guns, and a Tripolitan vessel of
fourteen guns. It occurred off Malta, and lasted for two hours, when the
Tripolitan hauled down his flag. Thereupon the Americans left their guns
and were cheering, when the enemy treacherously fired a broadside into
the _Enterprise_. Nothing loth, Lieutenant Sterrett renewed the battle
with such vigor that in a few minutes the flag was lowered a second
time, only to renew the fighting when the enemy saw an advantage.
Thoroughly exasperated, Lieutenant Sterrett now determined to complete
the business. The vessel was raked fore and aft, the mizzen-mast torn
away, the hull knocked to splinters, and fifty men killed and wounded.
Then the American officer caught sight of the captain leaping up and
down on the deck, shrieking and flinging his arms about, as evidence
that he was ready to surrender in earnest. He threw his own flag
overboard, but Lieutenant Sterrett demanded that his arms and ammunition
should follow, the remainder of the masts cut away, and the ship
dismantled. That being done, Sterrett allowed him to rig a jury mast and
told him to carry his compliments to the Dey.
The war against the Tripolitans was very similar to that against the
Spaniards in 1898. The _Enterprise_ had not lost a man, although the
Americans inflicted severe loss on the enemy. In July, 1802, the
_Constellation_, in a fight with nine Tripolitan gunboats, drove five
ashore, the rest escaping by fleeing into the harbor. More than once a
Tripolitan vessel was destroyed, with all on board, without the loss of
a man on our side.
But the war was not to be brought to a close without an American
disaster. In 1803 the fine frigate _Philadelphia_, while chasing a
blockade-runner, ran upon a reef in the harbor of Tripoli, and, being
helpless, a fleet of the enemy's gunboats swarmed around her and
compelled Captain Bainbridge and his crew to surrender. The frigate was
floated off at high tide and the enemy refitted her.
A GALLANT EXPLOIT.
One night in February, 1804, the _Intrepid_, a small vessel under the
command of Lieutenant Stephen Decatur, one of the bravest of American
naval officers, approached the _Philadelphia_, as she lay at anchor,
and, being hailed, replied, through a native whom he had impressed into
service, that he was a merchantman who had lost his anchors. The
Tripolitans allowed the vessel to come alongside without any suspicion
on their part. Suddenly a score of Americans sprang up and leaped
through the port-holes of the frigate. It took them but a few minutes to
clear the deck, when the vessel was fired in several places and the men
safely withdrew. The _Philadelphia_ burned to the water's edge.
Early in August, Commodore Preble bombarded the town of Tripoli from his
mortar boats. During a fight with the gunboats James Decatur, a brother
of Stephen, received the surrender of one he was fighting, and stepped
on the deck to take possession. As he did so, the captain shot him dead.
Stephen had just destroyed a gunboat when he learned of this treacherous
occurrence and dashed after the craft, which he boarded. Recognizing the
captain from his immense size, he attacked him, and, in a desperate
personal encounter, in which he narrowly escaped death himself, killed
the Moor.
THE BOMB KETCH.
The Americans fixed up the _Intrepid_ as a bomb ketch, storing a hundred
barrels of powder and missiles and a hundred and fifty shells on deck.
Under command of Captain Richard Somers, and accompanied by twelve men,
the vessel ran slowly into the harbor one dark night. The intention was
to fire a slow-match and then for the officer and men to withdraw in
boats. Captain Somers was discovered by the enemy, and in some unknown
way the ketch was blown up with all on board, and without doing any
material harm to the shipping and fortifications in the harbor.
Commodore Preble was superseded in November by Commodore Barron, who
arrived with the _President_ and _Constellation_. This gave the
Americans ten vessels, carrying 264 guns. Hostilities were pressed with
so much vigor that the Dey of Tripoli became anxious to make peace
before the terrible fleet from the West destroyed him and his people.
Accordingly, a treaty was signed on the 3d of June by which the
Tripolitans were given $60,000 for the prisoners in their hands, and the
payment of tribute to them was ended.
EXPEDITION OF LEWIS AND CLARK.
In those comparatively modern days the vast region west of the
Mississippi was almost unknown. President Jefferson recommended a
congressional appropriation for the exploration of the country. The
appropriation being made, a party of thirty men left the Mississippi,
May 14, 1804, under command of Captains Meriwether Lewis and William
Clark. Both had had a good deal of experience in the Indian country, and
they ascended the Missouri in a flotilla for 2,600 miles. To the three
streams which form the Missouri they gave the names of Jefferson,
Gallatin, and Madison. A detachment was then left in charge of the
boats, and the remainder, riding the horses they had captured and tamed,
made their way across the mountains. They discovered the two streams
which bear their names, and traced the Columbia to its outlet in the
Pacific Ocean.
The expedition was absent for two years, and its report on returning
added much to our geographical knowledge of the section. They were the
first party of white men to cross the continent north of Mexico. Captain
Lewis was appointed governor of Missouri Territory in 1806, and was
acting as such when he committed suicide in 1809. Captain Clark was also
governor of Missouri Territory, and afterward superintendent of Indian
affairs. He died in St. Louis in 1838.
THE BURR AND HAMILTON DUEL.
No one read the wicked character of Aaron Burr more unerringly than
Alexander Hamilton. He saw that he was ready to ruin his country for the
sake of gratifying an insatiate ambition. Hamilton was always outspoken
in expressing his opinions; and the hostility between the two became so
bitter that Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel. Although the latter had
had a son killed through the barbarous code within the preceding year,
he was foolish enough to accept the challenge, and the duel was fought
at Weehawken, New Jersey, July 12, 1804. Hamilton fired in the air, but
Burr aimed straight for his antagonist and inflicted a wound from which
he died the next day.
Although Burr presided in the Senate after the duel, the whole country
was shocked by the occurrence, and his friends fell away from him. In
1804, when Jefferson was re-elected to the presidency, George Clinton
took the place of Burr as Vice-President. Burr then engaged in a plot to
form a new empire in the southwest, the precise nature of which is
uncertain. He found a few to join with him, but it came to naught, and
in 1807 he was tried at Richmond, Virginia, on the charge of treason,
but acquitted. He spent some years in wandering over Europe, and then
returned to resume the practice of law in New York. He died in obscurity
and poverty on Staten Island in 1836.
[Illustration: DEVELOPMENT OF STEAM NAVIGATION FOLLOWING FULTON'S
DISCOVERY.]
A notable event of Jefferson's administrations was the first voyage of a
steamboat up the Hudson. This was the _Clermont_, the invention of
Robert Fulton, who was born in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, in 1765.
This boat was slightly over one hundred feet in length and about twenty
feet broad, with side paddle-wheels and a sheet-iron boiler brought from
England. There was general ridicule of the idea of moving boats by steam
against a current, and the craft was called "Fulton's Folly." The crowd
which gathered on the wharf in New York, August 1, 1807, indulged in
jests which were not hushed until the craft moved slowly but smoothly up
stream. Heading against the current, she made the voyage to Albany in
thirty-two hours. She met with some mishaps, but after a time made
regular trips between that city and New York, at the rate of five miles
an hour.
OCEAN STEAMERS.
This incident marked an epoch in the history of the West, where the
first steamboat was built in 1811. Within a few years, they were plying
on all the important rivers, greatly assisting emigration and the
development of the country. The first steamer to cross the Atlantic was
the _Savannah_ in 1819. The screw propeller was introduced by the great
Swedish inventor, John Ericsson, in 1836. Really successful ocean
navigation began in 1838, when the _Sirius_ and _Great Western_ made the
voyage from England to the United States.
[Illustration: ROBERT FULTON.]
OPPRESSIVE COURSE OF ENGLAND.
The devastating war raging between England and France was destructive to
American commerce and interests. The star of the wonderful Napoleon
Bonaparte was rapidly in the ascendant, and his marvelous military
genius seemed to threaten the "equilibrium of the world." England had no
love for the United States and played havoc with our shipping. Her
privateers infested our coasts, like swarms of locusts. Because of her
immense naval superiority, she pestered us almost beyond bearing. She
stopped our vessels off-shore, followed them into rivers and harbors,
overhauled the crews, and in many cases took sailors away under the plea
that they were English deserters. Her claim was that "once a British
subject, always a British subject;" no sworn allegiance to any other
government could release the claim of England upon him.
Our vessels were prohibited from carrying imports from the West Indies
to France, but evaded the law by bringing imports to this country and
then reshipping them to France. England peremptorily ordered the
practice to stop and declared that all vessels thus engaged should be
lawful prizes to her ships. This action caused general indignation in
this country and thousands of citizens clamored for war.
Jefferson never lost his self-poise. While a thorough patriot, he knew
the meaning of war. He sent a message to Congress on the subject in
January, 1806, and the question was one of earnest and prolonged
discussion, ending in the adoption of a resolution to prohibit certain
articles of British manufacture.
But matters rapidly grew worse. In May following England declared the
coast of Europe, from the Elbe in Germany to Brest in France, in a state
of blockade. Bonaparte retaliated with the famous Berlin Decree, which
blockaded the British Islands. In the spring of 1807 the British ship
_Leander_ fired into a coasting vessel and killed one of the men. The
President issued a proclamation forbidding the _Leander_ and the two
ships in her company from entering any of the waters of the United
States; calling upon all officers to apprehend the captain of the
_Leander_ on a charge of murder; prohibiting all communication between
the shore and the ships, and warning all citizens from giving them aid
under penalty of the law. Envoys were sent to England to adjust the
trouble, but their efforts came to naught.
THE AFFAIR OF THE LEOPARD AND CHESAPEAKE.
Matters were in this tense state when the most glaring outrage of all
was perpetrated. The British ship-of-war _Leopard_, of fifty guns, was
cruising off the capes of Virginia, hunting for the American frigate
_Chesapeake_, which she claimed had a number of English deserters on
board. The _Chesapeake_ was hailed, and the English captain asked
permission to send dispatches on board. Such courtesies were common, and
Captain James Barron, the American commander, willingly complied with
the request. When the boat arrived, a letter was presented to Captain
Barron, containing the orders of the British admiral to search the
_Chesapeake_ for a number of deserters, who were mentioned by name.
Captain Barron sent word that he had no knowledge of any deserters, and
refused to submit. Thereupon the _Leopard_ fired several broadsides into
the _Chesapeake_, which, being entirely unprepared for battle, was
obliged to strike her flag, three men having been killed and eighteen
wounded. Four men were then selected from the crew of the _Chesapeake_,
three of whom were negroes, all declared to be deserters, and taken on
board the _Leopard_.
The country was thrown into a tumult of excitement, and the President,
by proclamation, closed all American harbors and waters against the
British navy, prohibited any intercourse with such vessels, and sent a
special minister to England to demand satisfaction. Congress was called
together, and a hundred thousand men in the different States were
ordered to hold themselves in readiness for service. The action of the
captain of the _Leander_ was disavowed, reparation offered, and the
offending admiral was recalled, but the reparation promised was never
made, and Great Britain refused to give up the right of search.
THE EMBARGO ACT.
Although the action of England was anything but satisfactory, it averted
war for the time. In December, Congress passed the Embargo Act, which
forbade all American vessels to leave the coast of the United States.
The belief was that by thus suspending commerce with England and France,
the two countries would be forced to respect our neutrality. The real
sufferers, however, were ourselves; New England and New York, whose
shipping business was ruined, denounced the act in unmeasured terms.
Thus the administration of Jefferson, which had brought so much material
prosperity to the country and was so prolific in beneficent events,
closed amid clouds and threatened disaster.
PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1808.
In the presidential election of 1808, the electoral vote was as follows:
James Madison, of Virginia, Republican, 122; Charles C. Pinckney, of
South Carolina, Federalist, 47; George Clinton, of New York, Republican,
6. For Vice-President, George Clinton, Republican, 113; Rufus King, of
New York, Federalist, 47; John Langdon, of New Hampshire, 9; James
Madison, 3; James Monroe, 3. Vacancy, 1. Thus Madison and Clinton became
respectively President and Vice-President.