kinds, of which one is concerned with the loyalty of friends, the other
with the feelings of the people. The loyalty of friends must be secured
by acts of kindness and attention, by length of time, and by an easy and
agreeable temper. But this word "friends" has a wider application during
a canvass than in other times of our life. For whosoever gives any sign
of an inclination to you, or habitually visits at your house, must be
put down in the category of friends. But yet the most advantageous thing
is to be beloved and pleasant in the eyes of those who are friends on
the more regular grounds of relationship by blood or marriage, of
membership of the same club, or of some close tie or other. Farther, you
must take great pains that, in proportion as a man is most intimate and
most closely connected with your household, he should love you and
desire your highest honour--as, for instance, your tribesmen,
neighbours, clients, and finally your freedmen and even your slaves; for
nearly all the talk which forms one's public reputation emanates from
domestic sources. In a word, you must secure friends of every class: for
show--men conspicuous for their office or name, who, even if they do not
give any actual assistance in canvassing, yet add some dignity to the
candidate; to maintain your just rights--magistrates, consuls first and
then tribunes; to secure the votes of the centuries--men of eminent
popularity. Those who either have gained or hope to gain the vote of a
tribe or century, or any other advantage, through your influence, take
all pains to collect and secure. For during recent years men of ambition
have exerted themselves with all their might and main to become sure of
getting from their tribesmen what they sought. Do you also do your very
best, by every means in your power, to make such men attached to you
from the bottom of their hearts and with the most complete devotion. If,
indeed, men were as grateful as they ought to be, all this should be
ready to your hand, as I trust in fact that it is. For within the last
two years you have put under an obligation to you four clubs of men who
have the very greatest influence in promoting an election, those of C.
Fundanius, Q. Gallius, C. Cornelius, C. Orchivius.[732] When they
committed the defence of these men to you, I am acquainted with what
their clubsmen undertook and promised you to do, for I was present at
the interview. Wherefore you must insist at the present juncture on
exacting from them your due by reminding them, appealing to them,
solemnly assuring them, and taking care that they thoroughly understand
that they will never have any other opportunity of shewing their
gratitude. I cannot doubt that these men, from hope of your services in
the future as well as from the benefits recently received, will be
roused to active exertions. And speaking generally, since your
candidature is most strongly supported by that class of friendships
which you have gained as a counsel for the defence, take care that to
all those, whom you have placed under this obligation to you, their duty
should in every case be clearly defined and set forth. And as you have
never been in any matter importunate with them, so be careful that they
understand that you have reserved for this occasion all that you
consider them to owe you.
VI. But since men are principally induced to shew goodwill and zeal at
the hustings by three considerations--kindness received, hope of more,
personal affection and good feeling--we must take notice how best to
take advantage of each of these. By very small favours men are induced
to think that they have sufficient reason for giving support at the
poll, and surely those you have saved (and their number is very large)
cannot fail to understand that, if at this supreme crisis they fail to
do what you wish, they will never have anyone's confidence. And though
this is so, nevertheless they must be appealed to, and must even be led
to think it possible that they, who have hitherto been under an
obligation to us, may now put us under an obligation to them. Those,
again, who are influenced by hope (a class of people much more apt to be
scrupulously attentive) you must take care to convince that your
assistance is at their service at any moment, and to make them
understand that you are carefully watching the manner in which they
perform the duties they owe you, and to allow no mistake to exist as to
your clearly perceiving and taking note of the amount of support coming
from each one of them. The third class which I mentioned is that of
spontaneous and sincere friends, and this class you will have to make
more secure by expressions of your gratitude; by making your words tally
with the motives which it shall appear to you influenced them in taking
up your cause; by shewing that the affection is mutual; and by
suggesting that your friendship with them may ripen into intimacy and
familiar intercourse. In all these classes alike consider and weigh
carefully the amount of influence each possesses, in order to know both
the kind of attention to pay to each, and what you are to expect and
demand from each. For certain men are popular in their own
neighbourhoods and towns; there are others possessed of energy and
wealth, who, even if they have not heretofore sought such popularity,
can yet easily obtain it at the moment for the sake of one to whom they
owe or wish to do a favour. Your attention to such classes of men must
be such as to shew them that you clearly understand what is to be
expected from each, that you appreciate what you are receiving, and
remember what you have received. There are, again, others who either
have no influence or are positively disliked by their tribesmen, and
have neither the spirit nor the ability to exert themselves on the spur
of the moment: be sure you distinguish between such men, that you may
not be disappointed in your expectation of support by placing over-much
hope on some particular person.
VII. But although you ought to rely on, and be fortified by, friendships
already gained and firmly secured, yet in the course of the canvass
itself very numerous and useful friendships are acquired. For among its
annoyances a candidature has this advantage: you can without loss of
dignity, as you cannot in other affairs of life, admit whomsoever you
choose to your friendship, to whom if you were at any other time to
offer your society, you would be thought guilty of an eccentricity;
whereas during a canvass, if you don't do so with many, and take pains
about it besides, you would be thought to be no use as a candidate at
all. Moreover, I can assure you of this, that there is no one, unless he
happens to be bound by some special tie to some one of your rivals,
whom you could not induce, if you took pains, to earn your affection by
his good services, and to seize the opportunity of putting you under an
obligation--let him but fully understand that you value him highly, that
you really mean what you say, that he is making a good investment, and
that there will accrue from it not only a brief and electioneering
friendship, but a firm and lasting one. There will be no one, believe
me, if he has anything in him at all, who will let slip this opportunity
offered of establishing a friendship with you, especially when by good
luck you have competitors whose friendship is one to be neglected or
avoided, and who not only are unable to secure what I am urging you to
secure, but cannot even make the first step towards it. For how should
Antonius make the first step towards attaching people to himself, when
he cannot even call them, unaided, by their proper names? I, for one,
think that there can be no greater folly than to imagine a man
solicitous to serve you whom you don't know by sight. Extraordinary
indeed must be the fame, the political position and extent of the public
services of that man whom entire strangers, without supporters to back
him, would elect to office. That a man without principle or energy,
without doing any good service, and without ability, lying under a cloud
of discredit, and without friends, should beat a man fortified with the
devotion of a numerous circle and by the good opinion of all, cannot
possibly occur except from gross negligence.
VIII. Wherefore see that you have the votes of all the centuries secured
to you by the number and variety of your friends. The first and most
obvious thing is that you should embrace the Roman senators and knights,
and the active and popular men of all the other orders. There are many
city men of good business habits, there are many freedmen engaged in the
forum who are popular and energetic: these men try with all your might
both personally and by common friends, as far as you can, to make eager
in your behalf; seek them out, send agents to them, shew them that they
are putting you under the greatest obligation. After that review the
entire city, all colleges, districts, neighbourhoods. If you attach to
yourself the leading men of these, you will by their means easily keep a
hold upon the multitude. When you have done that, take care to have in
your mind a chart of all Italy laid out according to the tribe of each
town, and learn it by heart, so that you may not allow any _municipium_,
colony, prefecture, or, in a word, any spot in Italy to exist, in which
you have not a sufficient foothold. Inquire also for and trace out
individuals in every region, inform yourself about them, seek them out,
strengthen their resolution, secure that in their own neighbourhoods
they shall canvass for you, and be as it were candidates in your
interest. They will wish for you as a friend, if they once see that
their friendship is an object with you. Make sure that they _do_
understand this by directing your speech specially to this point. Men of
country towns, or from the country, think themselves in the position of
friends if we of the city know them by name: if, however, they think
that they are besides securing some protection for themselves, they do
not let slip the opportunity of being obliging. Of such people others in
town, and above all your rivals, don't so much as know the existence:
you know about them and will easily recognize them, without which
friendship is impossible. Nor is such recognition enough (though it is a
great thing) unless some hope of material advantage and active
friendship follows, for your object is not to be looked upon as a mere
"nomenclator," but as a sincere friend also. So when you have both got
the favour of these same men in the centuries, who from the means they
have taken to secure their personal objects enjoy most popularity among
their fellow tribesmen; and have made those all desirous of your success
who have influence in any section of their tribe, owing to
considerations attaching to their municipality or neighbourhood or
college, then you may allow yourself to entertain the highest hopes.
Again, the centuries of the knights appear to me capable of being won
over, if you are careful, with considerably more ease. Let your first
care be to acquaint yourself with the knights; for they are
comparatively few: then make advances to them, for it is much easier to
gain the friendship of young men at their time of life. Then again, you
have on your side the best of the rising generation, and the most
devoted to learning. Moreover, as the equestrian order is yours, they
will follow the example of that order, if only you take the trouble to
confirm the support of those centuries, not only by the general good
affection of the order, but also by the friendships of individuals.
Finally, the hearty zeal of the young in canvassing for votes, appearing
at various places, bringing intelligence, and being in attendance on you
in public are surprisingly important as well as creditable.
IX. And since I have mentioned "attendance," I may add that you should
be careful to see large companies every day of every class and order;
for from the mere number of these a guess may well be made as to the
amount of support you are likely to have in the _campus_ itself. Such
visitors are of three kinds: one consists of morning callers who come to
your house, a second of those who escort you to the forum, a third of
those who attend you on your canvass. In the case of the morning
callers, who are less select and, according to the prevailing fashion,
come in greater numbers, you must contrive to make them think that you
value even this slight attention very highly. Let those who shall come
to your house see that you notice it; shew your gratification to such
of their friends as will repeat it to them; frequently mention it to the
persons themselves. It often happens that people, when they visit a
number of candidates, and observe that there is one who above the rest
notices these attentions, devote themselves to him; leave off visiting
the others; little by little become devoted to one instead of being
neutral, and from sham turn out real supporters. Farthermore, carefully
remember this, if you have been told or have discovered that a man who
has given you his promise is "dressing for the occasion," as the phrase
goes, make as though you had neither heard it nor knew it; if any offers
to clear himself to you, because he thinks himself suspected, assert
roundly that you have never doubted his sincerity and have no right to
doubt it. For the man who thinks that he is not giving satisfaction can
never be a friend. You ought, however, to know each man's real feeling,
in order to settle how much confidence to place in him.
Secondly, of those who escort you to the forum: since this is a greater
attention than a morning call, indicate and make clear that it is still
more gratifying to you, and as far as it shall lie in your power go down
to the forum at fixed times. The daily escort by its numbers produces a
great impression and confers great personal distinction. The third class
is that of numbers perpetually attending you on your canvass. See that
those who do so spontaneously understand that you regard yourself as for
ever obliged by their extreme kindness: from those, on the other hand,
who owe you this attention, frankly demand that, as far as their age and
business allow, they should constantly be in personal attendance, and
that those who are unable to accompany you in person should find
relations to take their place in performing this duty. I am very
anxious, and think it extremely important, that you should always be
surrounded by large numbers. Besides, it confers a great reputation and
great distinction to be accompanied by those who by your exertions have
been defended, preserved, and acquitted in the law courts. Put this
demand fairly before them, that, since by your means and without any
payment some have retained their property, others their honour, others
their civil existence and entire fortunes, and since there will never be
any other time at which they can show their gratitude, they should
remunerate you by this service.
X. And since the point now in discussion is entirely a question of the
loyalty of friends, I must not, I think, pass over one caution.
Deception, intrigue, and treachery are everywhere. This is not the time
for a formal disquisition on the indications by which a true friend may
be distinguished from a false: all that is in place now is to give you a
hint. Your exalted character has compelled many to pretend to be your
friends while really jealous of you. Wherefore remember the saying of
Epicharmus, "the muscle and bone of wisdom is to believe nothing
rashly." Again, when you have got the feelings of your friends in a
sound state, you must then acquaint yourself with the attitude and
varieties of your detractors and opponents. There are three: first,
those whom you have attacked; second, those who dislike you without
definite reason; third, those who are warm friends of your competitors.
As to those attacked by you while pleading a friend's cause against
them, frankly excuse yourself; remind them of the ties constraining you;
give them reason to hope that you will act with equal zeal and loyalty
in their cases, if they become your friends. As for those who dislike
you without reason, do your best to remove that prejudice either by some
actual service, or by holding out hopes of it, or by indicating your
kindly feeling towards them. As for those whose wishes are against you
owing to friendship for your competitors, gratify them also by the same
means as the former, and, if you can get them to believe it, shew that
you are kindly disposed to the very men who are standing against you.
XI. Having said enough about securing friendships, I must now speak on
another department of a candidate's task, which is concerned with the
conciliation of the people. This demands a knack of remembering names,
insinuating manners, constant attendance, liberality, the power of
setting a report afloat and creating a hopeful feeling in the state.
First of all, make the faculty you possess of recognizing people
conspicuous, and go on increasing and improving it every day. I don't
think there is anything so popular or so conciliatory. Next, if nature
has denied you some quality, resolve to assume it, so as to appear to be
acting naturally. Although nature has great force, yet in a business
lasting only a few months it seems probable that the artificial may be
the more effective. For though you are not lacking in the courtesy which
good and polite men should have, yet there is great need of a flattering
manner which, however faulty and discreditable in other transactions of
life, is yet necessary during a candidateship. For when it makes a man
worse by truckling, it is wrong; but when only more friendly, it does
not deserve so harsh a term; while it is absolutely necessary to a
candidate, whose face and expression and style of conversation have to
be varied and accommodated to the feelings and tastes of everyone he
meets. As for "constant attendance," there is no need of laying down any
rule, the phrase speaks for itself. It is, of course, of very great
consequence not to go away anywhere; but the real advantage of such
constant attendance is not only the being at Rome and in the forum, but
the pushing one's canvass assiduously, the addressing oneself again and
again to the same persons, the making it impossible (as far as your
power goes) for anyone to say that he has not been asked by you, and
earnestly and carefully asked. Liberality is, again, of wide
application; it is shewn in regard to the management of your private
property, which, even if it does not actually reach the multitude, yet,
if spoken of with praise by friends, earns the favour of the multitude.
It may also be displayed in banquets, which you must take care to attend
yourself and to cause your friends to attend, whether open ones or those
confined to particular tribes. It may, again, be displayed in giving
practical assistance, which I would have you render available far and
wide: and be careful therein to be accessible to all by day and night,
and not only by the doors of your house, but by your face and
countenance, which is the door of the mind; for, if that shews your
feelings to be those of reserve and concealment, it is of little good to
have your house doors open. For men desire not only to have promises
made them, especially in their applications to a candidate, but to have
them made in a liberal and complimentary manner. Accordingly, it is an
easy rule to make, that you should indicate that whatever you are going
to do you will do with heartiness and pleasure; it is somewhat more
difficult, and rather a concession to the necessities of the moment than
to your inclination, that when you cannot do a thing you should [either
promise] or put your refusal pleasantly: the latter is the conduct of a
good man, the former of a good candidate. For when a request is made
which we cannot grant with honour or without loss to ourselves, for
instance, if a man were to ask us to appear in a suit against a friend,
a refusal must be given in a gentlemanly way: you must point out to him
that your hands are tied, must shew that you are exceedingly sorry, must
convince him that you will make up for it in other ways.
XII. I have heard a man say about certain orators, to whom he had
offered his case, "that he had been better pleased with the words of the
one who declined, than of the one who accepted." So true it is that men
are more taken by look and words than by actual services. [This latter
course, however, you will readily approve: the former it is somewhat
difficult to recommend to a Platonist like you, but yet I will have
regard for your present circumstances.] For even those to whom you are
forced by any other tie to refuse your advocacy may yet quit you
mollified and with friendly feelings. But those to whom you only excuse
a refusal by saying that you are hindered by the affairs of closer
friends, or by cases more important or previously undertaken, quit you
with hostile feelings, and are one and all disposed to prefer an
insincere promise to a direct negative from you. C. Cotta, a master in
the art of electioneering, used to say that, "so long as the request was
not directly contrary to moral duty, he used to promise his assistance
to all, to bestow it on those with whom he thought it would be most
advantageously invested: he did not refuse anyone, because something
often turned up to prevent the person whom he promised from availing
himself of it, and it often also occurred that he himself was less
engaged than he had thought at the time; nor could anyone's house be
full of suitors who only undertook what he saw his way to perform: by
some accident or other the unexpected often happens, while business,
which you have believed to be actually in hand, from some cause or other
does not come off: moreover, the worst that can happen is that the man
to whom you have made a false promise is angry." This last risk,
supposing you to make the promise, is uncertain, is prospective, and
only affects a few; but, if you refuse, the offence given is certain,
immediate, and more widely diffused. For many more ask to be allowed to
avail themselves of the help of another than actually do so. Wherefore
it is better that some of them should at times be angry with you in the
forum, than all of them perpetually at your own house: especially as
they are more inclined to be angry with those who refuse, than with a
man whom they perceive to be prevented by so grave a cause as to be
compatible with the desire to fulfil his promise if he possibly could.
But that I may not appear to have abandoned my own classification, since
the department of a candidate's work on which I am now dilating is that
which refers to the populace, I insist on this, that all these
observations have reference not so much to the feelings of friends as to
popular rumour. Though there is something in what I say which comes
under the former head--such as answering with kindness, and giving
zealous assistance in the business and the dangers of friends--yet in
this part of my argument I am speaking of the things which enable you to
win over the populace: for instance, the having your house full of
visitors before daybreak, the securing the affection of many by giving
them hope of your support, the contriving that men should leave you with
more friendly feelings than they came, the filling the ears of as many
as possible with the most telling words.
XIII. For my next theme must be popular report, to which very great
attention must be paid. But what I have said throughout the foregoing
discourse applies also to the diffusion of a favourable report: the
reputation for eloquence; the favour of the _publicani_ and equestrian
order; the goodwill of men of rank; the crowd of young men; the constant
attendance of those whom you have defended; the number of those from
municipal towns who have notoriously come to Rome on your account; the
observations which men make in your favour--that you recognize them,
address them politely, are assiduous and earnest in canvassing; that
they speak and think of you as kind and liberal; the having your house
full of callers long before daybreak; the presence of large numbers of
every class; that your look and speech give satisfaction to all, your
acts and deeds to many; that everything is done which can be done by
hard work, skill, and attention, not to cause the fame arising from all
these displays of feeling to reach the people, but to bring the people
itself to share them. You have already won the city populace and the
affections of those who control the public meetings by your panegyric of
Pompey, by undertaking the cause of Manilius, by your defence of
Cornelius.[733] We must not let those advantages be forgotten, which
hitherto no one has had without possessing at the same time the favour
of the great. We must also take care that everyone knows that Cn.
Pompeius is strongly in your favour, and that it emphatically suits his
purpose that you should win your election. Lastly, take care that your
whole candidature is full of _éclat_, brilliant, splendid, suited to the
popular taste, presenting a spectacle of the utmost dignity and
magnificence. See also, if possible, that some new scandal is started
against your competitors for crime or looseness of life or corruption,
such as is in harmony with their characters.