[1] Gustavus Adolphus before the battle of the Alte Veste (see THIRTY
YEARS' WAR).
[2] "Making not money but that which they took to be the public
felicity to be their end they were the more engaged to be valiant"
(Baxter).
[3] For the third time within the year the London trained bands
turned out in force. It was characteristic of the early years of the
war that imminent danger alone called forth the devotion of the
citizen soldier. If he was employed in ordinary times (e.g. at Basing
House) he would neither fight nor march with spirit.
[4] Charles's policy was still, as before Marston Moor, to "spin out
time" until Rupert came back from the north.
[5] The ground has been entirely built over for many years.
[6] The Puritans had by now disappeared almost entirely from the
ranks of the infantry. _Per contra_ the officers and sergeants and
the troopers of the horse were the sternest Puritans of all, the
survivors of three years of a disheartening war.
[7] The tents were evidently issued for regular marches, not for
cross-country manoeuvres against the enemy. These manoeuvres, as we
have seen, often took several days. The _bon general ordinaire_ of
the 17th and 18th centuries framed his manoeuvres on a smaller scale
so as not to expose his expensive and highly trained soldiers to
discomfort and the consequent temptation to desert.
[8] The lord general had during his march thrown out successively two
flying columns under Colonel Lilburne to deal with the Lancashire
Royalists under the earl of Derby. Lilburne entirely routed the enemy
at Wigan on the 25th of August.
[9] Fritz Hoenig, _Cromwell_.
GREAT SALT LAKE, a shallow body of highly concentrated brine in the N.W.
part of Utah, U.S.A., lying between 118.8 deg. and 113.2 deg. W. long,
and between 40.7 deg. and 41.8 deg. lat. Great Salt Lake is 4218 ft.
above sea-level. It has no outlet, and is fed chiefly by the Jordan, the
Weber and the Bear rivers, all draining the mountainous country to the
E. and S.E. The irregular outline of the lake has been compared to the
roughly drawn hand, palm at the S., thumb (exaggerated in breadth)
pointing N.E., and the fingers (crowded together and drawn too small)
reaching N.
No bathymetric survey of the lake has been made, but the maximum depth
is 60 ft. and the mean depth less than 20 ft., possibly as little as 13
ft. The lake in 1906 was approximately 75 m. long., from N.W. to S.E.,
and had a maximum width of 50 m. and an area of 1750 sq. m. This area is
not constant, as the water is very shallow at the margins, and the
relation between supply from precipitation, &c., and loss by evaporation
is variable, there being an annual difference in the height of the water
of 15-18 in. between June (highest) and November (lowest), and besides a
difference running through longer cycles: in 1850 the water was lower
and the lake smaller than by any previous observations (the area and
general outline were nearly the same again in 1906); then the water rose
until 1873; and between 1886 and 1902 the fall in level was 11.6 ft. The
range of rise and fall from 1845 to 1886 was 13 ft., this being the rise
in 1865-1886. With the fall of water there is an increase in the
specific gravity, which in 1850 was 1.17, and in September 1901 was
1.179; in 1850 the proportion of solids by weight was 22.282%, in
September 1901 it was 25.221; at the earlier of these dates the solids
in a litre of water weighed 260.69 grams, at the latter date 302.122
grams. The exact cause of this cyclic variation is unknown: the low
level of 1906 is usually regarded as the result of extensive irrigation
and ploughing in the surrounding country, which have robbed the lake, in
part, of its normal supply of water. It is also to be noted that the
rise and fall of the lake level have been coincident, respectively, with
continued wet and dry cycles. That the lake will soon dry up entirely
seems unlikely, as there is a central trough, 25 to 30 m. wide, about 40
ft. deep, running N.W. and S.E. The area and shore-line of the lake are
evidently affected by a slight surface tilt, for during the same
generation that has seen the recent fall of the lake level the
shore-line is in many cases 2 m. from the old, and fences may be seen a
mile or more out in the lake. The lake bed is for the most part clear
sand along the margin, and in deeper water is largely coated with crusts
of salt, soda and gypsum.
The lake is a novel and popular bathing resort, the specific gravity of
the water being so great that one cannot sink or entirely submerge
oneself. There are well-equipped bathing pavilions at Garfield and
Saltair on the S. shore of the lake about 20 m. from Salt Lake City. The
bathing is invigorating; it must be followed by a freshwater bath
because of the incrustation of the body from the briny water. The large
amount of salt in the water makes both fauna and flora of the lake
scanty; there are a few algae, the larvae of an _Ephydra_ and of a
_Tipula_ fly, specimens of what seems to be _Corixa decolor_, and in
great quantities, so as to tint the surface of the water, the brine
shrimp, _Artemia salina_ (or _gracilis_ or _fertilis_), notable
biologically for the rarity of males, for the high degree of
parthenogenesis and for apparent interchangeableness with the
_Branchipus_.
The lake is of interest for its generally mountainous surroundings, save
to the N.W., where it skirts the Great Salt Lake Desert, for the
mountainous peninsula, the Promontory, lying between thumb and fingers
of the hand, shaped like and resembling in geological structure the two
islands S. of it, Fremont and Antelope,[1] and the Oquirrh range S. of
the lake. The physiography of the surrounding country shows clearly that
the basin occupied by Great Salt Lake is one of many left by the drying
up of a large Pleistocene lake, which has been called lake Bonneville.
Well-defined wave-cut cliffs and terraces show two distinct shore-lines
of this early lake, one the "Bonneville Shore-line," about 1000 ft.
above Great Salt Lake, and the other, the "Provo Shoreline," about 625
ft. higher than the present lake. These shorelines and the presence of
two alluvial deposits, the lower and the larger of yellow clay 90 ft.
deep, and, separated from it by a plane of erosion, the other, a deposit
of white marl, 10-20 ft. deep, clearly prove the main facts as to lake
Bonneville: a dry basin was first occupied by the shallow waters of a
small lake; then, during a long period of excessive moisture (or cold),
the waters rose and spread over an area nearly as large as lake Huron
with a maximum depth of 1000 ft.; a period of great dryness followed, in
which the lake disappeared; then came a second, shorter, but more
intense period of moisture, and in this time the lake rose, covered a
larger area than before, including W. Utah and a little of S. Idaho and
of E. Nevada, about 19,750 sq. m., had a very much broken shore-line of
2550 m. and a maximum depth of 1050 ft. and a mean depth of 800 ft.,
overflowed the basin at the N., and by a tributary stream through Red
Rock Pass at the N. end of the Cache valley poured its waters into the
Columbia river system. The great lake was then gradually reduced by
evaporation, leaving only shallow bodies of salt water, of which Great
Salt Lake is the largest. The cause of the climatic variations which
brought about this complex history of the Salt Lake region is not known;
but it is worthy of note that the periods of highest water levels were
coincident with a great expansion of local valley glaciers, some of
which terminated in the waters of lake Bonneville.
Industrially Great Salt Lake is of a certain importance. In early days
it was the source of the salt supply of the surrounding country; and the
manufacture of salt is now an important industry. The brine is pumped
into conduits, carried to large ponds and there evaporated by the sun;
during late years the salt has been refined here, being purified of the
sulphates and magnesium compounds which formerly rendered it
efflorescent and of a low commercial grade. Mirabilite, or Glauber's
salt, is commercially valuable, occurring in such quantities in parts of
the lake that one may wade knee-deep in it; it separates from the brine
at a temperature between 30 deg. and 20 deg. F. The lake is crossed E.
and W. by the Southern Pacific railway's so-called "Lucin Cut-off,"
which runs from Ogden to Lucin on a trestle with more than 20 m. of
"fill"; the former route around the N. end of the lake was 43 m. long.
Great Salt Lake was first described in 1689 by Baron La Hontan, who had
merely heard of it from the Indians. "Jim" Bridger, a famous mountaineer
and scout, saw the lake in 1824, apparently before any other white man.
Captain Bonneville described the lake and named it after himself, but
the name was transferred to the great Pleistocene lake. John C. Fremont
gave the first description of any accuracy in his _Report_ of 1845. But
comparatively little was known of it before the Mormon settlement in
1847. In 1850 Captain Howard Stansbury completed a survey, whose results
were published in 1852. The most extensive and important studies of the
region, however, are those by Grove Karl Gilbert of the United States
Geological Survey, who in 1879-1890 studied especially the earlier and
greater lake.
See J. E. Talmage, _The Great Salt Lake, Present and Past_ (Salt Lake
City, 1900); and Grove Karl Gilbert, _Lake Bonneville_, monograph 1 of
United States Geological Survey (Washington, 1890), containing (pp.
12-19) references to the earlier literature.