4. The LAZIS of Lazistan on the Black Sea.

5. The SVANETIANS, SHVANS or SWANIANS, on the Upper Ingur and

Tskheniz-Tskhali rivers.

6. The MINGRELIANS, between the rivers Tskheniz-Tskhali, Rion, Ingur

and the Black Sea.

7. The TUSHES or MOSOKS \

| about the headstreams of the

8. The PSHAVS or PH'CHAVY > Alazan and Yora rivers.

|

9. The KHEVSURS /

The representative branch of the race has always been the Karthlians. It

is now pretty well established that the Georgians are the descendants of

the aborigines of the Pambak highlands, and that they found their way to

their present homes from the south-east some four or five thousand years

ago, possibly under pressure from the great waves of Aryan migration

flowing from the Iranian tableland westwards to Asia Minor and Europe.

The Georgians proper are limited on the east by the Alazan, on the north

by the Caucasus, on the west by the Meskes hills, separating them from

the Imeretians, and on the south by the Kura river and Kara-dagh and

Pambak mountains. Southwards, however, no hard and fast ethnical line

can be drawn, for even immediately south of Tiflis, Georgians, Armenians

and Tatars are found intermingled confusedly together.

The Georgian race, which represents the oldest elements of civilization

in the Caucasus, is distinguished by some excellent mental qualities,

and is especially noted for personal courage and a passionate love of

music. The people, however, are described as fierce and cruel, and

addicted to intemperance, though Max von Thielmann (_Journey in the

Caucasus_, &c., 1875) speaks of them as "rather hard drinkers than

drunkards." Physically they are a fine athletic race of pure Caucasian

type; hence during the Moslem ascendancy Georgia supplied, next to

Circassia, the largest number of female slaves for the Turkish harems

and of recruits for the Osmanli armies, more especially for the select

corps of the famous Mamelukes.

The social organization rested on a highly aristocratic basis, and the

lowest classes were separated by several grades of vassalage from the

highest. But since their incorporation with the Russian empire, these

relations have become greatly modified, and a more sharply defined

middle class of merchants, traders and artisans has been developed. The

power of life and death, formerly claimed and freely exercised by the

nobles over their serfs, has also been expressly abolished. The

Georgians are altogether at present in a fairly well-to-do condition,

and under Russian administration they have become industrious, and have

made considerable moral and material progress.

Missionaries sent by Constantine the Great introduced Christianity about

the beginning of the 4th century. Since that time the people have,

notwithstanding severe pressure from surrounding Mahommedan communities,

remained faithful to the principles of Christianity, and are still

amongst the most devoted adherents of the Orthodox Greek Church. Indeed

it was their attachment to the national religion that caused them to

call in the aid of the Christian Muscovites against the proselytizing

attempts of the Shiite Persians--a step which ultimately brought about

their political extinction.

As already stated, the Karthli language is not only fundamentally

distinct from the Indo-European linguistic family, but cannot be shown

to possess any clearly ascertained affinities with either of the two

northern Caucasian groups. It resembles them chiefly in its phonetic

system, so that according to Rosen (_Sprache der Lazen_) all the

languages of central and western Caucasus might be adequately rendered

by the Georgian alphabet. Though certainly not so harsh as the Avar,

Lesghian and other Daghestan languages, it is very far from being

euphonious, and the frequent recurrence of such sounds as ts, ds, thz,

kh, khh, gh (Arab. [Arabic: gh]), q (Arab. [Arabic: q]), for all of

which there are distinct characters, renders its articulation rather

more energetic and rugged than is agreeable to ears accustomed to the

softer tones of the Iranian and western Indo-European tongues. It

presents great facilities for composition, the laws of which are very

regular. Its peculiar morphology, standing midway between agglutination

and true inflexion, is well illustrated by its simple declension common

to noun, adjective and pronoun, and its more intricate verbal

conjugation, with its personal endings, seven tenses and incorporation

of pronominal subject and object, all showing decided progress towards

the inflecting structure of the Indo-European and Semitic tongues.

Georgian is written in a native alphabet obviously based on the

Armenian, and like it attributed to St Mesropius (Mesrop), who

flourished in the 5th century. Of this alphabet there are two forms,

differing so greatly in outline and even in the number of the letters

that they might almost be regarded as two distinct alphabetic systems.

The first and oldest, used exclusively in the Bible and liturgical

works, is the square or monumental Khutsuri, i.e. "sacerdotal,"

consisting of 38 letters, and approaching the Armenian in appearance.

The second is the Mkhedruli kheli, i.e. "soldier's hand," used in

ordinary writing, and consisting of 40 letters, neatly shaped and full

of curves, hence at first sight not unlike the modern Burmese form of

the Pali.

Of the Karthli language there are several varieties; and, besides those

comprised in the above table, mention should be made of the Kakhetian

current in the historic province of Kakhetia. A distinction is sometimes

drawn between the Karthlians proper and the Kakhetians, but it rests on

a purely political basis, having originated with the partition in 1424

of the ancient Iberian estates into the three new kingdoms of

Karthlinia, Kakhetia and Imeretia. On the other hand, both the Laz of

Lazistan and the Svanetian present such serious structural and verbal

differences from the common type that they seem to stand rather in the

relation of sister tongues than of dialects to the Georgian proper. All

derive obviously from a common source, but have been developed

independently of each other. The Tush or Mosok appears to be

fundamentally a Kistinian or Chechen idiom affected by Georgian

influences.

The Bible is said to have been translated into Georgian as early as the

5th century. The extant version, however, dates only from the 8th

century, and is attributed to St Euthymius. But even so, it is far the

most ancient work known to exist in the language. Next in importance is,

perhaps, the curious poem entitled _The Amours of Turiel and Nestan

Darejan_, or _The man clothed in the panther's skin_, attributed to

Rustevel, who lived during the prosperous reign of Queen Thamar (11th

century). Other noteworthy compositions are the national epics of the

_Baramiani_ and the _Rostomiani_, and the prose romances of _Visramiani_

and _Darejaniani_, the former by Sarg of Thmogvi, the latter by Mosi of

Khoni. Apart from these, the great bulk of Georgian literature consists

of ecclesiastical writings, hymns sacred and profane, national codes and

chronicles.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The standard authority on the history is M.F. Brosset's

translation of the Georgian chronicles under the title of _Histoire de

la Georgie_ (5 vols., St Petersburg, 1849-1858); but compare also

Khakanov, _Histoire de Georgie_ (Paris, 1900). See further A. Leist,

_Das georgische Volk_ (Dresden, 1903); M. de Villeneuve, _La Georgie_

(Paris, 1870); O. Wardrop, _The Kingdom of Georgia_ (London, 1888);

and Langlois, _Numismatique georgienne_ (Paris, 1860). For the

philology see Zagarelli, _Examen de la litterature relative a la

grammaire georgienne_ (1873); _Friedrich Muller, Grundriss der

Sprachwissenschaft_ (1887), iii. 2; Leist, _Georgische Dichter_

(1887); Erskert, _Sprachen des kaukasischen Stammes_ (1895). For other

points as to anthropology, Michel Smirnow's paper in _Revue

d'anthropologie_ (April 15, 1878); Chantre, _Recherches

anthropologiques dans le Caucase_ (1885-1887); and Erckert, _Der

Kaukasus und seine Volker_ (1887).

GEORGIAN BAY, the N.E. section of Lake Huron, separated from it by

Manitoulin Island and the peninsula comprising the counties of Grey and

Bruce, Ontario. It is about 100 m. long and 50 m. wide, and is said to

contain 30,000 islands. It receives numerous rivers draining a large

extent of country; of these the chief are the French river draining Lake

Nipissing, the Maganatawan draining a number of small lakes, the Muskoka

draining the Muskoka chain of lakes (Muskoka, Rosseau, Joseph, &c.) and

the Severn draining Lake Simcoe. Into its southern extremity, known as

Nottawasaga Bay, flows the river of the same name. The Trent valley

canal connects Georgian Bay with the Bay of Quinte and Lake Ontario, and

a canal system has long been projected to Montreal by way of the French

and Ottawa rivers and Lake Nipissing.

GEORGSWALDE, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 115 m. N.E. of Prague by rail.

Pop. (1900) 8131, including Neu-Georgswalde, Wiesenthal and

Philippsdorf, which form together a single commune. Georgswalde is one

of the oldest industrial places of Bohemia, and together with the

neighbouring town of Rumburg is the principal centre of the linen

industry. The village of Philippsdorf, now incorporated with

Georgswalde, has become since 1866 a famous place of pilgrimage, owing

to the miracles attributed to an image of the Virgin, placed now in a

magnificent new church (1885).

GEPHYREA, the name used for several groups of worm-like animals with

certain resemblances but of doubtful affinity. In the article "Annelida"

in the 9th edition of this Encyclopaedia, W.C. McIntosh followed the

accepted view in associating in this group the _Echiuridae_,

_Sipunculidae_ and _Priapulidae_. E. Ray Lankester, in the preface to

the English translation of C. Gegenbaur's _Comparative Anatomy_ (1878),

added the _Phoronidae_ to these forms. Afterwards the same author

(article "Zoology," _Ency. Brit._, 9th ed.) recognized that the

_Phoronidae_ had other affinities, and placed the other "gephyreans" in

association with the Polyzoa as the two classes of a phylum _Podaxonia_.

In the present state of knowledge the old group _Gephyrea_ is broken up

into _Echiuroidea_ (q.v.) or _Gephyrea armata_, which are certainly

Annelids; the _Sipunculoidea_ (q.v.) or _Gephyrea achaeta_, an independent

group, certainly coelomate, but of doubtful affinity; the _Priapuloidea_

(q.v.), equally of doubtful affinity; and the _Phoronidea_ (q.v.), which

are almost certainly _Hemichordata_.

GERA, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of Reuss-Schleiz

(called also Reuss younger line), situated in a valley on the banks of

the White Elster, 45 m. S.S.W. of Leipzig on the railway to Probstzella.

Pop. (1885) 34,152; (1905) 47,455. It has been mostly rebuilt since a

great fire in 1780, and the streets are in general wide and straight,

and contain many handsome houses. There are three Evangelical churches

and one Roman Catholic. Among other noteworthy buildings are the

handsome town-hall (1576, afterwards restored) and the theatre (1902).

Its educational establishments include a gymnasium, a commercial and a

weaving school. The castle of Osterstein, the residence of the princes

of Reuss, dates from the 9th century, but has been almost entirely

rebuilt in modern times. Gera is noted for its industrial activity. Its

industries include wool-weaving and spinning, dyeing, iron-founding, the

manufacture of cotton and silk goods, machinery, sewing machines and

machine oil, leather and tobacco, and printing (books and maps) and

flower gardening.

Gera (in ancient chronicles _Geraha_) was raised to the rank of a town

in the 11th century, at which time it belonged to the counts of Groitch.

In the 12th century it came into the possession of the lords of Reuss.

It was stormed and sacked by the Bohemians in 1450, was two-thirds

burned down by the Swedes in 1639 during the Thirty Years' War, and

suffered afterwards from great conflagrations in 1686 and 1780, being in

the latter year almost completely destroyed.

GERALDTON, a town in the district of Victoria, West Australia, on

Champion Bay, 306 m. by rail N.W. of Perth. Pop. (1901) 2593. It is the

seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, an important seaport carrying on a

considerable trade with the surrounding gold-fields and agricultural

districts, the centre of a considerable railway system and an

increasingly popular seaside resort. The harbour is safe and extensive,

having a pier affording accommodation for large steamers. The chief

exports are gold, copper, lead, wool and sandalwood.

GERANDO, MARIE JOSEPH DE (1772-1842), French philosopher, was born at

Lyons on the 29th of February 1772. When the city was besieged in 1793

by the armies of the Republic, de Gerando took up arms, was made

prisoner and with difficulty escaped with his life. He took refuge in

Switzerland, whence he afterwards fled to Naples. In 1796 the

establishment of the Directory allowed him to return to France. At the

age of twenty-five he enlisted as a private in a cavalry regiment. About

this time the Institute proposed as a subject for an essay this

question,--"What is the influence of symbols on the faculty of thought?"

De Gerando gained the prize, and heard of his success after the battle

of Zurich, in which he had distinguished himself. This literary triumph

was the first step in his upward career. In 1799 he was attached to the

ministry of the interior by Lucien Bonaparte; in 1804 he became general

secretary under Champagny; in 1805 he accompanied Napoleon into Italy;

in 1808 he was nominated master of requests; in 1811 he received the

title of councillor of state; and in the following year he was appointed

governor of Catalonia. On the overthrow of the empire, de Gerando was

allowed to retain this office; but having been sent during the hundred

days into the department of the Moselle to organize the defence of that

district, he was punished at the second Restoration by a few months of

neglect. He was soon after, however, readmitted into the council of

state, where he distinguished himself by the prudence and conciliatory

tendency of his views. In 1819 he opened at the law-school of Paris a

class of public and administrative law, which in 1822 was suppressed by

government, but was reopened six years later under the Martignac

ministry. In 1837 he was made a baron. He died at Paris on the 9th of

November 1842.

De Gerando's best-known work is his _Histoire comparee des systemes de

philosophie relativement aux principes des connaissances humaines_

(Paris, 1804, 3 vols.). The germ of this work had already appeared in

the author's _Memoire de la generation des connaissances humaines_

(Berlin, 1802), which was crowned by the Academy of Berlin. In it de

Gerando, after a rapid review of ancient and modern speculations on the

origin of our ideas, singles out the theory of primary ideas, which he

endeavours to combat under all its forms. The latter half of the work,

devoted to the analysis of the intellectual faculties, is intended to

show how all human knowledge is the result of experience; and reflection

is assumed as the source of our ideas of substance, of unity and of

identity. It is divided into two parts, the first of which is purely

historical, and devoted to an exposition of various philosophical

systems; in the second, which comprises fourteen chapters of the entire

work, the distinctive characters and value of these systems are compared

and discussed. In spite of the disadvantage that it is impossible to

separate advantageously the history and critical examination of any

doctrine in the arbitrary manner which de Gerando chose, the work has

great merits. In correctness of detail and comprehensiveness of view it

was greatly superior to every work of the same kind that had hitherto

appeared in France. During the Empire and the first years of the

Restoration, de Gerando found time to prepare a second edition (Paris,

1822, 4 vols.), which is enriched with so many additions that it may

pass for an entirely new work. The last chapter of the part published

during the author's lifetime ends with the revival of letters and the

philosophy of the 15th century. The second part, carrying the work down

to the close of the 18th century, was published posthumously by his son

in 4 vols. (Paris, 1847). Twenty-three chapters of this were left

complete by the author in manuscript; the remaining three were supplied

from other sources, chiefly printed but unpublished memoirs.

His essay _Du perfectionnement moral et de l'education de soi-meme_ was

crowned by the French Academy in 1825. The fundamental idea of this work

is that human life is in reality only a great education, of which

perfection is the aim.

Besides the works already mentioned, de Gerando left many others, of

which we may indicate the following:--_Considerations sur diverses

methodes d'observation des peuples sauvages_ (Paris, 1801); _Eloge de

Dumarsais,--discours qui a remporte le prix propose par la seconde

classe de l'Institut National_ (Paris, 1805); _Le Visiteur de pauvre_

(Paris, 1820); _Instituts du droit administratif_ (4 vols., Paris,

1830); _Cours normal des instituteurs primaires ou directions

relatives a l'education physique, morale, et intellectuelle dans les

ecoles primaires_ (Paris, 1832); _De l'education des sourds-muets_ (2

vols., Paris, 1832); _De la bienfaisance publique_ (4 vols., 1838). A

detailed analysis of the _Histoire comparee des systemes_ will be

found in the _Fragments philosophiques_ of M. Cousin. In connexion

with his psychological studies, it is interesting that in 1884 the

French Anthropological Society reproduced his instructions for the

observation of primitive peoples, and modern students of the

beginnings of speech in children and the cases of deaf-mutes have

found useful matter in his works. See also J.P. Damiron, _Essai sur la

philosophie en France au XIX^e siecle_.

GERANIACEAE, in botany, a small but very widely distributed natural

order of Dicotyledons belonging to the subclass Polypetalae, containing

about 360 species in 11 genera. It is represented in Britain by two

genera, _Geranium_ (crane's-bill) and _Erodium_ (stork's-bill), to which

belong nearly two-thirds of the total number of species. The plants are

mostly herbs, rarely becoming shrubby, with generally simple glandular

hairs on the stem and leaves. The opposite or alternate leaves have a

pair of small stipules at the base of the stalk and a palminerved blade.

The flowers, which are generally arranged in a cymose inflorescence, are

hermaphrodite, hypogynous, and, except in _Pelargonium_, regular. The

parts are arranged in fives. There are five free sepals, overlapping in

the bud, and, alternating with these, five free petals. In _Pelargonium_

the flower is zygomorphic with a spurred posterior sepal and the petals

differing in size or shape. In _Geranium_ the stamens are

obdiplostemonous, i.e. an outer whorl of five opposite the petals

alternates with an inner whorl of five opposite the sepals; at the base

of each of the antisepalous stamens is a honey-gland. In _Erodium_ the

members of the outer whorl are reduced to scale-like structures

(staminodes), and in _Pelargonium_ from two to seven only are fertile.

There is no satisfactory explanation of this break in the regular

alternation of successive whorls; the outer whorl of stamens arises in

course of development before the inner, so that there is no question of

subsequent displacement. There are five, or sometimes fewer, carpels,

which unite to form an ovary with as many chambers, in each of which are

one or two, rarely more, pendulous anatropous ovules, attached to the

central column in such a way that the micropyle points outwards and the

raphe is turned towards the placenta. The long beak-like style divides

at the top into a corresponding number of slender stigmas.

[Illustration: Meadow Crane's-bill, _Geranium pratense_. (After Curtis,

_Flora Londinensis_.)

1, Flower after removal of petals.

2, Fruit after splitting. 1 and 2 about natural size.

3, Floral diagram, the dots opposite the inner stamens represent

honey-glands.]

The larger-flowered species of _Geranium_ are markedly protandrous, the

outer stamens, inner stamens and stigmas becoming functional in

succession. For instance, in meadow crane's-bill _G. pratense_, each

whorl of stamens ripens in turn, becoming erect and shedding their

pollen; as the anthers wither the filaments bend outwards, and when all

the anthers have diverged the stigmas become mature and ready for

pollination. By this arrangement self-pollination is prevented and

cross-pollination ensured by the visits of bees which come for the honey

secreted by the glands at the base of the inner stamens.

In species with smaller and less conspicuous flowers, such as _G.

molle_, the flowers of which are only 1/3 to 1/2 in. in diameter,

self-pollination is rendered possible, since the divisions of the stigma

begin to separate before the outer stamens have shed all their pollen;

the nearness of the stigmas to the dehiscing anthers favours

self-pollination.

In the ripe fruit the carpels separate into five one-seeded portions

(_cocci_), which break away from the central column, either rolling

elastically outwards and upwards or becoming spirally twisted. In most

species of _Geranium_ the cocci split open on the inside and the seeds

are shot out by the elastic uptwisting (fig. 1); in _Erodium_ and

_Pelargonium_ each coccus remains closed, and the long twisted upper

portion separates from the central column, forming an awn, the

distribution of which is favoured by the presence of bristles or hairs.

The embryo generally fills the seed, and the cotyledons are rolled or

folded on each other.

_Geranium_ is the most widely distributed genus; it has 160 species and

is spread over all temperate regions with a few species in the tropics.

Three British species--_G. sylvaticum_, _G. pratense_ and _G.

Robertianum_ (herb-Robert)--reach the arctic zone, while _G.

patagonicum_ and _G. magellanicum_ are found in the antarctic. _Erodium_

contains 50 species (three are British), most of which are confined to

the Mediterranean region and west Asia, though others occur in America,

in South Africa and West Australia. _Pelargonium_, with 175 species, has

its centre in South Africa; the well-known garden and greenhouse

"geraniums" are species of _Pelargonium_ (see GERANIUM).

GERANIUM, the name of a genus of plants, which is taken by botanists as

the type of the natural order Geraniaceae. The name, as a scientific

appellation, has a much more restricted application than when taken in

its popular sense. Formerly the genus _Geranium_ was almost conterminous

with the order Geraniaceae. Then as now the geranium was very popular as

a garden plant, and the species included in the original genus became

widely known under that name, which has more or less clung to them ever

since, in spite of scientific changes which have removed the large

number of them to the genus _Pelargonium_. This result has been probably

brought about in some degree by an error of the nurserymen, who seem in

many cases to have acted on the conclusion that the group commonly known

as _Scarlet Geraniums_ were really geraniums and not pelargoniums, and

were in consequence inserted under the former name in their trade

catalogues. In fact it may be said that, from a popular point of view,

the pelargoniums of the botanist are still better known as geraniums

than are the geraniums themselves, but the term "zonal Pelargonium" is

gradually making its way amongst the masses.

The species of _Geranium_ consist mostly of herbs, of annual or

perennial duration, dispersed throughout the temperate regions of the

world. They number about 160, and bear a considerable family

resemblance. The leaves are for the most part palmately-lobed, and the

flowers are regular, consisting of five sepals, five imbricating petals,

alternating with five glandules at their base, ten stamens and a beaked

ovary. Eleven species are natives of the British Isles and are popularly

known as crane's-bill. _G. Robertianum_ is herb-Robert, a common plant

in hedgebanks. _G. sanguineum_, with flowers a deep rose colour, is

often grown in borders, as are also the double-flowered varieties of _G.

pratense_. Many others of exotic origin form handsome border plants in

our gardens of hardy perennials; amongst these _G. armenum_, _G.

Endressi_, _G. ibericum_ and its variety _platypetalum_ are conspicuous.

From these regular-flowered herbs, with which they had been mixed up by

the earlier botanists, the French botanist L'Heritier in 1787 separated

those plants which have since borne the name of _Pelargonium_, and

which, though agreeing with them in certain points of structure, differ

in others which are admitted to be of generic value. One obvious

distinction of _Pelargonium_ is that the flowers are irregular, the two

petals which stand uppermost being different--larger, smaller or

differently marked--from the other three, which latter are occasionally

wanting. This difference of irregularity the modern florist has done

very much to annul, for the increased size given to the flowers by high

breeding has usually been accompanied by the enlargement of the smaller

petals, so that a very near approach to regularity has been in some

cases attained. Another well-marked difference, however, remains in

_Pelargonium_: the back or dorsal sepal has a hollow spur, which spur is

adnate, i.e. joined for its whole length with the flower-stalk; while in

_Geranium_ there is no spur. This peculiarity is best seen by cutting

clean through the flower-stalk just behind the flower, when in

_Pelargonium_ there will be seen the hollow tube of the spur, which in

the case of _Geranium_ will not be found, but the stalk will appear as a

solid mass. There are other characters which support those already

pointed out, such as the absence of the glandules, and the declination

of the stamens; but the features already described offer the most ready

and obvious distinctions.

To recapitulate, the geraniums properly so-called are regular-flowered

herbs with the flower-stalks solid, while many geraniums falsely

so-called in popular language are really pelargoniums, and may be

distinguished by their irregular flowers and hollow flower-stalks. In a

great majority of cases too, the pelargoniums so commonly met with in

greenhouses and summer parterres are of shrubby or sub-shrubby habit.

The various races of pelargoniums have sprung from the intermixture of

some of the species obtained from the Cape. The older show-flowered

varieties have been gradually acquired through a long series of years.

The fancy varieties, as well as the French spotted varieties and the

market type, have been evolved from them. The zonal or bedding race, on

the other hand, has been more recently perfected; they are supposed to

have arisen from hybrids between _Pelargonium inquinans_ and _P.

zonale_. In all the sections the varieties are of a highly ornamental

character, but for general cultivation the market type is preferable for

indoor purposes, while the zonals are effective either in the greenhouse

or flower garden. Some of the Cape species are still in cultivation--the

leaves of many of them being beautifully subdivided, almost fern-like in

character, and some of them are deliciously scented; _P. quercifolium_

is the oak-leaf geranium. The ivy-leaf geranium, derived from _P.

peltatum_, has given rise to an important class of both double- and

single-flowered forms adapted especially for pot culture, hanging

baskets, window boxes and the greenhouse. Of late years the ivy-leaf

"geraniums" have been crossed with the "zonals," and a new race is being

gradually evolved from these two distinct groups.

The best soil for pelargoniums is a mellow fibrous loam with good

well-rotted stable manure or leaf-mould in about the proportion of

one-fifth; when used it should not be sifted, but pulled to pieces by

the hand, and as much sand should be added as will allow the water to

pass freely through it. The large-flowered and fancy kinds cannot bear

so much water as most soft-wooded plants, and the latter should have a

rather lighter soil.

All the pelargoniums are readily increased by cuttings made from the

shoots when the plants are headed down after flowering, or in the

spring, when they will root freely in a temperature of 65 deg. to 70

deg. They must not be kept too close, and must be very moderately

watered. When rooted they may be moved into well-drained 3-in. pots, and

when from 6 to 8 in. high, should have the points pinched out in order

to induce them to push out several shoots nearer the base. These shoots

are, when long enough, to be trained in a horizontal direction; and when

they have made three joints they should have the points again pinched

out. These early-struck plants will be ready for shifting into 6-in.

pots by the autumn, and should still be trained outwards. The show

varieties after flowering should be set out of doors in a sunny spot to

ripen their wood, and should only get water enough to keep them from

flagging. In the course of two or three weeks they will be ready to cut

back within two joints of where these were last stopped, when they

should be placed in a frame or pit, and kept close and dry until they

have broken. When they have pushed an inch or so, turn them out of their

pots, shake off the old soil, trim the straggling roots, and repot them

firmly in smaller pots if practicable; keep them near the light, and as

the shoots grow continue to train them outwardly. They require to be

kept in a light house, and to be set well up to the glass; the night

temperature should range about 45 deg.; and air should be given on all

mild days, but no cold currents allowed, nor more water than is

necessary to keep the soil from getting parched. The young shoots should

be topped about the end of October, and when they have grown an inch or

two beyond this, they may be shifted into 7-in. pots for flowering. The

shoots must be kept tied out so as to be fully exposed to the light. If

required to flower early they should not be stopped again; if not until

June they may be stopped in February.

The zonal varieties, which are almost continuous bloomers, are of much

value as decorative subjects; they seldom require much pruning after the

first stopping. For winter flowering, young plants should be raised

from cuttings about March, and grown on during the summer, but should

not be allowed to flower. When blossoms are required, they should be

placed close up to the glass in a light house with a temperature of 65

deg., only just as much water being given as will keep them growing. For

bedding purposes the zonal varieties are best struck towards the middle

of August in the open air, taken up and potted or planted in boxes as

soon as struck, and preserved in frames or in the greenhouse during

winter.

The fancy varieties root best early in spring from the half-ripened

shoots; they are slower growers, and rather more delicate in

constitution than the zonal varieties, and very impatient of excess of

water at the root.

GERARD (d. 1108), archbishop of York under Henry I., began his career as

a chancery clerk in the service of William Rufus. He was one of the two

royal envoys who, in 1095, persuaded Urban II. to send a legate and

Anselm's pallium to England. Although the legate disappointed the king's

expectations, Gerard was rewarded for his services with the see of

Hereford (1096). On the death of Rufus he at once declared for Henry I.,

by whom he was nominated to the see of York. He made difficulties when

required to give Anselm the usual profession of obedience; and it was

perhaps to assert the importance of his see that he took the king's side

on the question of investitures. He pleaded Henry's cause at Rome with

great ability, and claimed that he had obtained a promise, on the pope's

part, to condone the existing practice of lay investiture. But this

statement was contradicted by Paschal, and Gerard incurred the suspicion

of perjury. About 1103 he wrote or inspired a series of tracts which

defended the king's prerogative and attacked the oecumenical pretensions

of the papacy with great freedom of language. He changed sides in 1105,

becoming a stanch friend and supporter of Anselm. Gerard was a man of

considerable learning and ability; but the chroniclers accuse him of

being lax in his morals, an astrologer and a worshipper of the devil.

See the _Tractatus Eboracenses_ edited by H. Bochmer in _Libelli de

lite Sacerdotii et Imperii_, vol. iii. (in the _Monumenta hist.

Germaniae_, quarto series), and the same author's _Kirche und Staat in

England und in der Normandie_ (Leipzig, 1899). (H. W. C. D.)

GERARD (c. 1040-1120), variously surnamed TUM, TUNC, TENQUE or THOM,

founder of the order of the knights of St John of Jerusalem (q.v.), was

born at Amalfi about the year 1040. According to other accounts

Martigues in Provence was his birthplace, while one authority even names

the Chateau d'Avesnes in Hainaut. Either as a soldier or a merchant, he

found his way to Jerusalem, where a hospice had for some time existed

for the convenience of those who wished to visit the holy places. Of

this institution Gerard became guardian or provost at a date not later

than 1100; and here he organized that religious order of St John which

received papal recognition from Paschal II. in 1113, by a bull which was

renewed and confirmed by Calixtus II. shortly before the death of Gerard

in 1120.

GERARD OF CREMONA (c. 1114-1187), the medieval translator of Ptolemy's

Astronomy, was born at Cremona, Lombardy, in or about 1114. Dissatisfied

with the meagre philosophies of his Italian teachers, he went to Toledo

to study in Spanish Moslem schools, then so famous as depositories and

interpreters of ancient wisdom; and, having thus acquired a knowledge of

the Arabic language, he appears to have devoted the remainder of his

life to the business of making Latin translations from its literature.

The date of his return to his native town is uncertain, but he is known

to have died there in 1187. His most celebrated work is the Latin

version by which alone Ptolemy's _Almagest_ was known to Europe until

the discovery of the original [Greek: Megale Suntaxis]. In addition to

this, he translated various other treatises, to the number, it is said,

of sixty-six; among these were the _Tables_ of "Arzakhel," or Al Zarkala

of Toledo, Al Farabi _On the Sciences_ (_De scientiis_), Euclid's

_Geometry_, Al Farghani's _Elements of Astronomy_, and treatises on

algebra, arithmetic and astrology. In the last-named latitudes are

reckoned from Cremona and Toledo. Some of the works, however, with which

he has been credited (including the _Theoria_ or _Theorica planetarum_,

and the versions of Avicenna's _Canon of Medicine_--the basis of the

numerous subsequent Latin editions of that well-known work--and of the

_Almansorius_ of Abu Bakr Razi) are probably due to a later Gerard, of

the 13th century, also called Cremonensis but more precisely de

Sabloneta (Sabbionetta). This writer undertook the task of interpreting

to the Latin world some of the best work of Arabic physicians, and his

translation of Avicenna is said to have been made by order of the

emperor Frederic II.

See Pipini, "Cronica," in Muratori, _Script. rer. Ital._ vol. ix.;

Nicol. Antonio, _Bibliotheca Hispana vetus_, vol. ii.; Tiraboschi,

_Storia della letteratura Italiana_, vols. iii. (333) and iv.; Arisi,

_Cremona literata_; Jourdain, Recherches sur ... _l'origine des

traductions latines d'Aristote_; Chasles, _Apercu historique des

methodes en geometrie_, and in _Comptes rendus de l'Academie des

Sciences_, vol. xiii. p. 506; J.T. Reinaud, _Geographie d'Aboulfeda_,

introduction, vol. i. pp. ccxlvi.-ccxlviii.; Boncompagni, _Della vita

e delle opere di Gherardo Cremonese e di Gherardo da Sabbionetta_

(Rome, 1851). Much of the work of both the Gerards remains in

manuscript, as in Paris, National Library, MSS. Lat. 7400, 7421; MSS.

Suppl. Lat. 49; Rome, Vatican library, 4083, and Ottobon, 1826;

Oxford, Bodleian library, Digby, 47, 61. The Vatican MS. 2392 is

stated to contain a eulogy of "Gerard of Cremona" and a list of "his"

translations, apparently confusing the two scholars. The former's most

valuable work was in astronomy; the latter's in medicine.

(C. R. B.)

GERARD, ETIENNE MAURICE, COUNT (1773-1852), French general, was born at

Damvilliers (Meuse), on the 4th of April 1773. He joined a battalion of

volunteers in 1791, and served in the campaigns of 1792-1793 under

Generals Dumouriez and Jourdan. In 1795 he accompanied Bernadotte as

aide-de-camp. In 1799 he was promoted _chef d'escadron_, and in 1800

colonel. He distinguished himself at the battles of Austerlitz and Jena,

and was made general of brigade in November 1806, and for his conduct in

the battle of Wagram he was created a baron. In the Spanish campaign of

1810 and 1811 he gained special distinction at the battle of Fuentes

d'Onor; and in the expedition to Russia he was present at Smolensk and

Valutina, and displayed such bravery and ability in the battle of

Borodino that he was made general of division. He won further

distinction in the disastrous retreat from Moscow. In the campaign of

1813, in command of a division, he took part in the battles of Lutzen

and Bautzen and the operations of Marshal Macdonald, and at the battle

of Leipzig (in which he commanded the XI. corps) he was dangerously

wounded. After the battle of Bautzen he was created by Napoleon a count

of the empire. In the campaign of France of 1814, and especially at La

Rothiere and Montereau, he won still greater distinction. After the

first restoration he was named by Louis XVIII. grand cross of the Legion

of Honour and chevalier of St Louis. In the Hundred Days Napoleon made

Gerard a peer of France and placed him in command of the IV. corps of

the Army of the North. In this capacity Gerard took a brilliant part in

the battle of Ligny (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN), and on the morning of the

18th of June he was foremost in advising Marshal Grouchy to march to the

sound of the guns. Gerard retired to Brussels after the fall of

Napoleon, and did not return to France till 1817. He sat as a member of

the chamber of deputies in 1822-1824, and was re-elected in 1827. He

took part in the revolution of 1830, after which he was appointed

minister of war and named a marshal of France. On account of his health

he resigned the office of war minister in the October following, but in

1831 he took the command of the northern army, and was successful in

thirteen days in driving the army of Holland out of Belgium. In 1832 he

commanded the besieging army in the famous scientific siege of the

citadel of Antwerp. He was again chosen war minister in July 1834, but

resigned in the October following. In 1836 he was named grand chancellor

of the Legion of Honour in succession to Marshal Mortier, and in 1838

commander of the National Guards of the Seine, an office which he held

till 1842. He became a senator under the empire in 1852, and died on the

17th of April in the same year.

GERARD, FRANCOIS, BARON (1770-1837), French painter, was born on the 4th

of May 1770, at Rome, where his father occupied a post in the house of

the French ambassador. At the age of twelve Gerard obtained admission

into the Pension du Roi at Paris. From the Pension he passed to the

studio of Pajou (sculptor), which he left at the end of two years for

that of the painter Brenet, whom he quitted almost immediately to place

himself under David. In 1789 he competed for the Prix de Rome, which was

carried off by his comrade Girodet. In the following year (1790) he

again presented himself, but the death of his father prevented the

completion of his work, and obliged him to accompany his mother to Rome.

In 1791 he returned to Paris; but his poverty was so great that he was

forced to forgo his studies in favour of employment which should bring

in immediate profit. David at once availed himself of his help, and one

of that master's most celebrated pictures--Le Pelletier de St

Fargeau--may owe much to the hand of Gerard. This painting was executed

early in 1793, the year in which Gerard, at the request of David, was

named a member of the revolutionary tribunal, from the fatal decisions

of which he, however, invariably absented himself. In 1794 he obtained

the first prize in a competition, the subject of which was "The Tenth of

August," and, further stimulated by the successes of his rival and

friend Girodet in the Salons of 1793 and 1794, Gerard (nobly aided by

Isabey the miniaturist) produced in 1795 his famous "Belisaire." In 1796

a portrait of his generous friend (in the Louvre) obtained undisputed

success, and the money received from Isabey for these two works enabled

Gerard to execute in 1797 his "Psyche et l'Amour." At last, in 1799, his

portrait of Madame Bonaparte established his position as one of the

first portrait-painters of the day. In 1808 as many as eight, in 1810 no

less than fourteen portraits by him, were exhibited at the Salon, and

these figures afford only an indication of the enormous numbers which he

executed yearly; all the leading figures of the empire and of the

restoration, all the most celebrated men and women of Europe, sat to

Gerard. This extraordinary vogue was due partly to the charm of his

manner and conversation, for his _salon_ was as much frequented as his

studio; Madame de Stael, Canning, Talleyrand, the duke of Wellington,

have all borne witness to the attraction of his society. Rich and

famous, Gerard was stung by remorse for earlier ambitions abandoned; at

intervals he had indeed striven to prove his strength with Girodet and

other rivals, and his "Bataille d'Austerlitz" (1810) showed a breadth of

invention and style which are even more conspicuous in "L'Entree d'Henri

IV" (Versailles)--the work with which in 1817 he did homage to the

Bourbons. After this date Gerard declined, watching with impotent grief

the progress of the Romantic school. Loaded with honours--baron of the

empire, member of the Institute, officer of the legion of honour, first

painter to the king--he worked on sad and discouraged; the revolution of

1830 added to his disquiet; and on the 11th of January 1837, after three

days of fever, he died. By his portraits Gerard is best remembered; the

colour of his paintings has suffered, but his drawings show in uninjured

delicacy the purity of his line; and those of women are specially

remarkable for a virginal simplicity and frankness of expression.

M. Ch. Lenormant published in 1846 _Essai de biographie et de critique

sur Francois Gerard_, a second edition of which appeared in 1847; and

M. Delecluze devoted several pages to the same subject in his work

_Louis David, son ecole et son temps_.

GERARD, JEAN IGNACE ISIDORE (1803-1847), French caricaturist, generally

known by the pseudonym of Grandville--the professional name of his

grandparents, who were actors--was born at Nancy on the 13th of

September 1803. He received his first instruction in drawing from his

father, a miniature painter, and at the age of twenty-one came to Paris,

where he soon afterwards published a collection of lithographs entitled

_Les Tribulations de la petite propriete_. He followed this by Les

Plaisirs de toutage and _La Sibylle des salons_; but the work which

first established his fame was _Metamorphoses du jour_, published in

1828, a series of seventy scenes in which individuals with the bodies of

men and faces of animals are made to play a human comedy. These drawings

are remarkable for the extraordinary skill with which human

characteristics are represented in animal features. The success of this

work led to his being engaged as artistic contributor to various

periodicals, such as _La Silhouette_, _L'Artiste_, _La Caricature_, _Le

Charivari_; and his political caricatures, which were characterized by

marvellous fertility of satirical humour, soon came to enjoy a general

popularity. Besides supplying illustrations for various standard works,

such as the songs of Beranger, the fables of La Fontaine, _Don Quixote_,

_Gulliver's Travels_, _Robinson Crusoe_, he also continued the issue of

various lithographic collections, among which may be mentioned _La Vie

privee et publique des animaux_, _Les Cent Proverbes_, _L'Autre Monde_

and _Les Fleurs animees_. Though the designs of Gerard are occasionally

unnatural and absurd, they usually display keen analysis of character

and marvellous inventive ingenuity, and his humour is always tempered

and refined by delicacy of sentiment and a vein of sober thoughtfulness.

He died of mental disease on the 17th of March 1847.

A short notice of Gerard, under the name of Grandville, is contained

in Theophile Gautier's _Portraits contemporains_. See also Charles

Blanc, _Grandville_ (Paris, 1855).

GERARD, JOHN (1545-1612), English herbalist and surgeon, was born

towards the end of 1545 at Nantwich in Cheshire. He was educated at

Wisterson, or Willaston, 2 m. from Nantwich, and eventually, after

spending some time in travelling, took up his abode in London, where he

exercised his profession. For more than twenty years he also acted as

superintendent of the gardens in London and at Theobalds, in

Hertfordshire, of William Cecil, Lord Burghley. In 1596 he published a

catalogue of plants cultivated in his own garden in Holborn, London,

1039 in number, inclusive of varieties of the same species. Their

English as well as their Latin names are given in a revised edition of

the catalogue issued in 1599. In 1597 appeared Gerard's well-known

_Herball_, described by him in its preface as "the first fruits of these

mine own labours," but more truly an adaptation of the _Stirpium

historiae pemptades_ of Rembert Dodoens (1518-1585), published in 1583,

or rather of a translation of the whole or part of the same by Dr

Priest, with M. Lobel's arrangement. Of the numerous illustrations of

the _Herball_ sixteen appear to be original, the remainder are mostly

impressions from the wood blocks employed by Jacob Theodorus

Tabernaemontanus in his _Icones stirpium_, published at Frankfort in

1590. A second edition of the _Herball_, with considerable improvements

and additions, was brought out by Thomas Johnson in 1633, and reprinted

in 1636. Gerard was elected a member of the court of assistants of the

barber-surgeons in 1595, by which company he was appointed an examiner

in 1598, junior warden in 1605, and master in 1608. He died in February

1612, and was buried at St Andrews, Holborn.

See Johnson's preface to his edition of the _Herball_; and _A

Catalogue of Plants cultivated in the Garden of John Gerard in the

years 1596-1599, edited with Notes, References to Gerard's Herball,

the Addition of modern Names, and a Life of the Author, by Benjamin

Daydon Jackson, F.L.S._, privately printed (London, 1876, 4to).

GERARDMER, a town of north-eastern France, in the department of Vosges,

33 m. E.S.E. of Epinal by rail. Pop. (1906) of the town, 3993; of the

commune, 10,041. Gerardmer is beautifully situated at a height of 2200

ft. at the eastern end of the small Lake of Gerardmer (285 acres in

extent) among forest-clad mountains. It is the chief summer-resort of

the French Vosges and is a centre for excursions, among which may be

mentioned those to the Hohneck (4481 ft.), the second highest summit in

the Vosges, the Schlucht, the mountain pass from France to Germany, and,

nearer the town, the picturesque defile of Granges, watered by the

Vologne, which at one point forms the cascade known as the Saut des

Cuves. The town itself, in which the chief object of interest is the

huge lime-tree in the market-place, carries on cloth-weaving, bleaching,

wood-sawing and the manufacture of wooden goods; there is trade in the

cheeses (_geromes_) manufactured in the neighbourhood. Gerardmer is said

to owe its name to Gerard of Alsace, 1st duke of Lorraine, who in the

11th century built a tower on the bank of the lake or _mer_, near which,

in 1285, a new town was founded.

GERASA (mod. _Gerash_ or _Jerash_), a city of Palestine, and a member of

the league known as the Decapolis (q.v.), situated amid the mountains of

Gilead, about 1757 ft. above the sea, 20 m. from the Jordan and 21 m. N.

of Philadelphia. Of its origin nothing is known; it has been suggested

that it represents the biblical Ramoth Gilead. From Josephus we learn

that it was captured by Alexander Jannaeus (c. 83 B.C.), rebuilt by the

Romans (c. A.D. 65), burned by the Jews in revenge for the massacre at

Caesarea, and again plundered and depopulated by Annius, the general of

Vespasian; but, in spite of these disasters, it was still in the 2nd and

3rd centuries of the Christian era one of the wealthiest and most

flourishing cities of Palestine. It was a centre of Greek civilization,

devoted especially to the worship of Artemis, and producing famous

teachers, of whom Stephen the Byzantine mentions Ariston, Kerykos and

Plato. As late as 1121 the soldiers of Baldwin II. found it defended by

a castle built by a king of Damascus; but at the beginning of the

following century the Arabian geographer Yaqut speaks of it as deserted

and overthrown. The ruins of Jerash, discovered about 1806, and since

then frequently visited and described, still attest the splendour of the

Roman city. They are distributed along both banks of the Kerwan, a brook

which flows south through the Wadi-ed-Der to join the Zerka or Jabbok;

but all the principal buildings are situated on the level ground to the

right of the stream. The town walls, which can still be traced and

indeed are partly standing, had a circuit of not more than 2 m., and the

main street was less than half a mile in length; but remains of

buildings on the road for fully a mile beyond the south gate, show that

the town had outgrown the limit of its fortifications. The most striking

feature of the ruins is the profusion of columns, no fewer than 230

being even now in position; the main street is a continuous colonnade, a

large part of which is still entire, and it terminates to the south in a

forum of similar formation. Among the public buildings still

recognizable are a theatre capable of accommodating 6000 spectators, a

naumachia (circus for naval combats) and several temples, of which the

largest was probably the grandest structure in the city, possessing a

portico of Corinthian pillars 38 ft. high. The desolation of the city is

probably due to earthquake; and the absence of Moslem erections or

restorations seems to show that the disaster took place before the

Mahommedan period.

The town is now occupied by a colony of Circassians, whose houses have

been built with materials from the earlier buildings, and there has been

much destruction of the interesting ruins. "The country of the

Gerasenes" (Matt. viii. 28 and parallels; other readings, Gadarenes,

Gergesenes) must be looked for in another quarter--on the E. coast of

the Sea of Galilee, probably in the neighbourhood of the modern Khersa

(C.W. Wilson in _Recovery of Jerusalem_, p. 369). (R. A. S. M.)

GERAULT-RICHARD, ALFRED LEON (1860- ), French journalist and politician,

was born at Bonnetable in the department of Sarthe, of a peasant family.

He began life as a working upholsterer, first at Mans, then at Paris

(1880), where his peasant and socialist songs soon won him fame in the

Montmartre quarter. Lissagaray, the communist, offered him a position on

_La Bataille_, and he became a regular contributor to the advanced

journals, especially to _La Petite Republique_, of which he became

editor-in-chief in 1897. In 1893 he founded _Le Chambard_, and was

imprisoned for a year (1894) on account of a personal attack upon the

president, Casimir-Perier. In January 1895 he was elected to the chamber

as a Socialist for the thirteenth arrondissement of Paris. He was

defeated at the elections of 1898 at Paris, but was re-elected in 1902

and in 1906 by the colony of Guadeloupe.

GERBER, ERNST LUDWIG (1746-1819), German musician, author of a famous

dictionary of musicians, was born at Sondershausen in the principality of

Schwarzburg-Sondershausen on the 29th of September 1746. His father,

Henry Nicolas Gerber (1702-1775), a pupil of J.S. Bach, was an organist

and composer of some distinction, and under his direction Ernst Ludwig at

an early age had made great progress in his musical studies. In 1765 he

went to Leipzig to study law, but the claims of music, which had gained

additional strength from his acquaintanceship with J.A. Hiller, soon came

to occupy almost his sole attention. On his return to Sondershausen he

was appointed music teacher to the children of the prince, and in 1775 he

succeeded his father as court organist. Afterwards he devoted much of his

time to the study of the literature and history of music, and with this

view he made himself master of several modern languages. His

_Historisch-biographisches Lexikon der Tonkunstler_ appeared in 1790 and

1792 in two volumes; and the first volume of what was virtually an

improved and corrected edition of this work was published in 1810 under

the title _Neues historisch-biographisches Lexikon der Tonkunstler_,

followed by other three volumes in 1812, 1813 and 1814. Gerber also

contributed a number of papers to musical periodicals, and published

several minor musical compositions. He died at Sondershausen on the 30th

of June 1819.

GERBERON, GABRIEL (1628-1711), French Jansenist monk, was born on the

12th of August 1628 at St Calais, in the department of Sarthe. At the

age of twenty he took the vows of the Benedictine order at the abbey of

Ste Melaine, Rennes, and afterwards taught rhetoric and philosophy in

several monasteries. His open advocacy of Jansenist opinions, however,

caused his superiors to relegate him to the most obscure houses of the

order, and finally to keep him under surveillance at the abbey of St

Germain-des-Pres at Paris. Here he wrote a defence of the doctrine of

the Real Presence against the Calvinists in the form of an apology for

Rupert, abbot of Deutz (_Apologia pro Ruperto abbate Tuitensi_, Paris,

1669). In 1676 he published at Brussels, under the name of "Sieur Flore

de Ste Foi" his _Miroir de la piete chretienne_, an enlarged edition of

which appeared at Liege in the following year. This was condemned by

certain archbishops and theologians as the repetition of the five

condemned propositions of Jansen, and Gerberon defended it, under the

name of "Abbe Valentin" in _Le Miroir sans tache_ (Paris, 1680). He had

by this time aroused against him the full fury of the Jesuits, and at

their instigation a royal provost was sent to Corbie to arrest him. He

had, however, just time to escape, and fled to the Low Countries, where

he lived in various towns. He was invited by the Jansenist clergy to

Holland, where he wrote another controversial work against the

Protestants: _Defense de l'Eglise Romain contre la calomnie des

Protestants_ (Cologne, 1688-1691). This produced unpleasantness with the

Reformed clergy, and feeling himself no longer safe he returned to

Brussels. In 1700 he published his history of Jansenism (_Histoire

generale du Jansenisme_), a dry work, by which, however, he is best

remembered. He adhered firmly to the Augustinian doctrine of

Predestination, and on the 30th of May 1703 he was arrested at Brussels

at the instance of the archbishop of Malines, and ordered to subscribe

the condemnation of the five sentences of Jansen. On his refusal, he was

handed over to his superiors and imprisoned in the citadel of Amiens and

afterwards at Vincennes. Every sort of pressure was brought to bear upon

him to make his submission, and at last, broken in health and spirit, he

consented to sign a formula which the cardinal de Noailles claimed as a

recantation. Upon this he was released in 1710. The first use he made of

his freedom was to write a work (which, however, his friends prudently

prevented him from publishing), _Le Vaine Triomphe du cardinal de

Noailles_, containing a virtual withdrawal of the compulsory

recantation. He died at the abbey of St Denis on the 29th of March 1711.

GERBERT, MARTIN (1720-1793), German theologian, historian and writer on

music, belonged to the noble family of Gerbert von Hornau, and was born

at Horb on the Neckar, Wurttemberg, on the 12th (or 11th or 13th) of

August 1720. He was educated at Freiburg in the Breisgau, at Klingenau

in Switzerland and at the Benedictine abbey of St Blasien in the Black

Forest, where in 1737 he took the vows. In 1744 he was ordained priest,

and immediately afterwards appointed professor, first of philosophy and

later of theology. Between 1754 and 1764 he published a series of

theological treatises, their main tendency being to modify the rigid

scholastic system by an appeal to the Fathers, notably Augustine; from

1759 to 1762 he travelled in Germany, Italy and France, mainly with a

view to examining the collections of documents in the various monastic

libraries. In 1764 he was elected prince-abbot of St Blasien, and proved

himself a model ruler both as abbot and prince. His examination of

archives during his travels had awakened in him a taste for historical

research, and under his rule St Blasien became a notable centre of the

methodical study of history; it was here that Marquard Herrgott wrote

his _Monumenta domus Austriacae_, of which the first two volumes were

edited, for the second edition, by Gerbert, who also published a _Codex

epistolaris Rudolphi I., Romani regis_ (1772) and _De Rudolpho Suevico

comite de Rhinfelden, duce et rege, deque ejus familia_ (1785). It was,

however, in sacramental theology, liturgiology, and notably

ecclesiastical music that Gerbert was mainly interested. In 1774 he

published two volumes _De cantu et musica sacra_; in 1777, _Monumenta

veteris liturgiae Alemannicae_; and in 1784, in three volumes,

_Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra_, a collection of the

principal writers on church music from the 3rd century till the

invention of printing. The materials for this work he had gathered

during his travels, and although it contains many textual errors, its

publication has been of great importance for the history of music, by

preserving writings which might either have perished or remained

unknown. His interest in music led to his acquaintance with the composer

Gluck, who became his intimate friend.

As a prince of the Empire Gerbert was devoted to the interests of the

house of Austria; as a Benedictine abbot he was opposed to Joseph II.'s

church policy. In the Febronian controversy (see FEBRONIANISM) he had

early taken a mediating attitude, and it was largely due to his

influence that Bishop Hontheim had been induced to retract his extreme

views.

In 1768 the abbey of St Blasien, with the library and church, was burnt

to the ground, and the splendid new church which rose on the ruins of

the old (1783) remained until its destruction by fire in 1874, at once a

monument of Gerbert's taste in architecture and of his Habsburg

sympathies. It was at his request that it was made the mausoleum of all

the Austrian princes buried outside Austria, whose remains were solemnly

transferred to its vaults. In connexion with its consecration he

published his _Historia Nigrae Silvae, ordinis S. Benedicti coloniae_ (3

vols., St Blasien, 1783).

Gerbert, who was beloved and respected by Catholics and Protestants

alike, died on the 3rd of May 1793.

See Joseph Bader, _Das ehemalige Kloster St Blasien und seine

Gelehrtenakademie_ (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1874), which contains a

chronological list of Gerbert's works.

GERBIL, or GERBILLE, the name of a group of small, elegant, large-eyed,

jumping rodents typified by the North African _Gerbillus aegyptiacus_

(or _gerbillus_), and forming a special subfamily, _Gerbillinae_, of the

rat tribe or _Muridae_. They are found over the desert districts of both

Asia and Africa, and are classed in the genera _Gerbillus_ (or

_Tatera_), _Pachyuromys_, _Meriones_, _Psammomys_ and _Rhombomys_, with

further divisions into subgenera. They have elongated hind-limbs and

long hairy tails; and progress by leaps, in the same manner as jerboas,

from which they differ in having five hind-toes. The cheek-teeth have

transverse plates of enamel on the crowns; the number of such plates

diminishing from three in the first tooth to one or one and a half in

the third. The upper incisor teeth are generally marked by grooves.

Gerbils are inhabitants of open sandy plains, where they dwell in

burrows furnished with numerous exits, and containing large grass-lined

chambers. The Indian _G. indicus_ produces at least a dozen young at a

birth. All are more or less completely nocturnal.

GERENUK, the Somali name of a long-necked aberrant gazelle, commonly

known as Waller's gazelle (_Lithocranius walleri_), and ranging from

Somaliland to Kilimanjaro. The long neck and limbs, coupled with

peculiarities in the structure of the skull, entitle the gerenuk, which

is a large species, to represent a genus. The horns of the bucks are

heavy, and have a peculiar forward curvature at the tips; the colour of

the coat is red-fawn, with a broad brown band down the back. Gerenuk are

browsing ruminants, and, in Somaliland, are found in small

family-parties, and feed more by browsing on the branches and leaves of

trees and shrubs than by grazing. Frequently they raise themselves by

standing on their hind-legs with the fore-feet resting against the trunk

of the tree on which they are feeding. Their usual pace is an awkward

trot, not unlike that of a camel; and they seldom break into a gallop.

The Somali form has been separated as _L. sclateri_, but is not more

than a local race. (See ANTELOPE.)

GERGOVIA (mod. _Gergovie_), in ancient geography, the chief town of the

Arverni, situated on a hill in the Auvergne, about 8 m. from the Puy de

Dome, France. Julius Caesar attacked it in 52 B.C., but was beaten off;

some walls and earthworks seem still to survive from this period. Later,

when Gaul had been subdued, the place was dismantled and its Gaulish

inhabitants resettled 4 m. away in the plain at the new Roman city of

Augustonemetum (mod. _Clermont-Ferrand_).

GERHARD, FRIEDRICH WILHELM EDUARD (1795-1867), German archaeologist, was

born at Posen on the 29th of November 1795, and was educated at Breslau

and Berlin. The reputation he acquired by his _Lectiones Apollonianae_

(1816) led soon afterwards to his being appointed professor at the

gymnasium of Posen. On resigning that office in 1819, on account of

weakness of the eyes, he went in 1822 to Rome, where he remained for

fifteen years. He contributed to Platner's _Beschreibung der Stadt Rom_,

then under the direction of Bunsen, and was one of the principal

originators and during his residence in Italy director of the _Instituto

di corrispondenza archeologica_, founded at Rome in 1828. Returning to

Germany in 1837 he was appointed archaeologist at the Royal Museum of

Berlin, and in 1844 was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences, and

a professor in the university. He died at Berlin on the 12th of May

1867.

Besides a large number of archaeological papers in periodicals, in the

_Annali_ of the Institute of Rome, and in the Transactions of the

Berlin Academy, and several illustrated catalogues of Greek, Roman and

other antiquities in the Berlin, Naples and Vatican Museums, Gerhard

was the author of the following works: _Antike Bildwerke_ (Stuttgart,

1827-1844); _Auserlesene griech. Vasenbilder_ (1839-1858);

_Etruskische Spiegel_ (1839-1865); _Hyperboreisch-rom. Studien_ (vol.

i., 1833; vol. ii., 1852); _Prodromus mytholog. Kunsterklarung_

(Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1828); and _Griech. Mythologie_ (1854-1855).

His _Gesammelte akademische Abhandlungen und kleine Schriften_ were

published posthumously in 2 vols., Berlin, 1867.

GERHARD, JOHANN (1582-1637), Lutheran divine, was born in Quedlinburg on

the 17th of October 1582. In his fifteenth year, during a dangerous

illness, he came under the personal influence of Johann Arndt, author of

_Das wahre Christenthum_, and resolved to study for the church. He

entered the university of Wittenberg in 1599, and first studied

philosophy. He also attended lectures in theology, but, a relative

having persuaded him to change his subject, he studied medicine for two

years. In 1603, however, he resumed his theological reading at Jena, and

in the following year received a new impulse from J.W. Winckelmann

(1551-1626) and Balthasar Mentzer (1565-1627) at Marburg. Having

graduated and begun to give lectures at Jena in 1605, he in 1606

accepted the invitation of John Casimir, duke of Coburg, to the

superintendency of Heldburg and mastership of the gymnasium; soon

afterwards he became general superintendent of the duchy, in which

capacity he was engaged in the practical work of ecclesiastical

organization until 1616, when he became theological professor at Jena,

where the remainder of his life was spent. Here, with Johann Major and

Johann Himmel, he formed the "Trias Johannea." Though still

comparatively young, Gerhard had already come to be regarded as the

greatest living theologian of Protestant Germany; in the numerous

"disputations" of the period he was always protagonist, while on all

public and domestic questions touching on religion or morals his advice

was widely sought. It is recorded that during the course of his lifetime

he had received repeated calls to almost every university in Germany

(e.g. Giessen, Altdorf, Helmstadt, Jena, Wittenberg), as well as to

Upsala in Sweden. He died in Jena on the 20th of August 1637.

His writings are numerous, alike in exegetical, polemical, dogmatic

and practical theology. To the first category belong the _Commentarius

in harmoniam historiae evangelicae de passione Christi_ (1617), the

_Comment, super priorem D. Petri epistolam_ (1641), and also his

commentaries on Genesis (1637) and on Deuteronomy (1658). Of a

controversial character are the _Confessio Catholica_ (1633-1637), an

extensive work which seeks to prove the evangelical and catholic

character of the doctrine of the Augsburg Confession from the writings

of approved Roman Catholic authors; and the _Loci communes theologici_

(1610-1622), his principal contribution to science, in which

Lutheranism is expounded "nervose, solide, et copiose," in fact with

a fulness of learning, a force of logic and a minuteness of detail

that had never before been approached. _The Meditationes sacrae_

(1606), a work expressly devoted to the uses of Christian edification,

has been frequently reprinted in Latin and has been translated into

most of the European languages, including Greek. The English

translation by R. Winterton (1631) has passed through at least

nineteen editions. There is also an edition by W. Papillon in English

blank verse (1801). His life, _Vita Joh. Gerhardi_, was published by

E.R. Fischer in 1723, and by C.J. Bottcher, _Das Leben Dr Johann

Gerhards_, in 1858. See also W. Gass, _Geschichte der protestantischen

Dogmatik_ (1854-1867), and the article in the _Allgemeine deutsche

Biographie_.

GERHARDT, CHARLES FREDERIC (1816-1856), French chemist, was born at

Strassburg on the 21st of August 1816. After attending the gymnasium at

Strassburg and the polytechnic at Karlsruhe, he was sent to the school

of commerce at Leipzig, where he studied chemistry under Otto Erdmann.

Returning home in 1834 he entered his father's white lead factory, but

soon found that business was not to his liking, and after a sharp

disagreement with his father enlisted in a cavalry regiment. In a few

months military life became equally distasteful, and he purchased his

discharge with the assistance of Liebig, with whom, after a short

interval at Dresden, he went to study at Giessen in 1836. But his stay

at Giessen was also short, and in 1837 he re-entered the factory. Again,

however, he quarrelled with his father, and in 1838 went to Paris with

introductions from Liebig. There he attended Jean Baptiste Dumas'

lectures and worked with Auguste Cahours (1813-1891) on essential oils,

especially cumin, in Michel Eugene Chevreul's laboratory, while he

earned a precarious living by teaching and making translations of some

of Liebig's writings. In 1841, by the influence of Dumas, he was charged

with the duties of the chair of chemistry at the Montpellier faculty of

sciences, becoming titular professor in 1844. In 1842 he annoyed his

friends in Paris by the matter and manner of a paper on the

classification of organic compounds, and in 1845 he and his opinions

were the subject of an attack by Liebig, unjustifiable in its

personalities but not altogether surprising in view of his wayward

disregard of his patron's advice. The two were reconciled in 1850, but

his faculty for disagreeing with his friends did not make it easier for

him to get another appointment after resigning the chair at Montpellier

in 1851, especially as he was unwilling to go into the provinces. He

obtained leave of absence from Montpellier in 1848 and from that year

till 1855 resided in Paris. During that period he established an "Ecole

de chimie pratique" of which he had great hopes; but these were

disappointed, and in 1855, after refusing the offer of a chair of

chemistry at the new Zurich Polytechnic in 1854, he accepted the

professorships of chemistry at the Faculty of Sciences and the Ecole

Polytechnique at Strassburg, where he died on the 19th of August in the

following year. Although Gerhardt did some noteworthy experimental

work--for instance, his preparation of acid anhydrides in 1852--his

contributions to chemistry consist not so much in the discovery of new

facts as in the introduction of new ideas that vitalized and organized

an inert accumulation of old facts. In particular, with his

fellow-worker Auguste Laurent (1807-1853), he did much to reform the

methods of chemical formulation by insisting on the distinction between

atoms, molecules and equivalents; and in his unitary system, directly

opposed to the dualistic doctrines of Berzelius, he combined Dumas'

substitution theory with the old radicle theory and greatly extended the

notion of types of structure. His chief works were _Precis de chimie

organique_ (1844-1845), and _Traite de chimie organique_ (1853-1856).

See _Charles Gerhardt, sa vie, son oeuvre, sa correspondance_, by his

son, Charles Gerhardt, and E. Grimaux (Paris, 1900).

GERHARDT, PAUL (c. 1606-1676), German hymn-writer, was born of a good

middle-class family at Grafenhainichen, a small town on the railway

between Halle and Wittenberg, in 1606 or 1607--some authorities, indeed,

give the date March 12, 1607, but neither the year nor the day is

accurately known. His education appears to have been retarded by the

troubles of the period, the Thirty Years' War having begun about the

time he reached his twelfth year. After completing his studies for the

church he is known to have lived for some years at Berlin as tutor in

the family of an advocate named Berthold, whose daughter he subsequently

married, on receiving his first ecclesiastical appointment at Mittelwald

(a small town in the neighbourhood of Berlin) in 1651. In 1657 he

accepted an invitation as "diaconus" to the Nicolaikirche of Berlin;

but, in consequence of his uncompromising Lutheranism in refusing to

accept the elector Frederick William's "syncretistic" edict of 1664, he

was deprived in 1666. Though absolved from submission and restored to

office early in the following year, on the petition of the citizens, his

conscience did not allow him to retain a post which, as it appeared to

him, could only be held on condition of at least a tacit repudiation of

the Formula Concordiae, and for upwards of a year he lived in Berlin

without fixed employment. In 1668 he was appointed archdeacon of Lubben

in the duchy of Saxe-Merseburg, where, after a somewhat sombre ministry

of eight years, he died on the 7th of June 1676. Gerhardt is the

greatest hymn-writer of Germany, if not indeed of Europe. Many of his

best-known hymns were originally published in various church hymn-books,

as for example in that for Brandenburg, which appeared in 1658; others

first saw the light in Johann Cruger's _Geistliche Kirchenmelodien_

(1649) and _Praxis pietatis melica_ (1656). The first complete set of

them is the _Geistliche Andachten_, published in 1666-1667 by Ebeling,

music director in Berlin. No hymn by Gerhardt of a later date than 1667

is known to exist.

The life of Gerhardt has been written by Roth (1829), by Langbecker

(1841), by Schultz (1842), by Wildenhahn (1845) and by Bachmann

(1863); also by Kraft in Ersch u. Gruber's _Allg. Encycl._ (1855). The

best modern edition of the hymns, published by Wackernagel in 1843,

has often been reprinted. There is an English translation by Kelly

(_Paul Gerhardt's Spiritual Songs_, 1867).

GERICAULT, JEAN LOUIS ANDRE THEODORE (1791-1824), French painter, the

leader of the French realistic school, was born at Rouen in 1791. In

1808 he entered the studio of Charles Vernet, from which, in 1810, he

passed to that of Guerin, whom he drove to despair by his passion for

Rubens, and by the unorthodox manner in which he persisted in

interpreting nature. At the Salon of 1812 Gericault attracted attention

by his "Officier de Chasseurs a Cheval" (Louvre), a work in which he

personified the cavalry in its hour of triumph, and turned to account

the solid training received from Guerin in rendering a picturesque point

of view which was in itself a protest against the cherished convictions

of the pseudo-classical school. Two years later (1814) he re-exhibited

this work accompanied with the reverse picture "Cuirassier blesse"

(Louvre), and in both subjects called attention to the interest of

contemporary aspects of life, treated neglected types of living form,

and exhibited that mastery of and delight in the horse which was a

feature of his character. Disconcerted by the tempest of contradictory

opinion which arose over these two pictures, Gericault gave way to his

enthusiasm for horses and soldiers, and enrolled himself in the

_mousquetaires_. During the Hundred Days he followed the king to

Bethune, but, on his regiment being disbanded, eagerly returned to his

profession, left France for Italy in 1816, and at Rome nobly illustrated

his favourite animal by his great painting "Course des Chevaux Libres."

Returning to Paris, Gericault exhibited at the Salon of 1819 the "Radeau

de la Meduse" (Louvre), a subject which not only enabled him to prove

his zealous and scientific study of the human form, but contained those

elements of the heroic and pathetic, as existing in situations of modern

life, to which he had appealed in his earliest productions. Easily

depressed or elated, Gericault took to heart the hostility which this

work excited, and passed nearly two years in London, where the "Radeau"

was exhibited with success, and where he executed many series of

admirable lithographs now rare. At the close of 1822 he was again in

Paris, and produced a great quantity of projects for vast compositions,

models in wax, and a horse _ecorche_, as preliminary to the production

of an equestrian statue. His health was now completely undermined by

various kinds of excess, and on the 26th of January 1824 he died, at the

age of thirty-three.

Gericault's biography, accompanied by a _catalogue raisonne_ of his

works, was published by M.C. Clement in 1868.

GERIZIM, a mountain in the hill-country of Samaria, 2849 ft. above the

sea-level, and enclosing, with its companion Ebal, the valley in which

lies the town of Nablus (Shechem). It is the holy place of the community

of the Samaritans, who hold that it was the scene of the sacrifice of

Isaac--a tradition accepted by Dean Stanley but no other western writers

of importance. Here, on the formal entrance of the Israelites into the

possession of the Promised Land, were pronounced the blessings connected

with a faithful observance of the law (Josh. viii. 33, 34; cf. Deut. xi.

29, 30, xxvii. 12-26), the six tribes, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar,

Joseph and Benjamin, standing here for the purpose while the remaining

tribes stood on Ebal to accept the curses attached to specific

violations thereof. Gerizim was probably chosen as the mount of blessing

as being on the right hand, the fortunate side, of a spectator facing

east. The counter-suggestion of Eusebius and Jerome that the Ebal and

Gerizim associated with this solemnity were not the Shechem mountains at

all, but two small hills near Jericho, is no longer considered

important. From this mountain Jotham spoke his parable to the elders of

Shechem (Judg. ix. 7). Manasseh, the son of the Jewish high-priest in

the days of Nehemiah, married the daughter of Sanballat and, about 432

B.C., erected on this mountain a temple for the Samaritans; it was

destroyed by Hyrcanus about 300 years afterwards. Its site is a small

level plateau a little under the summit of the mountain. Close to this

is the place where the Passover is still annually celebrated in exact

accordance with the rites prescribed in the Pentateuch. On the summit of

the mountain, which commands a view embracing the greater part of

Palestine, are a small Moslem shrine and the ruins of a castle probably

dating from Justinian's time. There was an octagonal Byzantine church

here, but the foundations alone remain. Josephus describes it as the

highest of the mountains of Samaria, but Ebal and Tell Azur are both

higher. (R. A. S. M.)

GERLACHE, ETIENNE CONSTANTIN, BARON DE (1785-1871), Belgian politician

and historian, was born at Biourge, Luxemburg, on the 24th of December

1785. He studied law in Paris and practised there for some time, but

settled at Liege after the establishment of the kingdom of the

Netherlands. As member of the states-general he was an energetic member

of the opposition, and, though he repudiated an ultramontane policy, he

supported the alliance of the extreme Catholics with the Liberal party,

which paved the way for the revolution of 1830. On the outbreak of

disturbance in August 1830 he still, however, thought the Orange-Nassau

dynasty and the union with the Dutch states essential; but his views

changed, and, after holding various offices in the provisional

government, he became president of congress, and brought forward the

motion inviting Leopold of Saxe-Coburg to become king of the Belgians.

In 1832 he was president of the chamber of representatives, and for

thirty-five years he presided over the court of appeal. He presided over

the Catholic congresses held at Malines between 1863 and 1867. That his

early Liberal views underwent some modification is plain from the

Conservative principles enunciated in his _Essai sur le mouvement des

partis en Belgique_ (Brussels, 1852). As an historian his work was

strongly coloured by his anti-Dutch prejudices and his Catholic

predilections. His _Histoire des Pays-Bas depuis 1814 jusqu'en 1830_

(Brussels, 2 vols., 1839), which reached a fourth edition in 1875, was a

piece of special pleading against the Dutch domination. The most

important of his other works were his _Histoire de Liege_ (Brussels,

1843) and his _Etudes sur Salluste et sur quelques-uns des principaux

historiens de l'antiquite_ (Brussels, 1847).

A complete edition of his works (6 vols., Brussels, 1874-1875)

contains a biography by M. Thonissen.

GERLE, CHRISTOPHE ANTOINE (1736-c. 1801), French revolutionist and

mystic, was born at Riom in Auvergne. Entering the Carthusian order

early in life, he became prior of Laval-Dieu in Perche, and afterwards

of Pont-Sainte-Marie at Moulins. Elected deputy to the states-general in

1789, Gerle became very popular, and though he had no seat in the

assembly until after the Tennis Court oath, being only deputy

_suppleant_, he is represented in David's classic painting as taking

part in it. In 1792 he was chosen elector of Paris. In the

revolutionary turmoil Gerle developed a strong vein of mysticism,

mingled with ideas of reform, and in June 1790 the prophetic powers of

Suzanne Labrousse (1747-1821), a visionary who had predicted the

Revolution ten years before, were brought by him to the notice of the

Convention. In Paris, where he lived first with a spiritualistic doctor

and afterwards, like Robespierre, at the house of a cabinetmaker, his

mystical tendencies were strengthened. The insane fancies of Catherine

Theot, a convent servant turned prophetess, who proclaimed herself the

Virgin, the "Mother of God" and the "new Eve," were eminently attractive

to Gerle; in the person of Robespierre he recognized the Messiah, and at

the meetings of the Theotists he officiated with the aged prophetess as

co-president. But the activities of Catherine and her adepts were

short-lived. The Theotists' cult of Robespierre was a weapon in the

hands of his opponents; and shortly after the festival of the Supreme

Being, Vadier made a report to the Convention calling for the

prosecution of Catherine, Gerle and others as fanatics and conspirators.

They were arrested, thrown into prison and, in the confusion of

Robespierre's fall, apparently forgotten. Catherine died in prison, but

Gerle, released by the Directory, became one of the editors of the

_Messager du soir_, and was afterwards in the office of Pierre Benezech

(1775-1802), minister of the interior. Having renounced his monastic

vows in Paris, he is thought to have married, towards the close of his

life, Christine Raffet, aunt of the artist Denis Raffet. The date of his

death is uncertain.

GERMAN BAPTIST BRETHREN, or GERMAN BRETHREN, a sect of American Baptists

which originated in Germany, and whose members are popularly known in

the United States as "Dunkers," "Dunkards" or "Tunkers," corruptions of

the German verb _tunken_, "to dip," in recognition of the sect's

continued adherence to the practice of trine immersion. The sect was the

outcome of one of the many Pietistic movements of the 17th century, and

was founded in 1708 by Andrew Mack of Swartzenau, Germany, and seven of

his followers, upon the general issue that both the Lutheran and

Reformed churches were taking liberties with the literal teachings of

the Scriptures. The new sect was scarcely organized in Germany when its

members were compelled by persecution to take refuge in Holland, whence

they emigrated to Pennsylvania, in small companies, between 1719 and

1729. The first congregation in America was organized on Christmas Day

1723 by Peter Becker at Germantown, Pennsylvania, and here in 1743

Christopher Sauer, one of the sect's first pastors, and a printer by

trade, printed the first Bible (a few copies of which are still in

existence) published in a European language in America. From

Pennsylvania the sect spread chiefly westward, and, after various

vicissitudes, caused by defections and divisions due to doctrinal

differences, in 1908 were most numerous in Pennsylvania, Maryland,

Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas and

North Dakota.

There is much uncertainty about the early theological history of the

sect, but it is probable that Mack and his followers were influenced by

both the Greek Catholics and the Waldensians. P.H. Bashor in his

historical sketch, read before the World's Fair Congress of the Brethren

Church (1894), says: "From the history of extended labour by Greek

missionaries, from the active propaganda of doctrine by scattered

Waldensian refugees, through parts of Germany and Bavaria, from the

credence that may generally be given to local tradition, and from the

strong similarity between the three churches in general features of

circumstantial service, the conclusion, without additional evidence, is

both reasonable and natural that the founders of the new church received

their teaching, their faith and much of their church idea from intimate

acquaintance with the established usages of both societies, and from

their amplification and enforcement by missionaries and pastors.... In

doctrine the church has been from the first contentious for believers'

baptism, holding that nowhere in the New Testament can be found any

authority even by inference, precept or example for the baptism of

infants. On questions of fundamental doctrine they held to the belief

in one self-existing supreme ruler of the Universe--the Divine

Godhead--the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit--the tri-personality."

Hence their practice of triple immersion, which provides that the

candidate shall kneel in the water and be immersed, face first, three

times--in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. (From

this practice the sect received the less commonly used nickname

"Dompelaers," meaning "tumblers.") They accept implicitly and literally

the New Testament as the infallible guide in spiritual matters, holding

it to be the inspired word of God, revealed through Jesus Christ and, by

inspiration, through the Apostles. They also believe in the inspiration

of the Old Testament. In their celebration of the communion service they

aim exactly to imitate the forms observed by Christ. It is celebrated in

the evening, and is accompanied by the ancient love feast (partaken by

all communicants seated at a common table), by the ceremony of the

washing of feet and by the salutation of the holy kiss, the three

last-named ceremonies being observed by the sexes separately. They pray

over their sick and, when so requested, anoint them with oil. They are

rigid non-resistants, and will not bear arms or study the art of war;

they refuse to take oaths, and discountenance going to law over issues

that can possibly be settled out of the courts. The taking of interest

was at first forbidden, but that prohibition is not now insisted upon.

They "testify" against the use of intoxicating liquor and tobacco, and

advocate simplicity in dress. In its earlier history the sect opposed

voting or taking any active part in political affairs, but these

restrictions have quite generally disappeared. Similarly the earlier

prejudice against higher education, and the maintenance of institutions

for that purpose, has given place to greater liberality along those

lines. In 1782 the sect forbade slave-holding by its members.

The church officers (generally unpaid) comprise bishops (or

ministers), elders, teachers, deacons (or visiting brethren) and

deaconesses--chiefly aged women who are permitted at times to take

leading parts in church services. The bishops are chosen from the

teachers; they are itinerant, conduct marriage and funeral services, and

are present at communions, at ordinations, when deacons are chosen or

elected, and at trials for the excommunication of members. The elders

are the first or oldest teachers of congregations, for which there is no

regular bishop. They have charge of the meetings of such congregations,

and participate in excommunication proceedings, besides which they

preach, exhort, baptize, and may, when needed, take the offices of the

deacons. The teachers, who are chosen by vote, may also exhort or

preach, when their services are needed for such purposes, and may, at

the request of a bishop, perform marriage or baptismal ceremonies. The

deacons have general oversight of the material affairs of the

congregation, and are especially charged with the care of poor widows

and their children. In the discharge of these duties they are expected

to visit each family in the congregation at least once a year. The

government of the church is chiefly according to the congregational

principle, and the women have an equal voice with the men; but annual

meetings, attended by the bishops, teachers and other delegates from the

several congregations are held, and at these sessions the larger

questions involving church polity are considered and decided by a

committee of five bishops.

An early secession from the general body of Dunkers was that of the

Seventh Day Dunkers, whose distinctive principle was that the seventh

day was the true Sabbath. Their founder was Johann Conrad Beissel

(1690-1768), a native of Eberbach and one of the first emigrants, who,

after living as a hermit for several years on Mill Creek, Lancaster

county, Pennsylvania, founded the sect (1725), then again lived as a

hermit in a cave (formerly occupied by another hermit, one Elimelech) on

the Cocalico Creek in Pennsylvania, and in 1732-1735 established a

semi-monastic community (the "Order of the Solitary") with a convent

(the "Sister House") and a monastery (the "Brother House") at Ephrata,

in what is now Lancaster county, about 55 m. W. by N. from Philadelphia.

Among the industries of the men were printing (in both English and

German), book-binding, tanning, quarrying, and the operation of a saw

mill, a bark mill, and perhaps a pottery; the women did embroidery,

quilting, and engrossing in a beautiful but peculiar hand, known as

Fracturschrift.[1] The monastic feature was gradually abandoned, and in

1814 the Society was incorporated as the Seventh Day Baptists, its

affairs being placed in the hands of a board of trustees. More important

in the history of the modern church was the secession, in the decade

between 1880 and 1890, of the Old Order Brethren, who opposed Sunday

Schools and the missionary work of the Brethren, in Asia Minor and

India, and in several European countries; and also in 1882 of the

radicals, or Progressives, who objected to a distinctive dress and to

the absolute supremacy of the yearly conferences. Higher education was

long forbidden and is consistently opposed by the Old Order. The same

element in the Brethren opposed a census, but according to Howard

Miller's census of 1880 (_Record of the Faithful_) the number of Dunkers

was 59,749 in that year; by the United States census of 1890 it was then

73,795; the figures for 1904 are given by Henry King Carroll in his

"Statistics of the Churches" in the _Christian Advocate_ (Jan. 5, 1905):

Conservatives, or German Baptist Brethren, 95,000; Old Order, 4000;

Progressives or Brethren, 15,000; Seventh Day, 194; total, 114,194. In

1909 the German Baptist Brethren had an estimated membership of

approximately 100,000, and the Brethren of 18,000. The main body, or

Conservatives, support schools at Huntingdon, Pennsylvania; Mt. Morris,

Illinois; Lordsburg, California; McPherson, Kansas; Bridgewater,

Virginia; Canton, Ohio; Chicago, Illinois; North Manchester, Indiana;

Plattsburg, Missouri; Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania; Union Bridge,

Maryland; and Fruitdale, Alabama. They have a publishing house at Elgin,

Illinois, and maintain missions in Denmark, Sweden, France, Italy, India

and China. The Progressives have a college, a theological seminary and a

publishing house at Ashland, Ohio; and they carry on missionary work in

Canada, South America and Persia.

AUTHORITIES.--Lamech and Agrippa, _Chronicon Ephratense_, in German

(Ephrata, Penn., 1786) and in English (Lancaster, 1889); G.N.

Falkenstein, "The German Baptist Brethren, or Dunkers," part 8 of

"Pennsylvania: The German Influence in its Settlement and

Development," in vol. x. of the _Pennsylvania German Society,

Proceedings and Addresses_ (Lancaster, Penn., 1900); Julius Friedrich

Sachse, _The German Sectarians of Pennsylvania, 1742-1800: A Critical

and Legendary History of the Ephrata Cloister and the Dunkers_

(Philadelphia, 1900); and John Lewis Gillin, _The Dunkers: A

Sociological Interpretation_ (New York, 1906), a doctor's

dissertation, with full bibliography.