CHAPTER IX_Modern Geography

THE DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS AND THE LOCALISATION OF INDUSTRIES AND OF

TOWNS

The distribution of minerals over the surface of the earth is much less

obvious phenomenon than that of plants and animals, but it has always

been of great importance in determining the distribution of man and his

settlements. Except in the most primitive communities man must have

tools and implements; probably never since he became man has he been

without weapons. The first sign of emergence from the rudest barbarism

is the use of metals, instead of stone or bone, to construct these tools

and weapons and the necessity for finding the metals best suited to his

use at each stage of civilisation has always influenced the movements

and settlements of man. The existence of useful metals in a particular

area must always attract population to that spot, and it is obvious in

the case of Australia, of California, and later of Alaska, how strong

the attractive power of metals is, even when the other conditions are

distinctly unfavourable. As metals have always had this attractive

power, the study of their distribution must always be important to the

geographer.

We have seen that the first men whose remains have been preserved in

Europe used only implements of stone, but that at a later state bronze

was used, and corresponded to a marked rise in civilisation, as shown by

the improved pottery, the nature of the ornaments used, and so on.

Now bronze is not a metal but an alloy or mixture of two metals, copper

and tin. This alloy is very hard, and possesses qualities which make it

more valuable for weapons and tools than the relatively soft metal

copper. But we can hardly suppose that the first metal-workers

discovered, immediately after they had learnt how to smelt metals, that

a mixture of metals was more useful than a pure one. In point of fact,

it is clear that in some places, at least, the age of bronze was

preceded by a period when developing man used pure copper for his

implements.

Our word copper is derived from the name of the island of Cyprus, which

is particularly rich in copper ores. In this island they were smelted at

a very early date, the process being aided by two facts, first, that

copper ores are relatively easy to smelt, and, second, that the

necessary fuel for the process was furnished by the forests which

formerly covered the island, and which were largely destroyed by the

early smiths.

For our purpose it is quite unnecessary to discuss the difficult and

debated question as to where the use of copper and bronze originated. It

is sufficient to note that the island of Cyprus, placed near early

centres of civilisation seems to have been the region from which a

knowledge of the pure metal and of its more useful alloy radiated over

the Mediterranean and ultimately over Europe generally. It is more than

probable that the use of copper or of bronze spread faster than the

knowledge of the method of producing either. It is at least clear that

in many cases the Stone and Bronze Ages co-existed, suggesting that the

new type of implements was at first very difficult to obtain. No doubt

for long ages they occupied the position which firearms long occupied

among savage races, and which they still occupy among those most remote

from civilisation.

In Cyprus itself very few stone implements occur, suggesting that the

Stone Age was very short, and rapidly gave place to a metal one.

We do not know how the discovery was made that the addition of tin

improved copper for human purposes. Bronzes of very varying composition

have been found, including many which contain antimony, a somewhat rare

metal, still employed in making many useful alloys. It is suggested that

the first smiths tried a great number of combinations before they found

one which was satisfactory, and finally fixed upon tin as the most

suitable addition.

The next point of interest is the source of the tin. This is a question

of great interest, for long after iron had been used, and used

extensively in the manufacture of implements, the demand for bronze

continued, for the iron, even of late Roman days, was very costly and

probably very troublesome to make. Bronze also became of importance in

connection with the coinage of civilised nations.

Tin is not a very abundant metal, and it is rare in the Mediterranean.

The deposits which were utilised by the first makers of bronze have

doubtless completely disappeared, for from the early days of

civilisation the tin deposits even of Far Britain were sought.

Within the Mediterranean region at the present time only one tin deposit

of any importance is known. This occurs in the village of Montecatini,

which is situated near Volterra in Italy, in the ancient Etruria. It

perhaps played a part in connection with the development of the

civilisation of ancient Etruria.

Outside of the Mediterranean the main deposits of tin in Europe occur,

or occurred, in three separate areas, which formed as it were three

stages in one journey, and whose position certainly made them a factor

in promoting the spread of Mediterranean culture to the north-west.

These three rich tin-bearing areas were: (1) Galicia in north-western

Spain, (2) the south of Brittany, especially between the estuaries of

the Loire and the Vilaine, a deposit long since exhausted, and (3) the

still-important deposits of southern England, in Cornwall and parts of

Devon, which are believed to have been visited by the Phoenicians. Just

as the gold of California brought population and civilisation to the Far

West of North America long before the natural increase of eastern

peoples would have led to a westward movement, so the rich tin deposits

of south-western Britain, with the other metals of those favoured

islands, brought merchants and navigators to what was the Far West of

ancient Europe.

The bold navigators who had learnt their craft in the Mediterranean Sea

left its basin by the Strait of Gibraltar, and visited successively

those masses of ancient rocks which project out into the ocean, and form

the western extremities of Spain, France and Britain. But it was not

only the sea route which was utilised, at least in later times. Perhaps

so long ago as five centuries before our era a land route was organised

which carried British tin to Marseilles, and thus to the Mediterranean.

The great valley of the Rhone renders such a traverse of France

feasible, and the passage from the valley to the Rhone to that of the

Loire or of the Seine is easy. The existence of a commerce in tin thus

ensured that France was early and deeply permeated by Mediterranean

civilisation, for it involved the existence of high roads through her

land, at a time when northern Europe generally was cut off from the

civilisation of the Mediterranean. There is even reason to believe that

trade in tin led to the founding of an early maritime power on the

barren shores of Brittany. The trade in tin certainly did much to open

the way for the future civilisation of France.

Though, as we have indicated, bronze was for long of relatively great

importance, yet the use of iron dates back to great antiquity. It seems

to have been a rare and precious metal when the Homeric poems took

shape, and for long afterwards its use was partial and limited. The

fact, however, that it is very readily destroyed by rust when exposed to

air and damp, makes it difficult to draw any certain conclusions from

its absence in ancient remains.

The slow growth of the use of iron must be largely ascribed to the great

difficulties in smelting it, especially when it occurs in impure forms.

Iron does not occur in the pure state, as copper does to a small extent,

but it is enormously abundant, being found, to a greater or less extent,

in almost all rocks. Relatively pure ores are rare, most iron-bearing

minerals containing a large number of impurities, some of which are very

difficult to remove. Further, the process of smelting always requires

much fuel, and, in the case of the more impure ores, remarkable skill

and science. The result was that the early smiths could only employ a

very high grade of ore; all others were useless to them. Even with a

high grade of ore, they could only extract a relatively small amount of

the iron present.

A very curious little proof of this latter fact is furnished by the

Roman iron workings in the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire. The refuse

thrown out of the ancient furnaces worked by the Romans here, was

re-smelted by the British smiths long centuries afterwards, and this

refuse fed their furnaces for a period of between two and three hundred

years.

The next point of interest in regard to iron is the source of the

necessary fuel. At first wood or charcoal was always employed, and

therefore iron could only be smelted in the vicinity of forests. Thus

the Forest of Dean, already mentioned, supplied the wood used by the

Romans in smelting, and the trees of the Weald or "wood" of Sussex and

Kent were completely removed during the long centuries when the iron

ores of that region were smelted. The Forest of Arden, near Birmingham,

is another region where iron was long smelted by the aid of charcoal.

The amount of fuel required, especially in the early days, was very

great, and as the forests were cleared without any regard for scientific

forestry, it naturally followed that in many districts the destruction

of the necessary fuel led to a diminution of the industry.

In England coal was not generally employed in the smelting of iron until

after the middle of the eighteenth century, and long before that the

British forests had been largely destroyed. The result was that the

British iron industry had declined, and in the early part of that

century considerably more iron was imported than was made in England.

The countries which at this time were specially favoured in connection

with the industry were those in which pure iron ores co-existed with

extensive forests. This condition occurred especially in Germany, where

the iron deposits formerly worked were those of the upland regions which

have kept their forests till this day. Thus the wood and the ores of the

Harz Mountains and of the Erzgebirge, or Iron Mountains, were of great

importance before the industrial revolution, and up till the early part

of the eighteenth century the German iron industry was more important

than the British.

The replacement of charcoal by coal led to a great diminution of the

cost of production, and permitted the use of low-grade ores, but it was

not in itself a great improvement. Charcoal is a singularly pure form of

carbon, and its use as the reducing agent gives a high quality of iron.

Coal, on the other hand, often contains impurities which spoil the iron,

and have to be provided against in various ways. Not all coal, indeed,

is suitable for iron smelting. The result is that where charcoal can

still be obtained cheaply, as in the Scandinavian countries and in parts

of Russia, it is still used in smelting, and the iron so produced is

particularly valuable.

The original demand for iron, as we have seen, was very small, and even

down to the middle of the eighteenth century remained insignificant. But

with the use of machinery, the spread of railways, the replacement of

wood by iron in shipbuilding and for the framework of buildings, etc.,

the demand in all civilised communities has become enormous, has become

too great to permit of any forests supplying the necessary fuel. With

the far increased demand has come an elaboration of methods which means

very costly installations and much skill and training among the workers.

From the time of the industrial revolution till the present, then, a

well-developed iron industry has demanded the following:--fuel, usually

furnished by coal; an abundant supply of the ore, either furnished

locally or easily obtained by water carriage, ores being so bulky that

land carriage is rarely profitable; certain accessories, notedly

limestone to serve as a flux, and ganister, a kind of sandstone used to

form a lining in parts of the apparatus used; capital, necessary for the

purchase and fitting up of the costly plant; the tradition and skill

which come from the long practice of the industry.

The significance of these various necessaries may perhaps be realised by

a few examples. Let us consider first the Mediterranean area. We have

seen that it was civilised from a very early date, that a considerable

part at least of that civilisation was indigenous, and that its early

smiths showed no lack of skill. But with the advent of the age of iron

its natural handicap became obvious. The forests of the region never had

the luxuriance of those further north, and must have been early

destroyed, and coal is virtually absent. Iron ores are present and are

widely distributed; some, like those of Elba and of northern Spain,

which is outside the area, are even rich; but the absence of fuel is a

terrible handicap, and to its absence we must ascribe the present

poverty and backwardness of Mediterranean countries.

It is to be noted, however, that electricity is coming to be used in

smelting, and especially for making particular kinds of steel, used for

special purposes. To generate this electricity water power is being

used, and the appearance of small factories in the valleys of the Alpine

border, both in France and Italy, perhaps marks the beginning of a

change which will restore to some of the Mediterranean countries their

ancient glory.

These small factories are not only employed in manufacturing high-grade

steel, but also in making nitrogenous manure from the air, and in other

processes. In the valleys in which they occur the inhabitants are

forsaking their phylloxera-infested vineyards for the factories, and the

association of the neglected land with the busy factories offers a very

curious spectacle, and suggests that the twentieth century may see great

changes in the present distribution of population.

Meantime this distribution has been almost everywhere in western Europe

enormously influenced by the distribution of coal. Everywhere the coal

has had an attractive influence, dragging population, wealth, and

intelligence from the agricultural regions, even the fertile regions, to

the vicinity of the coal measures, where alone great industries can be

profitably established.

In Great Britain, where the coal-bearing beds are not only numerous, but

in some instances crop out at the surface, coal seems to have been

worked earlier than elsewhere in Europe. To its earlier utilisation of

coal on a large scale Britain owes its long lead in the struggle for

industrial supremacy, and we thus find the effect of coal upon the

distribution of the population illustrated in a more striking way here

than elsewhere. Further, Great Britain is especially fortunate in that

iron usually occurs in close proximity to coal, and that the other

necessities for an iron industry are easily obtainable. Its position,

sheltered by Ireland, gives it good ports, and it is rich in other

minerals as well as in iron ores and coal.

The nature of the change introduced by the great industrial revolution

may be realised, for example, by thinking of the great cathedrals of

England, and noting how insignificant the towns in which they are placed

are at the present day when compared with the great centres which have

sprung up near the coalfields. Yet the very existence of these

magnificent monuments of the past means that in the old days the towns

in which they were placed were not only centres of population and of

wealth, but had also prestige enough to draw men's eyes towards them.

Their very peace and cleanliness to-day means that the life of the

nation is eddying round other centres. The emotions which found

expression in their lofty spires now seek another outlet in the

magnificent municipal buildings, the art galleries, the hospitals, the

universities and schools of the industrial centres.

The same lesson may be learnt by considering the county towns of some of

the counties where the change wrought by the industrial revolution has

been greatest. What do the towns of Alnwick, Durham, York, Lancaster,

Appleby, Carlisle now signify beside the great towns in Yorkshire and

Lancashire, which depend for their existence upon the coalfields?

The great development of North America is similarly the product of the

age of iron and coal, and therefore here also population tends to

congregate round mineralised regions, and to be sucked away from the

early centres, which were determined by other causes.

In brief we say that it is true generally of the civilised world that

the attraction of the towns, of which we hear so much, is in reality the

attraction of minerals, especially of coal and iron. This attractive

power of minerals is no new thing. When the men armed with bronze or

copper weapons and tools conquered those with stone implements, when

iron was found to be better than all three, then first began that long

process which now acts by sucking the countryman into the large

industrial towns.

When coal became supremely important the small industries, previously

scattered over the localities where some specially favourable conditions

presented themselves, began to concentrate near the coalfields. With the

cheap power they developed out of all proportion to their old state, and

new industries were added to the old. Thus began that process which made

the great manufacturing nations seek markets far beyond their own

shores, and produce far in excess of their own needs. This, again, has

led to enormous improvements in the means of communication. It must

itself, however, be necessarily a more or less temporary phenomenon, to

be replaced sooner or later by other conditions, as the new nations

become manufacturers in their turn, and cease to offer unlimited markets

to the old.

In regard to the localisation of industries, it is interesting to note

that though the industries are attracted towards coal, local conditions

generally determine which industry or industries shall prosper round a

particular coalfield. The moist climate of Lancashire, with the relative

proximity of the cotton supplies of the Southern United States, has

determined the cotton industry of Lancashire. Once established the

advantages associated with a going concern make it very difficult for

other districts to capture trade, even when they have greater natural

advantages, _e. g._ the Southern States themselves are now manufacturing

areas, but cannot compete on equal terms with Lancashire.

It is indeed remarkable that the proximity of raw material, except in

cases when this is very bulky, as with ores, seems often to be of minor

importance in localising industries. Thus, though Belfast may be said

to owe its linen industry primarily to local supplies of flax, it is

noticeable that the local supply is very limited, and several towns on

the east coast of Scotland, as Dunfermline, Montrose, Arbroath, etc.,

have a flourishing linen industry maintained entirely by imported raw

material. A whole host of facts of this kind emphasise the importance of

power in the case of a modern industry, as contrasted with the supreme

importance of abundant raw material in the old days when man himself

chiefly supplied the motive force.

In other words, modern industry has been very closely associated with

improved means of communication, which alone make it possible to carry

cheap raw material over great distances, without excessive expense for

freight. The study of the development of the means of communication is

therefore a problem well worth the attention of the geographer, and is

one which has many interesting facts to disclose.

Man himself is an animal relatively ill-adapted for continuous rapid

movement or for the transport of goods. As a transport animal he is the

costliest and most inefficient known, and were it not for the

intelligence which enabled him first to utilise other animals for his

own purposes, and later to find mechanical means, the progress of

civilisation would have been impossible. Progress in Africa has been

greatly checked by the fact that over a large area man is the only

transport animal available, a fact which brings in its train the slave

trade, and many other serious evils.

Except in certain special localities the surface of the earth is so

uneven that progression, especially for a loaded man or animal, is very

difficult except on a prepared surface. On the other hand, the

diminution of friction over a water surface makes transport over it

relatively easy. It has been pointed out that, as a result of this fact,

the great civilisations have developed in regions where water transport

was possible, and have involved the progressive utilisation of larger

and larger masses of water.

The first civilisations developed in river valleys, where water

transport in one direction at least is very easy. The next stage was

that which saw man settled on the shores of the great inland sea, and

witnessed his gradual acquisition of greater and greater skill in

navigation. As we have seen, he was soon not content with that sea

alone, but launched out into the open, and, hugging the coastline, found

his way to far Britain.

Only at a very much later date, however, did he conquer the vast

Atlantic outside, which, as Prof. Myres points out, has now become a

mere inland sea in its turn, when compared with the greater oceans

beyond. To this day, however, the part which water transport plays in

human life is reflected in the way in which the denser masses of mankind

cluster round the shores of the seas and oceans, as any map of the

distribution of population will show.

In water transport the method of propelling the vessel employed is of

great importance. In river navigation it is natural to allow the boat to

drift with the current, and the use of a pole to steer with would

naturally suggest its use as a paddle or oar in order to move against

the current. In North America up till the appearance of the white man,

the aborigines had not got past the paddle stage, in spite of the fact

that they were very skilful navigators, and had a considerable variety

of vessels.

The next stage is of course the sail, used by most races who venture on

open water, as contrasted with flowing streams and rivers. Although

before its virtual replacement by steam, the civilised races had carried

the development of the sail to a very high pitch, yet the difficulties

associated with it militated against bold navigation, more especially in

the early days when there was no science of meteorology. Thus it has

been pointed out that the reason why the effective discovery of America

was delayed so long was largely due to two meteorological facts. The

first of these is that to the north, the place where the crossing is

narrowest, the ice which streams down the west coast of Greenland, and

even to this day presents difficulties to navigation off the coasts of

Newfoundland, formed an effective barrier to early navigators. To the

south the great difficulty was the constant north-east trade wind. What

ship dare set out towards the unknown blown by a constant wind against

which she could not return home again? To Columbus first, says Mr.

Mackinder, came the brilliant inspiration that, while travelling

outwards with the trade, it would be possible to return with the

westerly breezes of more northern latitudes.

When, later, the sail was functionally replaced by steam, man became

virtually independent of the wind, and only the name of trade wind

remains to carry us back to the period when the ocean breezes determined

his movements and his commerce.

Turning now to the surface of the land, we may note that regions which

are snow-covered in winter offer special facilities for rapid

locomotion. In the northern part of North America, both in the tundra

and the forest region, the aborigines used both snow-shoes and sledges.

The Eskimos to the north use dogs to draw their heavy sledges, but to

the south the Indians used a lighter form of sledge, which was dragged

by women, and therefore represents a much more primitive form of

transport. Even down to the present time the conditions in Arctic

America are such that transport facilities are very much greater in

winter than in summer, except in regions close to navigable rivers.

Snow-sledges and snow-shoes of course occur also on the European side of

the Atlantic to the north, but the domesticated reindeer replaces the

dog in Lapland as the means of traction, though dogs are used in other

parts of the tundra region of the old world.

Apart from snow-covered regions deserts afford another example of areas

in which the surface is frequently so uniform that friction is greatly

reduced, and rapid movement is possible without specially prepared

tracks. In the Sahara, for example, which is far from being the waste of

sand which is popularly imagined, there are great areas of almost level

surface, where "the soil is firm and elastic, strewn with gravel, and

like a garden walk." In Algiers it is possible to drive in high

dog-carts over the plateau region in any direction, regardless of roads,

and in parts of the North American desert the same thing is true. It has

been suggested, indeed, that wheeled vehicles were invented by races

living near desert regions, and that the invention thus preceded the

making of roads.

In the general case, however, rapid movement is bound up with the

existence of roads or tracks. In parts of North America, notably in the

region south and east of the Great Lakes, where the rivers are generally

unsuitable for navigation by very primitive forms of boats, the original

Indian inhabitants mostly moved by means of "trails" through the woods.

These trails were the lines of migration of the larger mammals,

especially of the bison, and it is a remarkable fact that the roads made

later by the white immigrants sometimes followed these old trails,

which proved to be the most convenient routes. This suggests one method

in which roads and paths might originate, but the Indian trails, like

the African negroes' paths through the forest, were excessively narrow

and inconvenient.

Another stage in road evolution is well illustrated in many mountain

regions, _i. e._ in the less-frequented parts of the Alps. Here the

mountains are crossed by narrow tracks, which die away at intervals and

then reappear. They are chiefly used by the herdsmen and cattle, during

the periodical migrations to the higher pastures, and this fact gives

rise to certain peculiarities. Where the region traversed is very steep

the path is usually well marked, and there may be even attempts to

improve difficult parts so as to render it more practicable. When the

ground becomes more level the path dies away, or divides up into a

multitude of minor tracks. The reason is obvious. In the steep regions

the cows must keep together, and their constant journeyings render the

road well marked. It must also be easy enough to permit of the passage

of the animals, whose agility has its limits. Where the ground is level

grass usually grows, and here the cattle spread out in all directions

to feed, and the path naturally dies away. It may be marked on the map

as going on to cross a col and so reach another valley, but as the

number of persons making the traverse is likely to be small, the track

is badly marked, as many a tourist has found to his cost.

From such tracks, which are little more than aids in crossing specially

difficult areas, to the well-made roads which traverse the civilised

countries of the world the gap is great, for, though the Romans made

magnificent roads, after their time there was a rapid decay in the art,

and the well-kept roads of the western countries of Europe are things

but of yesterday.

With the development of tracks and roads, as distinct from a mere animal

trail through the bush, there comes the possibility of using

pack-animals and wheeled vehicles for transport. The two do not

necessarily occur together. Thus in China and Japan wheeled vehicles are

drawn by human beings, though in China the wheelbarrows drawn by human

porters have also sails to aid their propulsion.

The use of animals, whether as pack-animals or for traction, means a

relatively high degree of civilisation, and means also a food supply

normally more than enough for the human members of the community. In

many parts of tropical Africa, despite the tropical luxuriance of many

of the food plants, and the absence of winter, there is practically no

food reserve, and the normal condition is that the whole group is within

measurable reach of starvation, should any one of a whole series of

probable or possible accidents happen to the plantations. Under such

conditions large domestic animals, requiring great quantities of food,

cannot be kept.

Again, where the population is dense, and all the land is required to

grow food for man, it is not possible to set aside regions for the

pasturage of domestic animals, whose numbers must necessarily then be

small. This is true of China and Japan, where domestic hoofed animals

are few in number. The contrary condition is of course seen in new

countries, like Australia and the Argentine, where there are far fewer

men than sheep and cattle. The United States is beginning to pass from

this condition, and there have been published already warnings to the

community that it cannot go on giving up much of its fertile land to

the growth of crops for its domestic animals, instead of for its

citizens directly.

Of the domestic animals which have assisted man in the work of transport

there can be no doubt that the horse is by far the most valuable. It is

the strongest, the swiftest, and the best fitted for man's purposes. The

camel, of which so much has been written, is in point of fact a poor

substitute for the more valuable animal, rendered necessary by desert

conditions. Among the other animals which have played their part as

beasts of burden or of traction are many kinds of ox, including the yak

of Tibet; the llama of South America; the elephant; the reindeer; the

dog; and the animals which rank as horses to the zoologist though not to

the owner--that is the ass and the mule.

Just as the use of beasts of burden is an enormous improvement upon

human porters, and that of wheeled vehicles upon beasts of burden, so is

the use of steam an enormous improvement upon wheeled vehicles drawn by

animals. Railways have practically revolutionised the problem of land

transport, though their cost, especially in countries of marked relief,

is a great drawback to their universal use. The last few years have

seen in the development of motor-driven vehicles a new change, which has

given back to the roads their old importance, and which will probably in

the future greatly aid the development of new countries, and take from

the railways some of their importance. It is too soon yet to say whether

the last development of means of transport, the aeroplane, is destined

to affect greatly man's movements and methods of exchanging commodities.

In connection with means of communication a few words must be said about

towns and their position, a subject in which the "new geography" has

been greatly interested. In this chapter we have assumed that the

progress of civilisation means, and has always meant, an increasing

desire on the part of man for freedom of movement, and an increasing

number of wants, which have led in their turn to an increasing desire

for the exchange of commodities. The desire to possess efficient tools

and weapons first attracted him, as we have seen, to the localities

where useful minerals occurred. The new powers so obtained increased his

desires, and also his mobility, and tended to make him cluster round the

spots where his new desires could best be gratified. At a very early

stage the desire to exchange commodities must have led to the founding

of towns, whose number and size have increased with the passage of time.

Of the various causes which have led to the founding of towns at certain

spots, some are obvious. That which has always attracted most attention

perhaps is the fortress town, placed on some rocky peak, and commanding

a well-marked route. But though such towns are imposing, and seem easily

explained, it is obvious that at no stage of his history has warfare

been man's chronic state. Even at the worst period, if there had been no

busy group of traders at the foot of the fortress-crowned rock, its

significance could only have been trifling, and almost all fortress

towns show, in the proximity of another agglomeration more suited to

normal human activities, that the fortress itself was always rather

spectacular than significant. Edinburgh, with the old city sloping down

to the plain from the great rock, Carcassonne with the real city some

distance from the theatrical erection on the hill, are two examples

which illustrate this fact.

One or two of the chief economic causes of towns may be noted. They

tend to occur where there is a "break of bulk" in goods being carried

from one region to another. Such break of bulk now takes place at the

great ports where the liners unload, but in the old days the small ships

came up the rivers with the tide, and towns tended to occur at the tidal

limit, as, _e. g._ at Newcastle-on-Tyne. Towns tend also to occur near

natural obstacles to easy transport. Thus we have in England a great

number of "bridge towns," placed at the point where an important river

was easily bridged or forded, and thus where co-operative effort was

necessary to smooth over an obstacle. Towns tend to occur also where two

regions of different natural products meet, for here the inhabitants of

the two regions meet for the purpose of exchange of goods. Milan, at the

foot of the Alps and yet in the plain, is a good example, for the

products of the plains are not those of the mountains.

Many cities owe their origin and their fame to some event, often some

religious association which draws great numbers of pilgrims and others.

It is often doubtful, however, to what extent the supposed cause is the

real cause of the city's importance. Not every saint founds a city, not

every holy city keeps its fame, and in the struggle for existence those

cities will persist whose natural advantages are greatest.

Another very important cause of cities is a junction of routes, for this

means that many different types of merchandise will pass this way, and

will give abundant raw material for many minor industries. London is a

good example of a town upon which many routes converge, these being both

land routes and water routes.

Even these few examples may serve to suggest the point of view from

which the modern geographer regards towns, and to illustrate the fact

that in this as in other branches of his subject his interest is in the

study of causes and of interrelations.

NOTES ON BOOKS

Most of the subjects which have been treated in this book fall under the

heading of physical geography, and therefore we may begin these notes by

recommending two large works of reference on this subject. Salisbury's

_Physiography_ (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1907, $3.50 net) is the most

comprehensive work on the subject in English. In French there is an

admirable book by E. de Martonne, _Traité de Géographie Physique_

(Paris: Armand Colin, 1909, price 22 fr.), to be especially recommended

for its beautiful plates and diagrams, and for its copious references.

For the subjects treated in the individual chapters the following, among

others, may be consulted. Suess's book translated as _The Face of the

Earth_ (Oxford: Clarendon Press, still in course of publication, price

£4 net) is the classical book on earth structure and relief, and has

stimulated research enormously, but it is not easy to read. For

climatology the classical book is Hann's _Handbuch_, of which the

general part has been translated by Ward as _Handbook of Climatology_

(New York: The Macmillan Co., 1903, price 12_s._ 6_d._). For plant

geography reference should be made to Schimper's _Plant Geography_,

translated by Fisher (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1903, price 42_s._ net),

which is again the classical treatise, and the basis of most of the

later work. For the races of Europe we have in W. Z. Ripley's _Races of

Europe_ (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., 1900, price 18_s._

net) a most interesting book, not difficult and full of most instructive

diagrams. Another aspect of the same subject is treated in Sergi's _The

Mediterranean Race_ (Contemporary Science Series, London: Walter Scott,

1901, price 6_s._), but this is very controversial in tone. For the work

of ice, the most important book is _Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter_ by A.

Penck and G. Brückner (Leipzig: Tauchnitz, 1909, price 55 marks), but

the line of reasoning followed in it does not convince all geographers,

and the subject is still fiercely debated.

Turning now to more general aspects of the subject we have in _The

International Geography_, edited by H. R. Mill, and written by many

authors (now published by Macmillan, London--new edition 1907, price

12_s._ net; also published in parts for school use), a most

comprehensive and authoritative work, which includes the whole globe in

its survey, and has also general chapters on various aspects of

geography. It is, however, a difficult book, intended for study rather

than for general reading, and is very much condensed. A book which,

though dealing only with a very limited region, yet contrives in

discussing that area to give the essentials of modern geographical

science, is Mackinder's _Britain and the British Seas_ (second edition.

1907. Oxford: Clarendon Press, price 7_s._ 6_d._).

It should be in all geographical libraries.

As commercial geography is one of the sides from which geography appeals

most strongly to the general reader, we may note that the classic is G.

G. Chisholm's _Handbook of Commercial Geography_ (New York: Longmans,

Green & Co., price $4.80 net). First published in 1889 it is brought up

to date in successive editions, and is full of interest for the general

public as well as for the geographer. In the same connection we may note

J. G. Bartholomew's admirable _Atlas of the World's Commerce_ (London:

George Newnes, 1907, price 10_s._ 6_d._), which is of great assistance

in studying the subject owing to its very clear maps and diagrams. A

smaller and cheaper work by the same author is _A School Economic Atlas_

(Oxford: University Press, 1910, price 2_s._ 6_d._ net).

There are an enormous number of small books on geographical subjects,

for these as well as for others reference may be made to a useful little

volume called _Guide to Geographical Books and Appliances_, which is

compiled by members of the Geographical Association (London: Geo.

Philip, 1910, price 5_s._). This is especially intended for teachers,

but gives full descriptions, with critical notes, of a great number of

books. To the list given there we may add one book which, though

intended for school use, may be noted as containing a great deal of

information of the kind which is just beginning to find its way into the

smaller text-books. This is Unstead and Taylor's _General and Regional

Geography for Students_ (London: Geo. Philip, 1910, price 6_s._). An

excellent practical book is Simmons and Richardson's _Introduction to

Practical Geography_ (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1907, price 90 cts.).

Finally, we may note that the _Geographical Journal_, published monthly

by the Royal Geographical Society in London, and the _Scottish

Geographical Magazine_, published monthly by the Royal Scottish

Geographical Society in Edinburgh, both give reviews and accounts of all

important geographical books, as they appear, with abstracts of

important articles and papers, as well as publishing original papers.

Both are obtainable at most libraries.

INDEX

Aar valley, 57, 67

Aberdeen, 44

Abyssal fauna, 145

Abysses of ocean, 28

Acacia, 79

Africa, climate of, 91, 100;

exploration of, 13;

fauna of, 23, 152;

forests of, 120;

position of, 22;

slave trade in, 236

Agave, 85, 125

Ague, 162

Ailanthus, 78

Aire gap, 47 (fig. 5), 49, 73

Alabama, 35

Alaska, forests of, 136;

minerals of, 220

Algiers, means of communication in, 240;

rainfall of, 95;

vegetation of, 92

Allium, 124

Almonds, 176

Alnwick, 232

Aloe, 125

_Alp_, 59, 60, 190

Alpine plants, 122

Alpine race, 190, 192, 199, 206-216

Alps, 32, 33, 57, 58, 59, 68, 70, 80, 122, 192, 241

Amazon, 43, 45

America, exploration of, 14

America, North, climate of, 101-102;

fauna of, 23, 152;

flora of, 135-142;

glaciation of, 52, 53, 77;

mammals of, 166;

position of, 17;

primitive means of communication in, 239-241;

trees of, 78, 79;

vegetation of, 122

America, South, fauna of, 23

Anchovies, 149

Andes, 48

Anemone, 124

Annuals, 124, 126, 128, 134

Anopheles, 162

Antarctic, exploration of, 14

Anticyclones, 107-110 (fig. 12)

Anti-trade winds, 88, 89, 90

Apes, 155

Appleby, 232

Apples, 176, 184

Apricots, 176

Aquatic animals, 144 _et seq._

Arabs, 178, 180

Aragon, 200

Arbroath, 235

Arbutus, 130, 192

Arctic, exploration of, 14

Arctogæic realm, 152

Ardennes, 33

Area of low pressure in N. Atlantic, 88, 105

Argentine, 243

Arizona, climate of, 91

Aryans, 213, 214

Ash, 139

Asia, climate of, 93, 100;

exploration of, 14;

fauna of, 23, 152;

position of, 22;

trees of, 78, 79

Asia Minor, rainfall of, 86

Aspen, 138

Asphodel, 124

Ass, 166, 177, 244

Athens, rainfall of, 95

Atlantic, 88, 89, 105

Atlas Mountains, 32, 91, 120, 153

Atmosphere, 20

Australia, cattle and sheep of, 243;

climate of, 85;

fauna of, 23, 152;

minerals of, 220

Austria, people of, 209

Badger, 159

Balkan States, buffalo in, 178;

climate of, 101;

people of, 209

Baltic, 105, 106

Banks of Newfoundland, 148

Barbary, 155

Barley, 171, 172

Barrows in Scotland, 203, 206, 207

Base level of erosion, 39

Basque, 198, 199

Baths of Leuk, 72

Bats, 155

Bear, 159

Beavers, 158

Beech, 129

Beech woods, 131

Bees, 181

Belfast, 235

Belgium, people of, 209

Berbers, 204

Berne, 72

Birch, 132, 136

Birds of Europe, 160

Biskra, rainfall of, 95

Bison, 166, 240

Black rat, 154

Black walnut, 79

Bog myrtle, 133

Boulder clay, 52

Brachycephalic race, 202, 208

Brehm, quoted, 163, 189

Bridge towns, 247

British Columbia, climate of, 101;

flora of, 137

British Isles, birds of, 160;

climate of, 99, 100;

fauna of, 153;

insects of, 164;

position of, 27;

weather of, 107, 108

Brittany, minerals of, 225;

people of, 192-97, 209;

strawberries of, 184;

structure of, 33

Broad-headed race, 209-217

Bronze, 206, 207, 220, 221, 222, 223, 225, 233

Bronze Age, 221

Broom, 130

Brown rat, 154

Buckwheat, 183, 184

Buffalo, 178

Cactuses, 10, 138

California, climate of, 85, 91, 101;

forests of, 137, 142;

minerals of, 220, 223

Camels, 177, 188, 194, 244

Canada, forests of, 136, 139;

structure of, 35;

survey work in, 14

Canadian Far West, 116

Canadian Shield, 35

Cape Colony, climate of, 85

Carboniferous rocks, 34

Carcassonne, 246

Carlisle, 49, 232

Carnivores, 155

Carp, 150

Cascade Range, 138

Casiquiare river, 45

Castile, 200

Castilian language, 198, 199, 200

Cat, 155, 177

Catalan language, 198, 199

Catalpa, 79

Cattle, 155, 177, 178, 185, 188, 190, 241, 242, 243

Caucasus, 32, 80

Cauterets, 67

Celtic language, 197;

race, 197, 206, 209

Celto-Slavic race, 206

Central Plateau of France, 33;

of Spain, 33

Cephalic index, 202

Cetaceans, 155

Chalk, 34

Challenger expedition, 144, 145

Chamærops, 129

Chameleon, 161

Charcoal as fuel, 226, 227, 228

Chestnuts, 139, 193

Chile, climate of, 85

China, agriculture in, 170;

climate of, 96;

cultivated plants from, 174;

means of communication in, 242;

trees of, 78, 79

Chiroptera, 155

Cirques, 62, 63 (fig. 8), 64, 65, 66

Cistus, 129

Citron, 174

Citrus, 174, 176

Clams, 146

Climate, 82 _et seq._

Clyde valley, 206, 207

Coal, 34, 227-234

Cod, 148

Congo forest, 114

Conifers, of America, 136-142;

of Europe, 132;

of mountains, 121

Coniferous forests, 132, 136, 137, 138, 141, 142

Continental climate, 102

Continental shelf, 27, 146, 147, 148

Copper, 220, 221, 222, 233

Corals, 146

Cork oak, 129

Cornwall, 223

Corries, 62, 64, 65

Corsica, people of, 208;

wild sheep of, 156

Corsican pine, 129

Cotton, 174, 234

Crabs, 146

Cranberries, 185

Crustaceans, 146

Cucumbers, 176

Cwms, 62

Cycle of erosion, 30

Cyclones, 104-110 (figs. 10, 11, 12)

Cyprus, locusts in, 165;

minerals of, 221, 222

Darwin, Charles, 7, 9, 10

Date palm, 129

Daubensee, 73

Dauphiny, 209

Davis, quoted, 65

Deciduous forests, 121, 131, 132, 136, 139, 141

Dee, 44

Deer, 155, 166

Denmark, shell-mounds of, 146

Deserts, 10, 91, 115, 116, 170, 220

Devon, 223

Diatoms, 147

Dog, 155, 177, 239, 244

Dolichocephalic skulls, 202, 203, 204

Dormice, 158

Dranse, 42

Dunfermline, 235

Durham, 232

Edinburgh, 94, 246

Eidart, 44

Egypt, fossil sea-cows in, 155;

Neolithic man in, 203

Egyptians, ancient, 204

Elba, 230

Elbow of capture, 45

Elephant, 194, 244

Elms, 139

England, minerals of, 227;

rivers of, 46, 47 (fig. 5);

rocks of, 36;

wheat in, 185

English Channel, 107

Erratic blocks, 54

Erzgebirge, 227

Etruria, 223

Euphrates, 170

Eurasiatic race, 206

Europe, civilisation of, 17;

climate of, 98-101;

effect of glacial period on plants of, 77-81;

fauna of, 23, 152-159;

flora of, 78;

forests of, 92, 119, 130-132;

glacial period in, 52, 53;

mountain pastures of, 122;

plant formations of, 154;

position of, 22;

reptiles of, 160;

rodents of, 157;

structure of, 32 (fig. 1), 33-36

Evergreen oak, 127, 129

Feshie river, 43 (fig. 4), 44, 47, 49

Fig, 173

Fir, 132

Fish, 145-150;

of Mediterranean, 149;

of North Sea, 148

Flax, 173, 183, 187, 235

Flamingo, 160

Florida, 77, 139, 141

Forest of Arden, 226

Forest of Dean, 226

Forests, 78, 113-122, 128, 129, 130-132, 134, 135, 136-142, 169,

182, 191, 192, 211, 212, 215, 216, 221, 226, 227, 229

Fowl, 181, 183

Foxes, 155

France, civilisation of, 225;

climate of, 93;

people of, 209;

structure of, 224;

trees of, 118;

use of water power in, 230;

wheat in, 186

French language, 193

Fresh-water fish, 149, 150

Galicia, 200, 201, 223

Garden-culture, 176

Garlic, 173, 176

Garwood, quoted, 65, 68 (fig. 9)

Geese, 181

Geldie burn, 44, 49

Gemmi Pass, 72-74

Gemmiwand, 72

Genet, 159

Geneva, lake of, 193

Genoa, 95

Geography, definition of, 19

Georgia, 35

Germanic race, 196, 210

German language, 193

Germany, cattle of, 178;

minerals of, 227;

people of, 204, 209, 215, 218

Gibraltar, 94, 155

Glacial shelves, 59 (fig. 6), 60 (fig. 7), 61, 122

Glaciers, 51, 57, 73

Gleditschia, 79

Gloucestershire, 226

Gnats, 161, 162

Goats, 130, 178, 179, 188

_Gradin de confluence_, 58

Grasshopper, 165

Grasslands, 114-120, 133

Great Britain, glaciation of, 64;

minerals of, 231;

people of, 202, 203, 204, 209;

rainfall of, 48;

structure of, 33

Great Plains, 138

Greece, cattle in, 178;

people of, 205

Greenland, 238

Guide-books, 14

Gulf of Mexico, 77, 102

Gulf of St. Lawrence, 139

Gulf Stream, 148

Hamster, 158

Hanging valleys, 58, 61

Harz Mountains, 227

Heat equator, 87

Heath, 130, 192

Heather, 133

Hedgehogs, 155, 159

Highlands of Scotland, 62, 200, 211

Himalayas, 32, 33

Hinxman, L., quoted, 44

Holm oak, 127, 129

Honey locust, 79

Horse, 155, 177, 188, 244

Humber, 46

Humboldt, 7, 8

Hungarian plain, 133, 192

Hungary, 169

Hyacinth, 124

Hydrosphere, 20, 21

Iberian peninsula, peoples of, 197, 198 (fig. 13), 199, 205, 218

Iberian race, 200, 205

Ibis, 160

Ice, 51 _et seq._

Ice Age, 79

Iceland, weather of, 110 (fig. 12)

India, agriculture in, 170;

climate of, 96;

cultivated plants from, 174;

fauna of, 153

Insectivores, 155

Insects, 161

Inverness, 44

Iron, 225-231, 233

Isobars, 104 (fig. 10)

Italy, cattle in, 178;

people of, 205, 208;

trees of, 118;

vegetation of, 92

Japan, fauna of, 153;

means of communication in, 242, 243;

trees of, 78

Junction step, 58

Juniper, 133

Kames, 52

Kirghiz, 188

Kandersteg, 72

Labrador, climate of, 102;

current, 148;

vegetation of, 136, 141

Lac de Gaube, 67

Laemmern glacier, 73, 74

Lancashire, 232, 234

Lancaster, 232

Land animals, distribution of, 150 _et seq._

Land, area of, 21

Land hemisphere, 21

Languedoc, 200

Langue d'oc, 198 (fig. 13), 199

Langue d'oeil, 198 (fig. 13), 199

Lapland, 239

Larch, 132, 136

Laurel, 130

Lauterbrunnen valley, 57, 60 (fig. 7)

Lavender, 130

Lemmings, 158

Lemon, 126, 174

Lesser Celandine, 123

Leukerbad, 73

Libyans, 204

Lime, 174

Limes, 139

Lincolnshire, Wolds of, 46

Linen Industry, 235

Liquidambar, 140

Lithosphere, 20, 21

Littoral fauna, 145

Lizards, 161

Llama, 244

Lobsters, 146

Locust, 164, 165

Loire, 187, 223, 224

Lombards, 211

London, 94, 95, 99, 248

London basin, 33

Long-headed races, 203, 208, 217

Low pressure area in N. Atlantic, 88, 105

Lynx, 159

Mackerel, 149

Mackinder, quoted, 238

Maderaner thal, 68 (fig. 9)

Magnolias, 140

Maize, 101, 174, 175

Malaria, 161, 162

Maples, 139

Maquis, 119, 120, 128, 179

Maritime climate, 85, 99, 101

Maritime pine, 129

Marmots, 158

Marseilles, 224

Marsupials, 155

Marten, 159

Mature rivers, 30, 38 (fig. 3), 40, 56

Mediterranean region, cattle in, 177;

civilisation of, 170;

climate of, 85-96;

fauna of, 159;

fishes of, 149;

palms in, 129;

reptiles of, 160;

vegetation of, 123-130

Mediterranean race, 191, 198, 199, 204, 206, 208, 211-218

Meiringen, 57, 67

Mesopotamia, 96, 170, 172

Mexico, 91, 138

Mice, 155, 158

Milan, 247

Millet, 173

Moles, 155, 159

Monkeys, 113, 155

Monotremes, 155

Monsoon countries, 96, 97, 98

Monsoon winds, 102

Moors and heaths, 133

Montrose, 235

Mosquitoes, 161, 162

Moufflon, 156

Mountain chains, origin of, 31-37

Mountain pines, 121

Mulberry, 174

Mule, 177, 244

Musk-ox, 166

Mussels, 146

Myres, quoted, 212, 237

Myrtle, 130

Naples, 95

Narcissus, 124

Negritos, 114

Neolithic man, 201, 202, 203, 204

Newcastle-on-Tyne, 49, 247

New England States, 139

Newfoundland, 148, 149, 238

Nice, 95

Niger, 45

Nordic race, 192, 210, 211, 212, 213, 215, 216

Normal erosion, 51

North America. See America, North

North Pole, 21

North Sea, 106, 148, 149

Norway, people of, 209

Nuts, 176

Oaks, 139

Oak woods, 131, 178

Oats, 172, 186

Oceans, area of, 21

Olive, 126, 127, 171, 172

Orange, 126, 174

Origin of Species, 7, 11

Orinoco, 45

Ouse, 46

Ox, 172

Oysters, 146

Palæarctic region, 154

Palæolithic man, 201, 205

Paris, 94, 95, 99

Paris basin, 33, 36

Passes, 70-75

Pastoral industries, 135, 177

Pastoral nomadism, 179, 180, 189

Pasture lands, 133, 192

Pastures, on mountains, 59 (fig. 6), 60 (fig. 7), 61, 122

Patagonia, 48

Peach, 174, 176

Pears, 176, 184

Peat, 133

Pelagic fauna, 145

Pelasgians, 205

Pelican, 160

Penck, quoted, 212

Peneplain, 48

Pennines, 46, 49

Persia, climate of, 96

Philippines, 114

Philippson, quoted, 177

Phoenicians, 223

Physiological drought, 121

Pigeons, 181

Pigmies, 114

Pigs, 155

Pines, 132

Pistachio, 176

Placental mammals, 23

Plain of Lombardy, 174

Plane, 79

Plant formations, 115, 116

Platanus, 79

Pleistocene, 52, 57

Plough culture, 172

Plums, 176, 184

Pomegranates, 126, 176

Poplars, 136

Porcupines, 158

Portugal, climate of, 89;

rainfall of, 92

Portuguese, 198, 199, 201

Potato, 175, 186

Praying mantis, 164

Prickly pear, 85, 125, 176

Primary epoch, 34, 35, 36

Primates, 155

Prong-buck, 166

Profiles of rivers, 38 (figs. 2, 3), 40

Pulse, 173

Pyrenees, 31, 32, 67, 80, 199, 200

Rabbits, 158

Races of Europe, 197, 249

Raccoons, 153

Railways, 244

Rain forest, 141, 142

Rain-shadow, 138, 185

Rats, 155

Reindeer, 166, 239, 244

Rhine, 73, 74, 158, 193

Rhone valley, in France, 182, 224;

in Switzerland, 42, 72, 73, 74, 189, 190, 193

Ripley, quoted, 197, 198, 199, 210

Ritter, 7, 8

River-capture, 42-49

Roads, 241, 242

Robinia, 79

Rocky Mountains, 102, 120, 138

Rodents, 155, 156

Rosemary, 130

Round-headed race, 206, 207

Round skulls, 202, 206

Running-water, its effect, 28, 37 _et seq._

Russia, minerals of, 228;

people of, 209

Rye, 172, 186

Sagebrush, 138

Sahara, 23, 86, 120, 240

Saiga antelope, 154

Salmon, 149, 150

Saône valley, 209

Saracens, 200

Sardines, 149

Sardinia, 208

Savoy, 209

Scandinavia, barley in, 172;

berries in, 185;

minerals of, 228;

people of, 204, 209, 210;

structure of, 33;

weather of, 110 (fig. 12)

Scotland, glaciation of, 52, 54, 62, 71;

Highlands of, 62, 200;

linen industry in, 235;

Neolithic man in, 203, 206

Scrub, 119, 128, 135, 137, 169, 191

Sea-cows, 155

Seals, 145

Sea-urchins, 146

Secondary period, 34, 35, 36

Seine, 224

Sequoia, 136

Sergi, quoted, 202, 204, 207

Sesame, 173

Shari river, 45

Sheep, 155, 178, 179, 188, 243

Shell-fish, 146

Shrews, 155, 159

Sicily, 203, 208

Sierra Nevada, 138

Silkworms, 174, 181

Silver fir, 132

Simplon Pass, 70, 71

Sion, 193

Skunks, 153

Slave trade, 236

Sledges, 239

Sleeping sickness, 161, 163

Snowdrop, 123

Snow-shoes, 239

Sophora, 79

South America, rodents, of, 156

South Pole, 21

Spain, cattle in, 177;

languages of, 199;

minerals of, 230;

people of, 199, 208;

rainfall of, 86;

structure of, 33, 224;

transhumance in, 179

Spey, 44

Sponges, 146

Spruce, 132, 136

Squirrels, 155, 158

Steam, 244

Step arrangement In Alpine valleys, 67-69 (fig. 9)

Steppes, climate of, 157;

fauna of, 154, 157;

of Asia, 135, 169, 170;

of Europe, 135;

of Hungary, 133;

of Russia, 133;

peoples of, 192

St. Gothard Pass, 70

St. Lawrence, 35

Stoat, 159

Stone Age, 201, 221, 222

Stone pine, 129

Strawberries, 184

Sturgeon, 150

Sugar beet, 174, 186

Sugar-cane, 174

Sudan, 116, 120

Switzerland, cattle in, 178;

pastoral life in, 189

Syria, 165

Tertiary period, 31 (fig. 1), 32, 34, 36

Teutonic race, 192, 210, 218

Théodule Pass, 71

Thun, lake of, 72

Tibet, 244

Tigris, 170

Tin, 222, 223, 224, 225

Tobacco, 175

Torrents, characters of, 37-39

Trade winds, 84, 87, 88, 89

Trails, 240, 241

Transhumance, 179, 189

Tree of Heaven, 78

Tropical forest, 120, 131, 169

Tsetse flies, 161

Tulip, 124

Tundra, 132, 136, 164, 169, 239

Tunny, 149

Turkey, 181

Tyne gap, 47 (fig. 5), 49, 73

Tyrol, 62

Uganda, 163

Ungulates, 155, 156, 157

United States, cotton of, 234;

flora of, 140, 141;

numbers of hoofed animals in, 243, 244;

people of, 217;

rainfall of, 102;

structure of, 35, 36;

survey work in, 14;

trees of, 78, 79;

weather of, 107

U-shaped valleys, 57, 61, 64

Vienna, temperature of, 99

Vilaine, 223

Vine, 126, 127, 171, 172, 173, 183, 187, 190

Visp, 42

Voles, 158

V-shaped valleys, 55

Wales, 54, 197, 200

Waterfalls, 40, 41, 56, 58, 60

Water hemisphere, 21

Water power, 58, 69, 230

Watersheds, shifting of, 47

Water transport, 236-238

Weald, 226

Weasel, 159

Weather, 103 _et seq._

Weathering, 46, 51

Wellingtonia, 136

Welsh, 211

Weymouth pine, 139

Whales, 145

Wheat, 126, 138, 139, 171, 172, 182, 183, 185

Whitefish, 150

Whortleberries, 185

Wild boar, 156

Wild cat, 159

Wild horse, 166

Wild sheep, 156, 166

Willows, 136

Wine, 183, 187, 190

Winter gulf of warmth, 206

Wood anemone, 123

Woodland, 115, 116;