otherwise injuriously affected by the mercury; but I believe no like
effects are experienced in the mines. The ore is found irregularly
distributed in the hills a little more than a mile from the smelting
works. The vein is very irregular; in fact, it is less a vein than
a series of chambers. The mine is entered through a level, which
extends twelve hundred feet into the hill. Side galleries are
excavated on the line of deposits, and sometimes they follow these
deposits four or five hundred feet. The earthquake of 1865 opened up
several new chambers in the rock, and gave an increased value to the
property—about the only property which an earthquake was ever known
to benefit. Most of the laborers in these mines are of Indian or
Spanish origin. They have a chapel in the mine, similar to chapels
which are fitted up in the mines of Catholic countries all over the
world. The chambers of the mine are occasionally used for _fêtes_ and
celebrations, and at such times are quite interesting.
[Sidenote: EXTENT OF THE PRODUCTION.]
The quantity of quicksilver produced annually at the New Almaden
mine is about two million pounds. Sometimes it falls short of this
amount, and sometimes exceeds it; but the production is largely in
the control of the managers, and they can raise or lower it almost at
will. The stock of this company has been the subject of a great deal
of speculation in Wall Street. Some men have made money by it, and
others have lost. The speculations in it have been so extensive that
it has become a sort of financial football, which prudent people would
do well to let alone.
The New Idria mine was opened subsequently to the opening of the New
Almaden mine. The mercury of New Almaden had driven that of Spain from
all the American markets, and fairly controlled the world. The mine at
Idria, together with mines at other places in California, produced a
comparatively small amount, so that the market of the New Almaden mine
was not seriously affected.
A universal system is followed over the entire globe, so far as the
packages in which mercury is placed are concerned. The Almaden mines
of Spain adopted the plan of enclosing the mercury in iron flasks,
containing seventy-six and one half pounds, and the example is
followed elsewhere. Sometimes half flasks and quarter flasks are made;
but the standard of seventy-six and a half pounds for a whole flask is
universally maintained.
[Sidenote: HOW MERCURY IS USED.]
The greatest consumers of mercury are the Chinese, not physically,
or for mechanical or chemical purposes. The Chinese use a great many
paints, and especially red ones. As a natural consequence, quicksilver
enters largely into their composition. Other uses of quicksilver
are in the extraction of silver and gold from their ores in the
amalgamating process, and also for coating or silvering the backs of
mirrors. Mercury is employed in the construction of philosophical
instruments, and is preferred to other fluids for filling thermometers
and barometers. It is used in medicine to a considerable extent; and
doubtless many of my readers are familiar with it. Its most general
form is in what is known as the blue pill. Nearly all physicians
prescribe it, but they always enjoin great caution in its use. One
celebrated medical writer says, “Few medicines produce such a marked
sense of depression, both mentally and bodily, as mercury, even of
ordinary doses; and when the system is brought thoroughly under its
influences, the effects become distressing.”
XXXVII.
GUANO AND THE COOLIE TRADE.
GUANO AND ITS CHARACTER.—WHERE IT IS FOUND.—THE CHINCHA ISLANDS
AND THEIR WEALTH.—NOVEL PLANS OF THE PERUVIANS.—HOW THEY DIG AND
LOAD GUANO.—EFFECT OF GUANO ON A STRANGER.—JARVIS’S AND HOWLAND’S
ISLANDS.—THE COOLIES AND THEIR LABOR.—STORIES OF HORRIBLE
CRUELTIES.—HOW THE ASIATIC SLAVE TRADE IS CONDUCTED.—MUTINY ON
SHIPBOARD.—MURDER OF THE CREW.—HUMAN MINCE MEAT.—TREATMENT OF
COOLIES AT WORK.—EXTENT OF THE COOLIE TRAFFIC.—PROBABLE FATE OF
MISSING SHIPS.
The exhausting effect of agriculture, in many localities, renders it
necessary to furnish the soil with enriching materials. From time
immemorial, use has been made of the excrement of animals, of deposits
in bogs and swamps, where vegetable matter has decayed, and of various
mineral substances known to contain ingredients nutritious to growing
plants. An important ingredient of nearly all manures is the substance
known as ammonia, which is contained in large quantities in the
excrement of birds. Any farmer will tell you that the space beneath
his hen-roost furnishes a material more valuable, pound by pound,
than any other part of his barn-yard establishment. In some parts of
the world the excrement of birds is found in large quantities, but
these places are few in number, for the reason that they are only
in districts where there is no rain. In localities subject to rain,
although the birds may be numerous, the valuable material is washed
away, or, at all events, is so greatly reduced in quality as to render
it worthless or nearly so.
[Sidenote: THE CHINCHA ISLANDS.]
The great deposits of bird excrement, popularly known as guano, are
in tropical regions, the most important of them being at the Chincha
Islands, which are situated in the Pacific Ocean, near the coast
of Peru, in latitude 13° 38´ south, longitude 76° 28´ west. They
are three in number, and are small, rocky, and perfectly dry. They
appear to have been formed by separate inundations of lava under great
pressure, and are composed of a gray and reddish colored rock that in
some places presents a perpendicular wall three hundred feet above
the surface of the ocean. The islands have a wild and picturesque
appearance. Immense flocks of sea-birds are constantly flying around
them. The walls of the islands are full of caves and arches, some of
them very high, and the beating of the waves in the caves and arches
can be heard a long distance.
The islands are small, no one of them being more than a mile in
length. The total amount of guano upon them is estimated at forty
millions of tons. It has been accumulating during thousands of years.
In some places the depth is estimated at more than a hundred feet,
and over nearly all the extent of the islands it is rarely at a depth
of less than sixty feet. The value of guano was well known to the
Peruvians of ancient times, and these immense deposits were specially
cared for by the government. By command of the Incas of Peru no person
was allowed, under penalty of death, to visit the islands during the
breeding season of the birds, and the same penalty was inflicted upon
those who killed birds at any time of the year.
According to the histories, five hundred years were required for the
formation of a single inch in thickness of guano; consequently, the
time required for the formation of a layer of guano a hundred feet
thick must be something more than the period of life allotted to
Methusaleh, or any of his contemporaries.
[Sidenote: FIRST IMPORTATION OF GUANO.]
The attention of Europe was first called to guano in 1804, by the
great traveller Humboldt. He caused the substance to be analyzed,
and found that it was composed of phosphates of ammonia, lime, and
urate and oxalate of ammonia, together with other organic matters
not determined. A few years later further attention was called to it
by Sir Humphry Davy, who suggested that it might prove valuable to
farmers; and it was soon after tried at St. Helena. The first shipment
ever brought to Europe was in 1840, and consisted of twenty casks. It
was tried, and found useful; and the next year several cargoes were
taken to England, and several more to the United States. The exclusive
right of digging and shipping guano for the term of nine years was
sold at this time, by the government, for forty thousand dollars;
but it was repudiated soon after, as the increased demand for guano
developed its immense value. The monopoly was, however, revived in a
little while, one firm being allowed the exclusive trade with England,
and another with the United States. The demand increased so rapidly
that a great many ships went into the carrying trade, and sometimes as
many as two hundred ships have been waiting at the Chincha Islands for
their cargoes.
Explorations were made for other deposits, and some rich ones were
found on the Lobos Islands, off the north coast of Peru. A great many
smaller islands were found to be covered with guano, and in various
parts of the Pacific Ocean there are extensive deposits. The most
important of these are upon Jarvis’s, Baker’s, and Howland’s Islands,
situated in the South Pacific Ocean, belonging to a New York company,
and named after American merchants interested in them. Jarvis’s Island
was estimated a few years ago to contain nearly four millions of tons;
the quantity on Baker’s and Howland’s Islands was not determined.
To show the rapid increase in the demand for guano, it may be
mentioned that, in the year 1841, six thousand five hundred tons were
exported from the Chincha Islands, and in the five following years,
one hundred and twenty-seven thousand tons were exported,—or an
average of more than thirty-five thousand tons a year.
In 1849 the exports of guano were nearly a hundred thousand tons,
and from 1852 to 1857 the yearly average was more than two hundred
thousand tons.
[Sidenote: NATURE OF GUANO.]
The value of guano varies according to the demand, but is ordinarily
fixed at about seventy dollars a ton. It is sufficiently valuable
to induce enterprising men to adulterate it; and more than half the
guano sold in England and the United States is said to be mixed
with inferior substances before it reaches the consumer. Nearly all
dealers who purchase large quantities require a careful analysis of
samples before they close their bargains. The analysis of guano is
very desirable for the farmer, in order to indicate the best method of
applying the fertilizer, and to ascertain for what crops and to what
soils each kind is best adapted. For example, some soils might be most
benefited by the Peruvian guano, which contains large quantities of
ammonia; while others would be most benefited by the cheap qualities,
which contain larger quantities of phosphate. Full details respecting
the guano trade and the use of guano are contained in the document
accompanying the message of the President of the United States to the
Senate, February 5th, 1859.
Another locality where guano is found is in the Caribbean Sea, near
the coast of Venezuela; but the islands containing this guano are in
the region of tropical rains, and consequently the substance formed
there is quite different in character from the dry, pulverized guano
of the Chincha Islands. Some of these Caribbean islands are low, and
covered with sand, shells, and other substances, in which the birds
lay their eggs. Others rise in peaks to the height of several hundred
feet; and on these peaks there are rocky layers which have been formed
from guano. These rocky layers contain large quantities of phosphate
and carbonate of lime. Other layers contain very little carbonate and
a larger proportion of phosphate. Another variety is a solid rock,
which forms a crust sometimes two feet thick, and consists mainly
of phosphate and sulphate of lime. The evaporation of the ammonia
and similar substances renders this rock porous, and has led many
to believe that it was of volcanic origin. The heat and moisture of
the surface have made wonderful changes in the organic substances or
deposits of these islands; though the formation of these rocks can
be directly traced to the excrement of birds and the remains of the
birds themselves, all vestiges of animal life have disappeared, and
the substance presents all the characteristics of a metamorphic rock,
dug from the base of a volcanic mountain.
The work of handling guano is not the most delightful in the world;
especially is this the case at Chincha Islands, where the air is dry,
and the guano is in the form of dust, or of a hard material which
easily separates into dust. Guano has a very pungent character, and
causes the eyes to inflame, and sometimes deprives them altogether of
the power of sight.
[Sidenote: NORTH, SOUTH, AND MIDDLE ISLANDS.]
As before stated, the Chincha Islands number three only, and are known
as North Island, South Island, and Middle Island. The Middle Island is
the most important, not only for having the largest quantity of guano
upon it, but also for being the residence of the commander and deputy
commander of the three islands. The palace of the commander is rather
an imposing building of its character; and at a little distance stands
that of the deputy commander. This is more modest and unpretending in
architecture, being nothing more nor less than what Americans would
term a flat-roofed shanty, constructed of cane and rush matting.
The average height of the rock which is the sub-strata of the island,
is from one hundred and fifty to two and three hundred feet; and upon
these rocks lie the guano as upon a scaffolding or platform rising
out of the sea. The guano on this island lies on what may be termed
a smooth, rounded mound, and is in some parts about one hundred and
sixty feet thick. More than forty acres have been cut away from the
side of the hill nearest to the vessels on which the guano is shipped.
The birds which live and die upon these islands are principally of
the Photo-Huenco species, and resemble blue and white pigeons with
red bills. The white birds keep themselves separate from the blue,
and hundreds of acres of land are completely covered with them. In
addition to these, there are a number of sea-lions also to be found
on these islands, which contribute somewhat to the quantity of
ammonia created by the birds. Eggs and wings of birds, and teeth of
sea-lions, are seen in abundance changed into ammonia in each and
every part of the islands.
[Sidenote: WALKING IN GUANO.]
The guano, when exposed to the air, is of a reddish brown-yellow
color, which covers the whole of the three islands, and nothing else
is to be seen but the rocks on which it rests. In substance it is like
light, dry earth, and is very difficult to walk upon. Frequently one
finds himself sinking ankle and knee deep; and should you attempt to
hurry, you are almost sure to lose your footing. Should you fall and
get covered with this ammonia, it matters but little, as it is pure,
and contains no animal substance to make it disagreeable. If you
penetrate a few feet below the surface of the ammonia, it is found to
be perfectly compact, and not unlike castile soap.
The men employed to dig the guano are Chinese. They have a very hard
time of it; and in addition to being hard worked, they are very badly
treated. Close to the residence of the deputy commander a number of
the coolies are engaged digging out the guano for shipment. The gang
is superintended by the most unfeeling task-masters, who apply the
lash very freely to the naked backs of the workmen on the slightest
pretence. It is by no means an unfrequent occurrence to see half a
dozen coolies lying about the scene of operations dead, or in their
last throes of agony; and not the slightest sympathy is extended
to them in their suffering. Bodies are left exposed all day in the
open sun, where they may be found covered with flies or vermin; and
sometimes in a few hours there are large holes in these bodies, pecked
by hundreds of birds.
At the edge of the principal cutting on Middle Island, coolies are
found working with their pickaxes, while others convey the guano in
barrows to the side of the cliff where the vessels are in readiness to
receive it.
There are about fifteen hundred men constantly engaged in cutting out
the guano. As above stated, these men are coolies, and the overseers
are negroes, stationed at short distances apart, and provided with
heavy whips. The coolies work with no other covering than a thin
pair of pantaloons. As they are lashed by their task-masters, their
cries are painful. The officers are frequently eye-witnesses of these
tortures, but give them very little attention.
[Sidenote: TASKS OF THE COOLIES.]
As soon as the guano is dug up, it is carted to the depot or open
enclosures called the Margueras, and thence to the launches or
vessels. These margueras are made of strong canes, resembling a
palisade round a prison, and are supported by chain cables. In some
parts of the islands, when the distance is far from the depot, the
guano is conveyed there in cars drawn by donkeys, but generally the
coolies have to wheel it themselves. Each man is expected to dig and
wheel five tons of guano per day, and if he does not do this amount of
work, he is severely flogged in the presence of his fellow-workmen at
the close of the day’s labor. The extent of punishment is always left
to the discretion of the task-masters, who appear to be destitute of
mercy. The men are paid one real (twelve and a half cents) per day,
and their rice; but should their task not be completed, in addition to
the flogging, the defaulter has part of his wages deducted.
While at work they are compelled to wear thick bandages over their
mouths, owing to the strength of the ammonia. When the guano is
wheeled to the depot, it is pushed down to the lower end of the
margueras, where there are a number of openings connected with shutes,
or long canvas pipes. These shutes are about the size of an ordinary
barrel, and lead down to the base of the hill or cliff, and then into
the vessels.
Sometimes the ships are loaded from the side, the guano being hoisted
in bags; but this process of loading occupies too much time, and is
never resorted to except in cases of necessity. When the guano is
poured directly into the hold, a vessel can be loaded in a day or two;
whereas, by hoisting it in, it occupies as long as two or three weeks
to make up a cargo.
While the ships are being loaded,—and generally there are a large
number at the same time,—they present a very interesting appearance.
An ordinary visitor would at first imagine that they were on fire,
owing to the yellow smoke or dust which rises during the loading.
The air is so thoroughly impregnated with the ammonia that at times
one might reasonably think he had a bottle of strong hartshorn under
his nose, and most people suffer much from the effect it has upon
their eyes and lungs. It has often been the subject of remark how the
coolies can stand this great tax upon their eyes and lungs daily,
particularly when they are so hard worked. The digging of guano is
much harder than that of ordinary railway digging and mining work.
When a vessel has received its full cargo, there is a little
rejoicing, and the men are permitted to leave their work for a short
time. One of the crew of the loaded vessel goes to the yard-arm in a
tub; three cheers are given by all the other ships, and their guns are
discharged.
[Sidenote: HOURS OF LABOR.]
The coolie laborers are required to work every day in the week,
Sundays included, excepting those laborers under the immediate charge
of the commander. If there is a rush in getting the vessels loaded,
and it becomes necessary for his men to work on Sunday, he pays them
extra for their labor; but it is not so with the other laborers.
[Illustration : ATTEMPT TO BURN A COOLIE SHIP.]
On the islands there are several rude huts, where reside doctors,
overseers, and nondescripts of various sorts. There are also several
groceries, cooking stores, candy shops, and various sheds, which
present a picture of a small village of hovels.
The men complain that they have no protection afforded them, and their
emaciated appearance goes to show that they are not over fed, and are
badly used.
There is hardly a laborer to be found on the whole islands without
large welts on his back, made by the thongs of the task-master. The
men present a striking similarity to a used-up horse, their bones
almost protruding through their skin. The small pittance that these
coolies earn is kept from them, and when one of them has served the
time mentioned in his contract, he finds his master has a claim
against him for luxuries supplied during his term of service, and
being unable to pay him, he has to resume work, as before.
Few get any rest whatever, and they may be said to live and die like
dogs. No women are allowed among them, and being thus deprived of
feminine society, in addition to their other sufferings, many commit
suicide, believing that their spirits will wake in their native land.
[Sidenote: INCEPTION OF THE COOLIE TRADE.]
The history of the coolie trade may be found interesting in this
connection.
In the year 1847, a Portuguese vessel, named the Don Pedro, was in
the port of Macao, China, waiting for a cargo. The captain found that
it would be several months before a new crop of tea would come in,
and consequently he would be obliged to wait some time before his
ship could be loaded. While loitering about Macao he fell in with a
Spaniard who had come over from Peru on business, and the conversation
happened to turn on the cheapness of labor in China. It occurred to
the Spaniard that it would be a good thing to take a thousand Chinese
to Peru, and finally it was decided to attempt to load the Don Pedro
with these men. Whether they made any contract with the coolies is not
known, and probably will never be ascertained. Three hundred men were
engaged ostensibly for Java, and on the 1st of June, 1847, they sailed
from Macao, supposing they were going to Java, but really destined for
Peru.
The ship was steered across the Pacific, and after a voyage of more
than a hundred days, with a great many vicissitudes, on very short
allowance of food and water, the coolies were landed in Peru. Owing
to some misunderstanding and some difficulty about the contract,
this first consignment was not taken to the Chincha Islands, but was
placed on a plantation near Callao. They had been secured for five
years’ labor, and the Spaniard who brought them from China disposed of
his merchandise to such good advantage that he immediately returned
for another cargo. Not only did he go for another cargo, but for
several cargoes, and the story of his success, and the advantages to
be obtained by coolie labor, spread rapidly through South America,
Australia, and other parts of the world.
[Sidenote: HOW THE TRADE WAS CONDUCTED.]
The trade increased with wonderful rapidity. Rumors went about in
China that the coolies were taken to the other side of the world,
and were murdered as soon as their labor contract was ended. In
consequence of this rumor it was difficult to obtain men voluntarily,
and the dealers were obliged to buy or steal men. A system very much
like the African slave trade, with a few additional horrors, speedily
grew up.
The Portuguese and Spanish traders at Macao established slave pens,
like those in Africa, and bought men and women just as they might buy
cattle. Bands of robbers went into the country, seized the men at work
or at their houses, bound and forced them into boats, took them to
Macao, and sold them. Robbers infested the mountains, stealing men in
preference to anything else. Sometimes fathers and mothers sold their
sons, and sometimes an enterprising youth brought his able-bodied
father to market, sold him to a trader, and went home with a fortune
of ten dollars in his pocket.
The price varied from five to ten dollars a head. Sometimes there was
a scarcity in the market, and prices advanced; and then again would
come a “bear” movement; large quantities would be offered, and prices
went down.
Chinese junks, known as lorchas, were sent up the bays and rivers to
bring away the marketable inhabitants of the rural districts. From
Macao the traffic was carried to other ports, so that five years after
the first voyage of the Don Pedro, vessels were waiting for cargoes of
coolies at half a dozen ports.