The same principle holds good for the strategical disposition. The
old Cavalry Drill Regulations laid down that the strength of the
cavalry division was to remain concentrated until the enemy's cavalry
had been driven from the field. This considerably over-stepped the
bounds of restriction usually imposed by regulation, and at the same
time fettered the freedom of movement of the cavalry in a way that,
under certain circumstances, might have become most harmful. The
new Regulations have left out these directions and indeed lay down
that, in the "advance to the fight," efforts must be made to reunite
columns that are advancing separated before collision with the enemy
takes place (413).[6] Here is expressed a principle which, if rightly
understood, is certainly justified, but which, on the other hand, might
give rise to misunderstandings.
It must first be pointed out that it is by no means always desirable to
unite columns that are separate before the fight. It may, for example,
very easily happen that a detachment in favourable country will be
able to occupy a superior force of the enemy, and thus, by remaining
dispersed, ensure superiority at the decisive point. If, however,
by the "concentration of columns" a natural approach is understood,
which ensures a concentric co-operation of divided groups against a
common enemy whose direction of march is more or less known, then the
principle is an excellent one. If, on the other hand, it is intended
that single columns should be so closely concentrated that the division
as a tactical whole can be thrown into the fight, it appears to me
that it goes too far, and might easily lead to harmful dogmatism.
Thus read, the regulation appears to me to be the more dangerous, as
exercises in a limited space encourage the concentrated employment
of the larger cavalry bodies in the fight, and their approach and
deployment from formations of assembly or intermediate formations, for
which brigade columns are usually chosen.
It must be remembered that it is always much more difficult and
dangerous in the presence of the enemy to separate a cavalry mass for
the fight than to concentrate it from a not too wide separation for
common action against the enemy. In the first case the danger must be
run of surrendering "the proud rights of the initiative" to the enemy,
and of being obliged to attack eccentrically; while in the second case
one is in possession of the exterior lines, and, with them, the most
favourable directions for attack.
The regulation quoted should therefore result only exceptionally
in a complete tactical concentration. The wish, however, to fight
concentrated must never lead to a concentrated advance unless
circumstances dictate such an operation as practical. Leaders of the
large reconnoitring bodies will have, rather, continually to consider
how they may best fulfil the task of the moment in the most practical
way without allowing themselves to be bound by preconceived theoretical
views. This must be their course of action, and will often enough lead
to the advance in separate columns. The breadth of reconnaissance-zones
will often demand such procedure.
Along the whole front, troops must be in a position to support the
reconnoitring bodies which have been pushed forward. This will not
always be possible from a single point on account of the distances
involved. It will at times be necessary to break through the
hostile screen when it is met by force of arms, without first being
able to judge where this can most easily or most advantageously be
accomplished. Again, complete information will not perhaps be to hand
of the presence and the direction of march of the hostile cavalry, so
that the concentration of force upon a single road will not appear
at all desirable. It must also be borne in mind that the masses of
cavalry have not only to act as fighting bodies, but at the same time
to play an important part in the system of obtaining information.
Communication must be maintained with the Head Quarters, as well as
with the reconnoitring squadrons and certain independent patrols. In
the latter case particularly, great difficulties will often arise. A
cavalry leader must continually ask himself which is the shortest and
safest means of communication with the reconnoitring organs on the one
hand and with the army following him on the other, and how it can be
maintained when hostile detachments pervade the intervening country.
All these are circumstances which would lead to the adoption of an
advance in separate columns.
The universal principle must always hold good for cavalry, that when
a decisive struggle is in prospect all possible strength must be
concentrated for it. On the other hand, it must be perfectly clearly
understood that in a future war many varied and often contradictory
demands will be made upon the arm. It will not always be possible
to meet them all from the one point of view--that of uniting all
possible strength before the commencement of a fight; the less so as
in reconnaissance the fight is only the means to an end, the knowledge
of the enemy being the essential. It remains for the genius of the
leader to make his preparations in full freedom, and to solve the
task confided to him in his own way. To hamper active operations by
regulation is always a great evil.
The danger which lies in separation of force is not so great for
cavalry as might appear at first sight, on account of the mobility and
adaptability of the arm. For, although the Regulations lay down that
on account of the rapid conduct of a cavalry fight the concentration
of separate columns upon the field of battle can but seldom be
successfully accomplished, this view can only be admitted in the case
of the mounted combat. I am of opinion that it cannot be so difficult
under ordinarily favourable circumstances to bring about such a
concentration. With reliable reconnaissance early intelligence of the
presence of the hostile cavalry should be to hand. It should then be
often still possible to concentrate the separate columns according to
circumstances, either forwards, backwards, or to a flank, and finally
to unite them for the fight with sufficient room and time, and in an
effective direction for attack. If, however, a portion of the advancing
cavalry mass should come into unforeseen collision with superior
hostile cavalry, it must fall back in a direction which will lead to
concentration of force. In order gradually to lead up to, and at the
right time to achieve, such a concentration from a divided advance,
without falling into the error of a too close tactical concentration,
presupposes that the leader is an artist in the conduct of his arm.
Such an undertaking is much easier where not only mounted combat, but
fire action is taken into consideration. In such a case that detachment
which comes first into collision with the enemy would be able to defend
itself in some strong position or behind some naturally defensible
locality until the rest of the main body came up.
Good communication between the several portions is in all such cases an
important factor. If necessary it must be effected by the help of the
guns. Generally speaking, it will facilitate and prepare communication
if the separately advancing columns are kept informed as to the rate of
march, so that each column can at any moment calculate where the others
will be in a given time if nothing unforeseen occurs. This also enables
information to be sent by the shortest route to points which can to a
certain extent be previously determined.
The arrangements for the advance form at the same time the foundation
for the action of the actual reconnoitring organs and the complete
establishment of the reconnaissance system. Directions for this will be
found in the "Field Service Manual." It is laid down that reconnoitring
squadrons will be pushed forward from the various groups of the army
cavalry, and will be allotted zones of reconnaissance in the direction
of the enemy. The reconnaissance itself will be carried out by patrols.
The breadth of these zones must continually alter according to
circumstances.
If it be necessary to reconnoitre on a broad front with a comparatively
weak cavalry, very wide zones will often be necessary. On the other
hand, the closer the system of reconnoitring squadrons can be
established, the more reliable the manner in which reconnaissance will
be carried out, and the easier will it be to hamper the enemy's efforts
at gaining intelligence. If the "Field Service Manual" lays down a
certain breadth as normal, this naturally only indicates that, under
ordinary circumstances, squadrons on a wider front would no longer be
in a position to carry out their duties to the full; nothing more.
The frontages laid down should never lead either to the perceptible
weakening of the fighting value of a force by sending forward too many
reconnoitring bodies, or, on the other hand, to the inability of the
reconnoitring organs to cover the space demanded by the strategical
situation. A well-considered allotment of areas is therefore of special
importance, and a matter for the higher leader to decide. For the
arrangements for reconnaissance inside the zone apportioned to him, the
squadron leader is, on the other hand, correspondingly responsible. It
is at the same time laid down that no squadron should interfere in a
neighbouring zone.
Although in these measures the principles for the reconnaissance may be
sought, it must be clearly understood _that the original allotment of
zones cannot always hold good_. This arrangement is only practicable
and suitable so long as the opposing armies are frontally approaching
each other. As soon as the directions of march form an angle with each
other the conditions alter.
When information has been obtained as to the enemy's position and that
the direction of his advance is not directly at right angles to our
front, or if the direction of march of our own army changes, it may
be necessary to make repeated changes in the zones of reconnaissance.
The manner in which this can best be done is a matter which experience
alone can show us. The change of zones will often be possible in
conjunction with the recall of detached squadrons and the sending
forward of fresh ones in a new direction, or during the relief of
reconnoitring squadrons.
When the gradual advance of the hostile army takes place and the army
cavalry endeavours to clear the front and to draw away to a flank, or
when the columns of both armies group themselves for the tactical
decision and concentrate more or less from their march formations, the
allotment of zones must utterly fail.
An allotment of zones, also, cannot always be recommended, that is
to say, not where it can be foreseen that it cannot be carried into
operation. Such a case might happen if an enemy moved across the front
on a more or less distinct flank march. The reconnoitring squadrons
would, perhaps, in such a case be better employed in keeping touch with
the various groups of the hostile army than by tying themselves down to
a systematic reconnaissance in zones.
The conditions of war are everywhere so changing and full of movement
that a single concrete scheme will never suffice, but each case must
be judged upon its own merits. The allotment into zones, therefore,
laid down in the "Field Service Manual" must be regarded as but a
foundation for the methods to be adopted, and will perhaps only attain
its full effect during the first concentration of opposing armies,
when the hostile groups deploy along a land frontier on a wide front.
During operations the original scheme must of necessity be subjected to
continual alterations and transformations.
Let us now further consider the relief of reconnoitring squadrons. It
is out of the question that such squadrons should remain continually
in touch with the enemy. Such a procedure would very soon paralyse the
strength of men and horses. The relief, however, cannot, naturally, be
arranged and carried out at any given moment. It requires preparation,
as the whole patrol system must be drawn in and replaced by a fresh
one. The relief will doubtless best take place after a great tactical
crisis. At such times the reconnoitring squadrons will partly have
been driven back on to the cavalry mass, and partly will be in
position with their patrols near them in flank and rear of the enemy,
whence they can be comparatively easily brought in. A great tactical
decision also which creates a new situation demands fresh measures for
reconnaissance and a different arrangement of the reconnoitring organs.
Whether it will then be possible to mathematically divide the ground
into sections need not here be decided.
Under certain circumstances it will be advisable to detail
reconnoitring squadrons to watch the various groups of the hostile
army. If we take the campaign of 1870 as an example of a concrete
case, the battles of Spicheren, Mars la Tour, and Gravelotte afforded
natural periods for the relief of reconnoitring squadrons and the fresh
allotment of reconnoitring zones for the First and Second Armies, and
later the battle of Sedan. For the Third Army, first of all, the battle
of Wörth. Cases may of course occur when the reconnoitring period
between the battles is too long, and a relief becomes necessary in the
interim. The case of the Third Army is a good example of this.
A reconnaissance from Wörth to Sedan could never have been carried out
by the same reconnoitring squadron. A relief was absolutely necessary.
According to my judgment, the best time for this would have been the
days during which the great wheel of the Third Army towards the north
was completed. During these days fresh reconnoitring squadrons would
have had to be thrown forward in the new line of march, while those
which had advanced in the original direction could, according to the
situation, have been gradually drawn in. Strong patrols would have been
sufficient in that direction.
In any case it is clear that the question of the relief of
reconnoitring squadrons is extremely important and cannot be solved by
routine. It is a matter for consideration whether it would not be of
advantage for the "Field Service Manual" to touch on these questions as
well as on the circumstances under which a departure from the system
of allotment of zones might be desirable. I am inclined to think this
desirable, as otherwise the extremely practical dispositions therein
laid down are apt to lead to a lifeless formalism.
The important service of transmission will naturally be deeply
influenced by all these conditions.
I have already expressed the opinion that the importance of this
service with regard to the increased extent of the reconnoitring rayons
may even lead the main body of a division, for example, to advance in
separate columns, in order to shorten the routes of information and to
afford a not too distant support for the reconnoitring organs. The Head
Quarters will often be more quickly informed if the news comes direct
from detachments themselves than if it had first to be collected at one
point.
If it has become so necessary to accelerate the service of
communication, it is all the more so to ensure that the system of
reports should be properly ordered. In the main body of the army
cavalry it is a matter of keeping up communication on the one hand with
the army following, on the other with the advanced squadrons. In both
these respects the application of technical means of communication must
be considered before all else.
Communication to the rear is fundamentally the task of wireless
telegraphy. But the system of information to the front must be
otherwise arranged for.
Communication with the reconnoitring squadrons can practically never
be carried out by wireless telegraphy. Here efforts must be made to
work with the light-signal apparatus,[7] or to employ cyclists or relay
lines to facilitate and accelerate the service of transmission. A
combination of all these means, and the use of the cavalry telegraph,
if need be, will be found advisable. In friendly country the population
can often be used to keep up communication or to send messages.
The employment of single cyclists or motor-cars is, on the other hand,
not advisable. Without taking into account the fact that they are tied
to the roads, and, having no fighting value, will often fall an easy
prey to the enemy, technical defects occur so often in the machines
that they cannot be classed as a reliable means of communication,
particularly in hostile country. Should the distance between the
reconnoitring squadrons and the main body become very great, or if
circumstances arise which render direct communication between them
too long a matter, or if it is desired to provide several avenues
of communication, a collecting station can be formed for reports:
this will keep up connection, and must be secured by a detachment of
sufficient strength. It is erroneous to assume that such collecting
stations must always be used. They often operate very unfavourably,
especially when armies are on the move, as they are for the most part
very local, and then do more harm than good.
If there is a sufficient number of apparatus at disposal, and if the
collecting stations are sufficiently secured, an effort should be made
to establish wireless communication from them to the rear--a cipher
being of course used to prevent the enemy learning the contents of
messages. Otherwise the various means available must be suited to the
particular case, and used in combination.
The system of communications thus forms a complicated machine, formed
of technical and natural methods of transmission of great variety, that
will be difficult to maintain in an efficient state, especially when an
army is on the move.
It is obvious that these difficulties must be augmented during the
change of reconnoitring zones or the relief of reconnoitring squadrons.
It will often be worth while to establish the system of intelligence in
a new direction, while the available apparatus and telegraphs are still
in part maintained on the old lines. Only some "system of auxiliaries"
will meet these difficulties; only troops to whom this service has
been entrusted down to the smallest detail will be able to discover
these auxiliaries and properly employ them. Otherwise the service of
information must miscarry.