be present yesterday, on account of illness, and I now request
permission to register my name in favor of the resolution adopting the
meridian of Greenwich as the prime meridian.
The PRESIDENT. The Delegate of Salvador, Mr. BATRES, informs the Chair
that he was not able to be present yesterday, on account of illness,
and he desires that his name may be recorded as voting for the
meridian of Greenwich. If there be no objection to the request of the
Delegate to Salvador, his vote will be so entered.
No objection being made, the President instructed the Secretary to
make the proper entry in the protocol.
The PRESIDENT. The Delegate of Spain, Mr. PASTORIN, has withdrawn his
amendment, and the Delegate of Sweden, Count LEWENHAUPT, has also
withdrawn the amendment which he offered to the resolution of the
Delegate of the United States, Mr. RUTHERFURD. The resolution
originally offered will now be read.
The Secretary then read the resolution, as follows:
"_Resolved_, That from this meridian [_i.e._, the meridian
of Greenwich] longitude shall be counted in two directions
up to 180 degrees, east longitude being plus, and west
longitude minus."
Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain, representing the
Dominion of Canada. I wish to offer some observations on the
resolution before the Conference, but I am unable to separate the
particular question from the general question. To my mind, longitude
and time are so related that they are practically inseparable, and
when I consider longitude, my thoughts naturally revert to time, by
which it is measured. I trust, therefore, I may be permitted to extend
my remarks somewhat beyond the immediate scope of the resolution. I
agree with those who think that longitude should be reckoned in one
direction only, and I am disposed to favor a mode of notation
differing in other respects from that commonly followed.
If a system of universal time be brought into use, advantages would
result from having the system of time and the system of terrestrial
longitude in complete harmony. The passage of time is continuous, and,
therefore, I think longitude should be reckoned continuously. To
convey my meaning fully, however, it is necessary that I should enter
into explanations at some length.
Ten days back I ventured informally to place my views, with a series
of recommendations on this subject, before the delegates. I hope I may
now be permitted to submit them to the Conference.
The PRESIDENT. The Chair would inquire of the Conference whether the
recommendations and remarks which were sent in print to the Delegates
a few days ago by Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, the Delegate of Great Britain,
may be entered upon the protocol as presented to-day. Each member was,
it is understood, furnished with a copy of these papers.
Mr. TUPPER, Delegate of Chili. The Delegates of Chili have not
received them.
The PRESIDENT. The Chair will take care that they are sent.
No objection was made to the request of the Delegate of Great Britain,
Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, who continued as follows:
The adoption of a Prime Meridian, common to all nations, admits of the
establishment of a system of reckoning time equally satisfactory to
our reason and our necessities.
At present we are without such a system. The mode of notation followed
by common usage from time immemorial, whatever its applicability to
limited areas, when extended to a vast continent, with a net-work of
lines of railway and telegraph, has led to confusion and created many
difficulties. Further, it is insufficient for the purposes of
scientific investigation, so marked a feature of modern inquiry.
Taking the globe as a whole, it is not now possible precisely to
define when a year or a month or a week begins. There is no such
interval of time as the commonly defined day everywhere and
invariable. By our accepted definition, a day is local; it is limited
to a single meridian. At some point on the earth's surface one day is
always at its commencement and another always ending. Thus, while the
earth makes one diurnal revolution, we have continually many days in
different stages of progress on our planet.
Necessarily the hours and minutes partake of this normal irregularity.
Clocks, the most perfect in mechanism, disagree if they differ in
longitude. Indeed, if clocks are set to true time, as it is now
designated, they must, at least in theory, vary not only in the same
State or county, but to some extent in the same city.
As we contemplate the general advance in knowledge, we cannot but feel
surprised that these ambiguities and anomalies should be found,
especially as they have been so long known and felt. In the early
conditions of the human race, when existence was free from the
complications which civilization has led to; in the days when tribes
followed pastoral pursuits and each community was isolated from
the other; when commerce was confined to few cities, and
intercommunication between distant countries rare and difficult; in
those days there was no requirement for a common system of uniform
time. No inconvenience was felt in each locality having its own
separate and distinct reckoning. But the conditions under which we
live are no longer the same. The application of science to the means
of locomotion and to the instantaneous transmission of thought and
speech have gradually contracted space and annihilated distance. The
whole world is drawn into immediate neighborhood and near
relationship, and we have now become sensible to inconveniences and to
many disturbing influences in our reckoning of time utterly unknown
and even unthought of a few generations back. It is also quite
manifest that, as civilization advances, such evils must greatly
increase rather than be lessened, and that the true remedy lies in
changing our traditional usages in respect to the notation of days and
hours, whatever shock it may give to old customs and the prejudices
engendered by them.
In countries of limited extent, the difficulty is easily grappled
with. By general understanding, an arrangement affecting the
particular community may be observed, and the false principles which
have led to the differences and disagreements can be set aside. In
Great Britain the time of the Observatory at Greenwich is adopted for
general use. But this involves a departure from the principles by
which time is locally determined, and hence, if these principles be
not wrong, every clock in the United Kingdom, except those on a line
due north and south from Greenwich, must of necessity be in error.
On the continent of North America efforts have recently been made to
adjust the difficulty. The steps taken have been in a high degree
successful in providing a remedy for the disturbing influences
referred to, and, at the same time, they are in harmony with
principles, the soundness of which is indisputable.
When we examine into time in the abstract, the conviction is forced
upon us that it bears no resemblance to any sort of matter which comes
before our senses; it is immaterial, without form, without substance,
without spiritual essence. It is neither solid, liquid, nor gaseous.
Yet it is capable of measurement with the closest precision.
Nevertheless, it may be doubted if anything measurable could be
computed on principles more erroneous than those which now prevail
with regard to it.
What course do we follow in reckoning time? Our system implies that
there are innumerable conceptions designated "time." We speak of
solar, astronomical, nautical, and civil time, of apparent and mean
time. Moreover, we assign to every individual point around the
surface of the earth separate and distinct times in equal variety. The
usages inherited by us imply that there is an infinite number of
times. Is not all this inconsistent with reason, and at variance with
the cardinal truth, that there is one time only?
Time may be compared to a great stream forever flowing onward. To us,
nature, in its widest amplitude, is a unity. We have but one earth,
but one universe, whatever its myriad component parts. That there is
also but one flow of time is consistent with the plain dictates of our
understanding. That there can be more than one passage of time is
inconceivable.
From every consideration, it is evident that the day has arrived when
our method of time-reckoning should be reformed. The conditions of
modern civilization demand that a comprehensive system should be
established, embodying the principle that time is one abstract
conception, and that all definite portions of it should be based on,
or be related to, one unit measure.
On these grounds I feel justified in respectfully asking the
consideration of the Conference to the series of recommendations which
I venture to submit.
The matter is undoubtedly one in which every civilized nation is
interested. Indeed, it may be said that, more or less, every human
being is concerned in it. The problem is of universal importance, and
its solution can alone be found in the general adoption of a system
grounded on principles recognized as incontrovertible.
Such principles are embodied in the recommendations which I am
permitted to place before the Conference. They involve, as an
essential requirement, the determination of a unit of measurement, and
it is obvious that such a unit must have its origin in the motion of
the heavenly bodies. No motion is more uniform than the motion of the
earth on its axis. This diurnal revolution admits of the most delicate
measurement, and, in all respects, is the most available for a unit
measure. It furnishes a division of time definite and precise, and one
which, without difficulty, can be made plain and manifest.
A revolution of the earth, denoted by the mean solar passage at the
Prime or Anti-prime Meridian, will be recognizable by the whole world
as a period of time common to all. By general agreement this period
may be regarded as the common unit by which time may be everywhere
measured for every purpose in science, in commerce, and in every-day
life.
The scheme set forth in the recommendations has in view three
principal objects, viz:
1. To define and establish an universal day for securing chronological
accuracy in dates common to the whole world.
2. To obtain a system of universal time on a basis acceptable to all
nations, by which, everywhere, at the same time, the same instant may
be observed.
3. To establish a sound and rational system of reckoning time which
may eventually be adopted for civil purposes everywhere, and thus
secure uniformity and accuracy throughout the globe.
But, in the inauguration of a scheme affecting so many individuals, it
is desirable not to interfere with prevailing customs more than
necessary. Such influences as arise from habit are powerful and cannot
be ignored. The fact must be recognized that it will be difficult to
change immediately the usages to which the mass of men have been
accustomed. In daily life we are in the habit of eating, sleeping, and
following the routine of our existence at certain periods of the day.
We are familiar with the numbers of the hours by which these periods
are known, and, doubtless, there will be many who will see little
reason in any attempt to alter their nomenclature, especially those
who take little note of cause and effect, and who, with difficulty,
understand the necessity of a remedy to some marked irregularity
which, however generally objectionable, does not bear heavily upon
them individually.
For the present, therefore, we must adapt a new system, as best we are
able, to the habits of men and women as we find them. Provision for
such adaptation is made in the recommendations by which, while local
reckoning would be based on the principles laid down, the hours and
their numbers need not appreciably vary from those with which we are
familiar. Thus, time-reckoning in all ordinary affairs in every
locality may be made to harmonize with the general system.
Standard time throughout the United States and Canada has been
established in accord with this principle. Its adoption has proved the
advantages which may be attained generally by the same means. On all
sides these advantages have been widely appreciated, and no change
intimately bearing upon common life was ever so unanimously accepted.
Certainly, it is an important step towards the establishment of one
system of universal time, or, as it is designated in the
recommendations, Cosmic time.
The alacrity and unanimity with which the change has been accepted in
North America encourages the belief that the introduction of cosmic
time in every-day life is not unattainable. The intelligence of the
people will not fail to discover, before long, that the adoption of
correct principles of time-reckoning will in no way change or
seriously affect the habits they have been accustomed to. It will
certainly sweep away nothing valuable to them. The sun will rise and
set to regulate their social affairs. All classes will soon learn to
understand the hour of noon, whatever the number on the dial, whether
six, as in Scriptural times, or twelve, or eighteen, or any other
number. People will get up and retire to bed, begin and end work, take
breakfast and dinner at the same periods of the day as at present, and
our social habits and customs will remain without a change, depending,
as now, on the daily returning phenomena of light and darkness.
The one alteration will be in the notation of the hours, so as to
secure uniformity in every longitude. It is to be expected that this
change will at first create some bewilderment, and that it will be
somewhat difficult to be understood by the masses. The causes for such
a change to many will appear insufficient or fanciful. In a few years,
however, this feeling must pass away, and the advantages to be gained
will become so manifest that I do not doubt so desirable a reform will
eventually commend itself to general favor, and be adopted in all the
affairs of life.
Be that as it may, it seems to me highly important that a
comprehensive time system should be initiated to facilitate scientific
observations, and definitely to establish chronological dates; that it
should be designed for general use in connection with railways and
telegraphs, and for such other purposes for which it may be found
convenient.
The Cosmic day set forth in the recommendations would be the date for
the world recognizable by all nations. It would theoretically and
practically be the mean of all local days, and the common standard to
which all local reckoning would be referable.
With regard to the reckoning of longitude, I submit that longitude and
time are so intimately related that they may be expressed by a common
notation. Longitude is simply the angle formed by two planes passing
through the earth's axis, while time is the period occupied by the
earth in rotating through that angle. If we adopt the system of
measuring time by the revolution of the earth from a recognized zero,
one of these planes--that through the zero--may be considered fixed;
the other--that through the meridian of the place--being movable, the
longitudinal angle is variable. Obviously the variable angle ought to
be measured from the fixed plane as zero, and as the motion of the
earth by which the equivalent time of the angle is measured is
continuous, the longitude ought to be reckoned continuously in one
direction. The direction is determined by the notation of the hour
meridians, viz., from east to west.
If longitude be so reckoned and denoted by the terms used in the
notation of cosmic time, the time of day everywhere throughout the
globe would invariably denote the precise longitude of the place
directly under the mean sun. Conversely, at the epoch of mean solar
passage at any place, the longitude being known, cosmic time would be
one and the same with the longitude of the place.
The advantages of such a system of reckoning and nomenclature, as
suggested in the recommendations which I now submit, will be, I think,
self-evident.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE REGULATION OF TIME AND THE RECKONING
OF LONGITUDE
1. _That a system of universal time be established, with the
view of facilitating synchronous scientific observations,
for chronological reckonings, for the purpose of trade and
commerce by sea and land, and for all such uses to which it
is applicable._
2. _That the system be established for the common observance
of all peoples, and of such a character that it may be
adopted by each separate community, as may be found
expedient._
3. _That the system be based on the principle that for all
terrestrial time reckonings there be one recognized unit of
measurement only, and that all measured intervals of time be
directly related to the one unit measure._
4. _That the unit measure be the period occupied by the
diurnal revolution of the earth, defined by the mean solar
passage at the meridian twelve hours from the Prime Meridian
established through Greenwich._
5. _That the unit measure defined as above be held to be a
day absolute, and designated a Cosmic Day._
6. _That such Cosmic Day be held as the chronological date
of the earth, changing with the mean solar passage at the
anti-meridian of Greenwich._
7. _That all divisions and multiples of the Cosmic Day be
known as Cosmic Time._
8. _That the Cosmic Day be divided into hours, numbered in a
single series, one to twenty-four, (1 to 24,) and that the
hours be subdivided, as ordinary hours, into minutes and
seconds. Note.--As an alternative means of distinguishing
the cosmic hours from the hours in local reckonings, they
may be denoted by the letters of the alphabet, which,
omitting I and V, are twenty-four in number._
9. _That until Cosmic Time be admitted as the recognized
means of reckoning in the ordinary affairs of life, it is
advisable to assimilate the system to present usages and to
provide for the easy translation of local reckonings into
Cosmic Time, and vice versa; that, therefore, in theory, and
as closely as possible in practice, local reckonings be
based on a known interval in advance or behind Cosmic Time._
10. _That the surface of the globe be divided by twenty-four
equidistant hour meridians, corresponding with the hours of
the Cosmic Day._
11. _That, as far as practicable, the several hour meridians
be taken according to the longitude of the locality, to
regulate local reckonings, in a manner similar to the
system in use throughout North America._
12. _That, in all cases where an hour meridian is adopted as
the standard for regulating local reckonings, in a
particular section or district, the civil day shall be held
to commence twelve hours before and end twelve hours after
the mean solar passage of such hour meridian._
13. _That the civil day, based on the Prime Meridian of
Greenwich, shall coincide and be one with the Cosmic Day.
That civil days on meridians east of Greenwich shall be
(according to the longitude) a known number of hours, or
hours and minutes in advance of Cosmic Time, and to the west
of Greenwich the contrary._
14. _That the surface of the globe being divided by
twenty-four equidistant meridians (fifteen degrees apart)
corresponding with the hours of the Cosmic Day, it is
advisable that longitude be reckoned according to these hour
meridians._
15. _That divisions of longitude less than an hour (fifteen
degrees) be reckoned in minutes and seconds and parts of
seconds._
16. _That longitude be reckoned continuously towards the
west, beginning with zero at the Anti-prime meridian, twelve
hours from Greenwich._
17. _That longitude, generally, be denoted by the same terms
as those applied to Cosmic Time._
I submit these recommendations suggestively, and without any desire
unduly to press them. I shall be content if the leading principles
laid down be recognized by the Conference.
With regard to the more immediate question, I have come to the firm
conviction that extreme simplicity of reckoning and corresponding
benefits would result if longitude be notated in the same manner, and
denoted by the same terms as universal time. If, therefore, the
Conference adopts the motion of the distinguished Delegate of the
United States, which, I apprehend, is designed to cause as little
change as possible in the practices of sea-faring men, I trust the
claims of other important interests will not be overlooked. I refer to
all those interests, so deeply concerned in securing accurate time on
land, and in having easy means provided for translating any one local
reckoning into any other local reckoning, or into the standard
universal time. In this view I trust the Conference will give some
expression of opinion in favor of extending around the globe the
system of hour meridians which has proved so advantageous in North
America. In an educational aspect alone it seems to me important that
the hour meridians, one to twenty-four, numbered from the anti-prime
meridian continuously toward the west, should be conspicuously marked
on our maps and charts.
Prof. ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. I wish, Mr. President, to
express my entire adhesion to the proposition which has been made by
the Delegate of the United States, Mr. RUTHERFURD. It seems to me to
satisfy one of the principal conditions that we have had before us to
guide our decision; that is, that we should pursue a course which will
produce the least possible inconvenience.
Now, I think if we keep that in mind, we shall have very little
difficulty in coming to the conclusion that we should reckon longitude
eastward, as positive or plus, and westward as negative or minus. This
mode of reckoning would be attended with the least inconvenience; in
fact, it will not be attended with any inconvenience at all, because
it will keep to the present mode of reckoning. For my part, I see no
adequate reason for changing that. There is no scientific reason, and
certainly there is no practical reason. There is no scientific reason,
because, as I stated yesterday, if in mathematics you measure from the
zero a distance in one direction and consider that positive, you must,
by the very nature of the case, consider the distance measured in the
opposite direction from the same zero as negative. One follows
mathematically and necessarily from the other, and by adopting this
resolution you thus include both in one general formula.
It seems to me quite as scientific, to say the least, to start from
zero and go in both directions, distinguishing the longitudes by the
signs plus and minus, according as the directions are taken east or
west, as to reckon longitudes in one direction only from zero to 360
degrees. It is, I say, just as scientific to do this, and practically
it is more convenient. Because if you go on reckoning from zero to
360 degrees continuously, you have to make a break at 360 degrees. You
do not count on after you have completed one revolution, but have to
drop the 360 degrees and start again at zero. But this is attended
with great inconvenience, because this break in counting occurs in
countries which are thickly inhabited. The longitude would be a little
less than 360 degrees on one side of the prime meridian, and on the
other side the longitude would be a small angle. This seems to me very
inconvenient.