CONCLUSION.
1. SUMMARY OF RESULTS.
_The concrete nature of the time-indications._ Any genuine system
of time-reckoning must admit of numerical treatment, i. e. it must
consist of divisions of which the length is strictly limited and
which, when they belong to the same order, are as far as possible
of the same length. A numerical conception is abstract and not
primitive; even the power of counting is little developed among
primitive peoples in general, and among the lowest peoples it is
extremely limited. Counting is abstract, the primitive man clings to
the concrete phenomena of the outer world. In matters of chronology,
therefore, he finds his way not by counting but by referring to the
concrete phenomena the recurrence of which in definite succession
experience has taught him to expect. The first time-indications are
therefore not numerical but concrete. Their character clearly appears
e. g. when ‘a sun’ is said for ‘day’, and ‘a sleep’ for ‘night’; the
hours of day are denoted by the concrete phenomena of the twilight,
dawn, sunrise, etc., and the equally concrete position of the sun
or the occupations of the day. The lunar month is usually called
‘a moon’, and its days are denoted by the phases and position of
the moon. The year is originally neither a period of time nor the
circle of the seasons (which is first gradually developed under the
influence of agriculture in particular), but the produce of the
year: e. g. it embraces the time between sowing and harvest, and
is often not a complete year in our sense. Only gradually does the
year develop into the period of time that elapses between a season
and the recurrence of the same season, or more rarely between a
phase of a star and the return of the same phase. From the latter
period the genuine solar year has arisen. The seasons are composed
of occupations and of climatic and other natural phenomena, and
still preserve this concrete relationship and are therefore not
definitely limited in duration. This relationship is also extended
to the moons, which for their determination are not numbered but are
brought into connexion with a natural phase and named accordingly,
so that the twelve to thirteen months of the year can be fixed as
regards position and succession. Even the Julian months, as they were
introduced among less cultivated peoples such as the ancient Germans,
the Slavs, etc., could not keep their names, since these had no
intelligible meaning or reference to a concrete phenomenon; in order
to provide for this the months were re-christened with indigenous
names which are of the same kind as those given by the primitive
peoples to their lunar months. Or else, but much more seldom, the
Latin name acquired the concrete significance of a season. The years
also are not numbered, but are named from an important event, so that
their succession follows from the historical succession of events, a
method of denoting the year which prevailed throughout antiquity in
the _limmu_, archon, and consular years, etc.
_Discontinuous and ‘aoristic’ time-indications._ The starting-point
for the time-reckoning is therefore afforded by the concrete
phenomena of the heavens and of surrounding natural objects, and the
succession of these, fixed as it is by experience, serves as a guide
in the chronological sequence. These phenomena extend over periods
which are very dissimilar to one another and are individually of
varying length; they cross and overlap in some cases, in others they
leave gaps. The time-indications are not directly connected with each
other, but this connexion is achieved by the phenomena in question.
Hence the indications are not circumscribed by one another, but the
phenomena as such are regarded. The latter are not conceived of as
divisions of time of a definite length; they do not appear as parts
of a larger whole, limited on both sides by their connexion with
other divisions of time. The conception of continuity, the immediate
fusion of the chronological phenomena into one another, is lacking:
the time-indications are discontinuous. We may speak, although not
quite correctly, of a discontinuous time-reckoning. We think, for
example, of the abundant sub-division of the times of day in the
morning and evening, and the small number of sub-divisions in the
night and day-time, of the many very unequal seasons which encroach
upon one another and overlap. General measures for shorter periods
of time are therefore not given by the time-indications proper, but
are derived from actions or occupations, e. g. the time needed to
traverse a well-known piece of road. When a systematising of these
time-indications takes place, e. g. in the matter of the seasons,
where only those of practical importance are rendered prominent and
are circumscribed, there arise divisions of very unequal length,
which are hardly suitable for a genuine time-reckoning.
The times of day are often given by reference to the position of the
sun. In northern countries, where the length of the daily course of
the sun varies so greatly, points on the horizon are sought out as an
aid. Both these methods of indicating the times of day may seem to
afford a foundation for a continuous reckoning, but this is not the
case, since they always refer only to the position of the sun at the
immediate moment: they are--to adopt a grammatical term--‘aoristic’.
The discontinuity is further shewn in the fact that it is only later
and in an imperfect fashion that the complete day and the year are
joined together in continuous circles. Day and night were combined
so late into the period of the complete day of 24 hours that most
languages are without a proper word to express this idea. In the same
way the reckoning was often long carried out in half-years, winters
and summers, or the years were of shorter duration than the solar
year (agricultural years, etc.).
The means of accurately determining the times and occupations of
the year is afforded by the phases of the stars, which always recur
at the same time of the year or at a time subjected to only slight
variations due to the conditions of observation. A time-indication
from phases of stars is properly of the discontinuous and ‘aoristic’
order, since a definite phase of a star belongs theoretically to a
certain day and practically is also kept within very narrow limits.
It is only with great difficulty and some violence that the phases
of the stars can be systematised,--and that at a far-advanced stage:
signs of the zodiac, moon-houses--since they are distributed very
unequally over the year, this being due more particularly to the
limitation in practice to certain specially prominent stars.
_The pars pro toto counting of the periods._ The regular recurrence
of the periods at once impresses itself upon the notice of man: he
may also feel the necessity of counting the periods. As he always
directs his attention to the single phenomenon in itself, and not to
its duration as given by the limitations imposed by other phenomena,
so he does not reckon the periods of time as a continuous whole, but
only counts an isolated phenomenon recurring but once in the same
period. When he has seen ten harvests, he is ten years old: when nine
new moons have risen after conception, the nine months of pregnancy
are at an end: whoever has slept six nights on the way has undertaken
a six days’ journey. As counting-points the times of rest--the nights
and the winters--are especially employed. Linguistically this method
of counting still exists, as when in most languages the complete day
of 24 hours is expressed by the word ‘day’, which also means day
opposed to night, or as in the Hebrew word for month, which really
means ‘new moon’. Popularly and in the language of poetry this usage
is still farther extended.
It is significant of the deep-rooted tendency to the _pars pro toto_
method of counting that when peoples who are at a less developed
stage adopt such a continuous unit of time as our seven-day week,
they do not regard it as a unity, but put the part for the whole.
Weeks have been introduced into the Society Islands, and the word
_hebedoma_ has there been adopted to denote a week; it is however
less frequently used by the people than the word ‘sabbath’. When
a native wishes to say that he has been absent for six weeks
on a journey, he usually says six sabbaths or a moon and two
sabbaths[1188]. Some of the Islamite Malays of Sumatra count
periods of time in Sundays, others in Fridays, others again in
market-days[1189]; these are therefore the Christian, the Islamite,
and the native methods of reckoning weeks that here appear, but still
the counting is performed by the _pars pro toto_ method. The Old
Bulgarian word _nedelja_ really means ‘day without work’, Sunday, but
has come to mean ‘week’[1190].
_The continuous time-reckoning_ arises neither from the daily
course of the sun--which indeed is a unit but has no natural
sub-divisions--nor yet from the year, the consistent length of
which is at first concealed by the variation of the natural phases.
Moreover the year, though sub-divided, is divided into parts (the
seasons) which are indefinite and fluctuating in their number,
duration, and limits. The only natural phenomenon which from the
very beginning meets the demands of the continuous reckoning is the
moon. It is a fact of importance that the course of the moon from
the first appearance of the new moon to the disappearance of the old
is so short a period that it may be surveyed even by the undeveloped
intellect. The decisive factor however is that not only is the lunar
month in itself a limited and continuous period of fixed length, but
it has also a natural sub-division into parts of equal length, viz.
days, each of which is clearly distinguishable from its predecessor
and successor by the shape of the moon and its position in the sky at
sunrise and sunset. However these phases and positions also are at
first described concretely, and not numbered. The months, like other
periods of time, are counted by the _pars pro toto_ method in new
moons, or commonly in ‘moons’, as the days are counted in suns. This
is in itself a shifting mode of reckoning, which proceeds from an
arbitrarily chosen incidental point. With primitive man’s undeveloped
faculty of counting it can only embrace a few months; the months of
pregnancy, which are so frequently counted, form a period which is
quite sufficiently long.
_Empirical intercalation of months._ When a month not lying in the
immediate past or future is to be indicated, the concrete mode of
reckoning comes to the fore in this case also, and since a month
covers a period of time which is relatively long enough for the
natural conditions seen in it to be clearly distinguishable from
those of the preceding and following months, the month is named
after these natural conditions, i. e. it takes the name of a season.
But this is not done without confusion, for both seasons and months
fluctuate in reference to their position in the solar year, and the
seasons are not limited in length and duration, and still less do
they cover the months. Since any season and any natural phenomenon
may be used to determine a month, it follows that the number of names
of months is at first quite an arbitrary and uncertain matter, and is
far greater than that of the months of the year. Linguistic custom
leads to a natural selection in which the names describing phenomena
of special importance are preferred. Thus a fixed series of months
arises; and since the year contains more than twelve and less than
thirteen lunar months, the series sometimes consists of twelve,
sometimes of thirteen months. The period thus arising is nothing else
than the lunisolar year, since the months through their connexion
with the seasons are bound up with the annual course of the sun. The
problem then arises how to make the lunar months fit into the solar
year. Practically the difficulty first appears in a disguised form;
primitive man has no conception, or at most only an extremely vague
idea, of the length of the solar year. If the months are allowed to
follow one another in their traditional order the connexions with the
phases of nature are soon put out of gear, which never happened so
long as the relationship was occasional and fluctuating. This defect
must be corrected. When the series has thirteen months, a month soon
falls behind the natural phenomenon from which it takes its name:
one month must therefore be omitted. This is the extracalation of a
month. When the series has twelve months, a month soon gets in front
of the natural phenomenon from which it takes its name. Then the
month is ‘forgotten’, i. e. it is regarded as non-existent, and its
name is given to the following month, from which point the series
once more runs on correctly for some time. This is the intercalation
of a month. The necessity for the omission or intercalation is
recognised in the first place from the natural phases: their
fluctuation makes matters still worse. Hence there often arise hot
disputes as to which month it really is, i. e. really, theoretically
speaking, as to the inter- or extracalation of a month. A fixed order
arises in this intercalation or omission when its arrangement is
entrusted to the priests, a body of officials, or even to a single
person appointed for the purpose, as among the ancient Semitic
peoples and in Loango.
Since the seasons are regulated by the phases of the stars, the
months can also be named after these phases and regulated by them,
and a very accurate and practical means of regulation is thus
afforded. When a phase of a star does not appear in the month to
which it gives its name, the month is ‘forgotten’, the next month
brings round the phase in question, and takes its name. A series of
twelve months is here assumed; in the series of thirteen the phase
of the star appears too early, consequently the month-name which is
in the series is crowded out by the following month-name, which is
derived from the name of the star in question. Cases of doubt seldom
arise here, since they can only occur in the exceptional instance
when the phase of the star falls on the border-line between two
months.
By means of a properly treated empirical intercalation of this
nature the series of months could be kept in fair agreement with the
phases of nature, and also, especially when the phases of the stars
were used as an aid, with the solar year. Where, as in Babylonia,
the sense of the observation of the heavens was developed, there
thus arose a fruitful problem for the rudimentary and still quite
empirical astronomy, viz. that the astronomical points of regulation
for the arrangement of the lunar months within the solar year had to
be determined by more and more refined observation. So accurate an
empirical regulation must keep the intercalation in very good order,
as it did in Babylonia as early as the time of Dungi in the latter
part of the third millennium B. C. Meanwhile there must have arisen
of itself the knowledge that in a certain number of years a certain
number of intercalations always fell; the simplest relationship is
three intercalary months to eight years. The intercalation might then
very well have been cyclically regulated, but there was no reason for
departing from ancient custom, since the old method worked well and
there was no need to be able to calculate the calendar for a long
period in advance. This is in practice seldom necessary--how often,
for instance, is it necessary to-day to determine years beforehand
the position of Easter?--but for scientific astronomy it is a
necessity to be able thus to calculate in advance. Hence it agrees
very well with the flourishing of the theoretical astronomy in the
time of the Persians that an intercalary cycle should be introduced
about the year 528 B. C.
Seasons and months may also be regulated by points of the annual
course of the sun; but these are difficult to observe, and for
their observation landmarks, and therefore a fixed dwelling-place,
are required. Even then it is only the two solstices that are
accessible to primitive observation, and this is specially easy in
northern latitudes only. Hence the solstices and equinoxes play a
comparatively unimportant part in the history of time-reckoning.
2. THE GREEK TIME-RECKONING[1191].
I pass on finally to speak of the Greek time-reckoning. The problem
is here not only the independent appearance of a time-reckoning
which is in all respects genuinely continuous, but also the cyclical
regulating of the intercalation.
In the Homeric poems the time-reckoning stands at a primitive
stage, and is indeed lower than among many barbaric peoples. Very
few natural times of day are recognised, the days are counted by
dawns, according to the _pars pro toto_ method. Four larger seasons
are known, but also smaller ones, e. g. attention is paid to the
birds of passage. Certain phases of stars are known, and also the
solstices[1192]. The lunar months are counted, e. g. the months of
pregnancy[1193], but not named; the day of new moon is celebrated.
In Hesiod the same time-reckoning appears further developed, a fact
which is due partly to the nature of the contents of his poem, partly
to its later date; in particular, phases of stars and smaller seasons
are frequently mentioned, and it is a great advance that the days
are numerically reckoned; they are counted in one case from the
solstice, and further the days of the month are counted, sometimes
in half-months, sometimes in decades.[1194] In the appendix of the
_Days_ an exceedingly strong day-superstition shews itself.
When history begins, the Greek time-reckoning as we know it appears:
it is a lunisolar year with named lunar months, in which the
intercalation is cyclically regulated, so that in a period of eight
years (Oktaeteris) a month is three times intercalated, viz. in the
3rd, 5th, and 8th years. This appearance of an ordered form of year
and a cyclical intercalation is completely unprepared for. We miss
that association of the months with the seasons and the naming after
these which, as the preceding investigations have shewn, alone gives
rise to an empirical intercalation. The investigation of primitive
time-reckoning has led to the perception that herein lies the crucial
point of the problem of the origin of the Greek time-reckoning. In
my opinion the Greek calendar cannot be explained from premisses
originating in the country itself, and therefore cannot have arisen
of itself in Greece.
The regulation of the Greek calendar has throughout a sacral
character. The idea of the selection of lucky or unlucky days
prevails not only in superstition but also in the official religious
cult. Most of the old festivals fall, according to universal custom,
either during or shortly before the time of full moon; the festivals
of Apollo form an exception and are all celebrated on the 7th, those
of his twin sister Artemis being held on the preceding day, the
6th. The names of months appear in sharp contradistinction to the
world-wide method of nomenclature in that they all, in so far as
they are explainable, are derived from festivals. Several hundred
names are known from the various states of the mother country and
the colonies, and among these there is only a single exception to
the rule just stated, viz. Ἁλιοτρόπιος, i. e. the solstice month,
which belongs to later times, besides a few unexplained names, such
as Γεῦστος, Δίνων; numbered months were first created among the
leagues of states of the period after Alexander the Great, in order
to introduce a means of common understanding such as was necessitated
by the multiplicity of the local calendars. These cases are all quite
isolated and cannot disturb the rule.
The inference that may be drawn in regard to the months from their
names and from the ordering of the religious cult is further
established by other matters in regard to the cyclical intercalation.
The eight-year intercalary cycle cannot be distinguished from the
_Ennaeteris_ period (so called according to the Greek inclusive
method of reckoning, the eight-year period according to our method of
expression) of certain festivals. Such festivals are only known at
Delphi, where three of them were held (Charila, Stepterion, Herois).
The great Pythian games themselves were originally held every eighth
year, and then, after the first holy war (probably in the year 582,
from which the Pythiads were counted), every fourth year. Since eight
years seemed too long an interval, the period was halved in order
to secure a more frequent celebration, and the Isthmian and Nemean
games were even held every second year, i. e. the period was divided
into four. The Olympiad reckoning will go still farther back, if the
traditional starting-point, the year 776 B. C., is to be accepted.
However the authenticity of the older portion of the list of Olympian
victors has been sharply disputed, though the criticism certainly
seems to have weakened a little quite recently. But a peculiarity
attaches to this festival, viz. that it is celebrated alternately in
one of the two consecutive months, Apollonios and Parthenios[1195].
This can only be explained as follows:--The Oktaeteris has 99
months. Originally the Olympic festival was not fixed according to
the calendar, but the date was simply arranged by the numbering
of the months of the Oktaeteris, in which the first half of the
Oktaeteris was given 50 months and the second 49. In the calendarial
Oktaeteris, on the other hand, there is an intercalation once in
the first half and twice in the second, i. e. the first four years
have 49 months and the next four 50; hence it follows that when the
old custom was to be preserved in regard to the date, the month
of the festival necessarily varied in the given manner. When the
chronological arrangement of the Olympic games was introduced, the
Oktaeteris calendar therefore was not known, but only the Oktaeteris
period.
The introduction of the calendar was effected in the form of the
establishment of _fasti_ for festivals and religious cult, in
which the periodically recurring notable events of the cult, viz.
sacrifices and festivals, were noted down in calendrical succession
and in some cases also described. Fragments of these _fasti_ from
later times have in several cases come down to us, and similar
_fasti_ formed part of the legislation of Solon. Solon in the
year 594 arranged the sacral _fasti_ of Athens, and with them the
calendar. That he was the first to introduce the calendar cannot be
stated; there is no evidence to shew that the specific peculiarities
of the Athenian calendar were introduced by him. The evidence is
however valuable as a _terminus ante quem_. Plato in his _Laws_
prescribes that the legislation shall arrange the festivals according
to the decrees of Delphi. Here, as elsewhere in the _Laws_, he
returns to the general Greek custom. The _fasti_ were therefore
arranged under the superintendence of Delphi, and Solon also had
certainly done the same, for he stood in other respects in close
connexion with Delphi. In addition to which Geminos mentions “the
commandment of the laws and the oracular decrees, to sacrifice in
three ways, i. e. monthly, daily, yearly”. At a later period also,
those who superintended the calendar were men learned in sacral
matters. Thus the seer Lampon, at the time of the Peloponnesian War,
brought forward a proposal for the intercalation of a month; he was
an _exegetes_ and perhaps even πυθόχρηστος.
From all this it follows that it was the necessity for the regulation
of the religious cult that first created the calendar in Greece. The
succession of days in the year was in the first place arranged in
the form of sacral _fasti_, and this arrangement was followed by the
official civil calendar, while the peasants and sailors kept to the
reckoning by phases of the stars. All indications--especially the
above-mentioned festivals of Delphi, the dictum of Plato, etc.--seem
to shew that this regulation originated at Delphi; not that it was
actually enjoined by the oracle, but the necessity for the regulation
was aggravated there, and its performance was therefore supported
and superintended. Only in Delphi could the requisites for the
carrying out of such a work be found united. It is the business of
the oracle to maintain peace with the gods, and this is above all
achieved through the proper cult, in which the dates are of the
greatest importance, no less important indeed than the expiation
of murder and the veneration of the heroes. In the _pylagorai_ and
_hieromnemones_, who met twice a year for deliberation, and in the
_exegetai_ there was a circle closely connected with Delphi, each
member of which could spread in his own state the ideas he there
imbibed[1196]. Certain states maintained special officials who
fostered the connexion with Delphi, such as the Pythioi of Sparta,
the ἐξηγηταὶ πυθόχρηστοι of Athens. And, above all, it is only thus
that the consistently sacral character of the Greek calendar and
names of months in general can be satisfactorily explained.
There remains something to be added, viz. that, as has been remarked
above, all the festivals of Apollo of which the date is known--and
they are not few in number--fall on the 7th, on which day also the
birth of the god was celebrated at Delphi and elsewhere. It is clear
that this is a definitely intended regulation. Otherwise, too,
Apollo is the patron of the reckoning in months. Even in Homer the
day of new moon is a feast of Apollo, and later, as Νεομήνιος, i.
e. new-moon god, he receives sacrifices on the first of each month.
The initial day of the third decade was also dedicated to him, for
which reason he was called Εἰκάδιος. He is without a rival in his
importance for the selection of days, which is dependent upon the
reckoning in months.
Now, according to the data given above, the cyclical intercalation
was introduced before the beginning of the 6th century, most probably
in the 7th; at most, on the strength of Hesiod and of Homer (who in
the Odyssey knows only the beginning of the development, viz. Apollo
as the god of the new-moon festival), we may go back to the 8th.
But it has already been pointed out that in Greece the preliminary
conditions for the arising of even the empirical intercalation, and
much more of the cyclical, are lacking. Whence then has the latter
come? This is the real enigma in connexion with the problem of the
origin of the Greek time-reckoning. In my opinion the question can
only be answered in one way: it has come from without, from the east,
and originally from Babylonia. Here we are met with the difficulty
that an intercalary cycle was not introduced into Babylonia before
the 6th century. But, as we have already remarked, the knowledge that
in eight years the lunar months could be brought by the intercalation
of three months to fit into the solar year must have been reached
long before, through a regular administration of the intercalation,
although in Babylonia, where the intercalation was managed by a
central authority, there was no reason for erecting this knowledge
into a rule. In Greece matters were quite different. The land was
split up into a great number of little states in one of which it
might often happen that there was no one who could properly manage
an empirical intercalation. And even if there were, the empirical
intercalation must soon have led to variations in all these different
states, and hopeless confusion must have arisen. Since Delphi was
not a central court which could look after the intercalation, there
must be established, if order was to be created,--and the whole
movement started with this idea--a cycle which should be binding in
the future.
It seems to me a well-authorised view that the god Apollo came to
Greece from Asia, and even apart from this there is reason to suppose
that in the religion of Apollo there is a Babylonian element, viz.
the prevailing importance of the seventh day of the month in the cult
of the god. A similar preference for the seventh day of the month is
seen again in the _shabattu_. And in point of fact it is originally
only the seventh day that is brought into prominence, the other
_shabattu_ being a later development from this[1197]; most of the
Apollo festivals were rites of expiation and purification, and the
_shabattu_ also are distinguished as such. The calendar also shews a
second trace of connexion with Asia Minor. Besides Apollo there is
only one deity, Hecate, that is closely connected with the calendar
and the superstition of the days of the month, and it has been proved
that this goddess too originated in Asia Minor[1198].
When the intercalary cycle was introduced from the East about the 7th
century it did not come alone, but formed part of a mighty stream
of civilisation which poured into Greece from the East at an early
period. This is shewn e. g. in art, where all the styles formed under
Oriental influence displace and transform the native geometrical
style in vase-painting and the minor arts. Even in astronomy Oriental
influence can be demonstrated. Astronomical science begins with
Thales, who foretold the famous eclipse of the sun on May 28, 585 B.
C. According to one isolated notice he also concerned himself with
the lunisolar calendar. But the Ionian astronomy has a Babylonian
foundation; evidences of this are the division of the day into
12 hours, and the signs of the zodiac, of which at least three
can be shewn to be of Babylonian origin, and one is an Old Ionic
transformation of a Babylonian original. But, it is said, the way
from Ionia to the mother country is long, and the development of the
mother country is in arrears. But even with Delphi the Ionians had
early connexions; we may remember Croesus of Lydia. In the sixth
century the eastern Greeks established splendid treasure-houses
at Delphi, and long and intimate connexions must have preceded
buildings of this nature. All the necessary conditions for the
development assumed can therefore be demonstrated, as well as can be
expected from the scanty nature of our sources for this period.
The introduction of the cyclical regulation of the calendar has again
introduced problems of far-reaching significance for scientific
astronomy, though now upon a higher plane. The eight-year cycle
was inaccurate, the problem was to find a more exact one, and how
fruitful this problem became is shewn by such names as Meton and
Kallippos. This difficulty prepared the way for the emancipation of
the time-reckoning from the fetters of the religious cult.
ADDENDUM TO P. 78 NOTE 2 (P. 80).
Prof. Beckman has kindly pointed out to me that according to Are’s
_Islendingabók_, ch. 7 (_þá vas þat mælt et næsta sumar áþr i lǫgum,
at menn scyllde svá coma til alþinges, es X vicor være af sumre,
en þangat til quómo vico fyrr_), the Althing in the year 999 A. D.
was decreed for the time when ten (instead of nine) weeks of the
summer had passed, i. e. it was postponed until a week later in the
calendar. The reason for this is undoubtedly that the calendar (the
week-year), and with it the Althing, had contrived to antedate itself
a little more than a week in relation to the natural year, after
Torsten Surt’s reform of the calendar had been introduced about the
year 965. Here therefore we have an example of the empirical and
occasional correction of the Icelandic calendar which was postulated
above.
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_Edda Sæmundar hins fróda_ III. Copenhagen, 1828. (Specimen
calendarii gentilis by Finn Magnusson, pp. 1044 ff.).
E.S.P., _Ethnological Survey Reports_ (of the Philippine Islands).
Manilla, 1904-08.
_Handbook of American Indians_ = Smiths. Bull. 30.
Jesup Exp., _The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, edited by F. Boas
in Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History. New York and
Leiden, 1896 ff.
J.R.A.I., _Journal of the R. Anthropological Institute of Great
Britain_.
_Die Loango Expedition_, vol. III: 2, by E. Peschuel-Loesche.
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INDEX.
Acronychal risings and settings, 5
Age, classes of, 99;
ignorance of, 98;
relative, 98
Agricultural cycles of seasons, 66;
festivals, 268, 337;
year, 91, 95
Anglo-Saxon seasons, 75;
months and year, 292
Apollo, festivals of, 363;
and the Greek calendar, 366
Arabic lunisolar year, 251;
month-names, 237;
names for days of the month, 165
Astrology, 119;
origin of, 146
Astronomers, primitive, 350, 351
Babylonian designation of years, 105;
intercalation, 258;
months, 226
Beginning of the year, see New Year.
Bilfinger on the Icelandic week-year, 78, n. 1;
on the Anglo-Saxon year, 295
Birds of passage, 46
Calendar, Greek star-c., 114;
Indian picture-writing c., 103
Calendar-makers, 347
Canaanitish month-names, 233
Constellations, 114
Continuous time-reckoning, 8, 359
Counting, 168;
aids in, 319;
of days, 168;
of months, 148, 217
Dagsmǫrk, 21
Dawn = day, 13
Day, of 24 hours, 11;
limits of, 43;
solar, stellar, 3;
as unit of time-reckoning, 3
Day, times of, 17;
expressions for, 22;
indications of, 17
Days, counting of: in dawns, 13;
in days, 14;
in nights, 13;
in sleeps, 15;
in suns, 12
Decades, 168
Delphi, influence on the calendar, 365
Dieteris, 1
Disting, 302
Dry and rainy seasons, 54, 88;
two, 62
Easter, computation of, 301
Ebb and flow, 39
Egyptian designation of years, 107;
year, 277
End of the year, 268
Ennaeteris, 364
Epiphany moon, 301
Eponyms, 107
Equinoxes, observation of, 313
Extracalation, 244, 360
Fasti, Greek, 365
Feriae conceptivae, 340
Festivals, agricultural and new year, 268;
cycles of, 337;
months named after, 345;
regulated by the moon, 341;
by the solstices, 344;
by the stars, 133
First-fruits, 269
Full moon, celebration of, 155;
the time of festivals, 342
Germanic division of the year, 75;
month-names, 288;
seasons, 74
Gestures indicating days, 12;
time of the day, 17
Gezer, calendar of, 235
Gnomon, 20
Greek division of the month, 168;
expressions for times of the day, 34;
observation of the solstices, 316;
of the stars, 110;
seasonal points, 46;
seasons, 72;
calendar, 362
Half-years, reckoning in, 75, 78, 87
Hammurabi, letter of, 263
Heliacal risings and settings, 5
Hesiod, 46, 112
Homer, 34, 110, 316
Hour, origin of, 43
Icelandic (cp. Scandinavian) designation of times of the day, 21;
months, 297;
seasons, 75;
week-year, 78, 370
Indo-European expressions for times of the day, 31;
notion of the year, 97;
seasons, 71
Intercalary cycle, Babylonian, 259;
Greek, 363
Intercalation (cp. month, intercalary,) cyclical, 362;
in Greece, 368;
empirical, 243, 359;
origin of, 240;
pre-Mohammedan, 253;
regulated by the solstices, 265;
by the stars, 247
Israelitish festivals at full moon, 341;
intercalation, 244;
months, 233;
new year, 272
King in charge of the calendar, 352
Knots, 104, 320
Kugler on Babylonian intercalation, 260
Landmarks indicating times of the day, 21;
for observation of solstices and equinoxes, 311
Latin expressions for times of the day, 37;
star-names, 113
Lunar month, see Month.
Lunar months of European peoples, 294, 304, 305
Markets, in Arabia, 251;
in Canaan, 334
Market-week, 324
Measures of time, 42
Monsoons, 57, 87
Month, 147;
division of, 155, 159;
halving of, 166;
tripartite division of, 167;
quarters of, 170;
intercalary, 243;
of the Wadschagga, 203;
lunar, 5;
number of days in, 149;
sidereal, 4;
synodic, 5
Month-names, 174;
from festivals, 345;
from seasons and occupations, 218, 227;
from stars, 227, 247;
absence of, 223;
multiplicity of, 222;
old Greek, 364;
pairs of, 224;
popular European, 282;
variability of, 221
Months, counting of, 148, 217;
numbering of, 188, 233;
series of, 174;
incomplete, 240, 246;
Semitic, 226
Moon (cp. full moon, new moon) course of, 147;
invisibility of, 149;
phases of, 151, 155;
smaller phases, 159;
position of, 150;
time counted by, 16
Mountains as landmarks, 21
Nasi, 253
New moon, celebration of, 151
New moons, counting in, 151, 235
New Year, 8, 91, 267;
Egyptian, 278;
festivals of, 268
Night, parts of, 39;
times of, indicated by the stars, 40
Nights, counting in, 13
‘Noon-line’, 21
Nundinae, 333
Oktaeteris, 1, 363
Olympiads, 364
Pars pro toto counting, 358;
of days, 16;
of weeks, 358;
of years, 92
Picture-writings, 103
Planets, 120, 124
Plant as sun-dial, 19
Pleiades the, as indicating seed-time, 134;
special significance of, 129
Pleiades-year, 275
Priests as calendar-makers, 350
Qalammas, 253
Quarters of the moon, 170
Rainy and dry seasons, 54, 88;
two, 62
Sabbath, 329
Scandinavian (cp. Icelandic, Swedish) divisions of the day, 21;
observation of solstices, 316;
seasons, 74;
week-reckoning, 80
Schools of astronomy, 354
Seasonal points, 46
Seasons, 45;
cycles of, 65;
number: two, 54;
two or three, 72, 75;
three, 64;
four or five, 58, 63;
six, 60;
s. and months, 218;
regulation of, 70;
subdivision of, 61, 72
Sea-voyages, stars a guide to, 125, 353
Shabattu, 329
Shadow, time of day reckoned according to, 19
Shifting method of time-reckoning, 8
Solstices, 220;
festivals regulated by, 344;
months regulated by, 265;
observation of, 311
Stars, 109;
festivals regulated by, 133;
a guide to sea-voyages, 125, 353;
months named after, 227, 247;
new year determined by, 275;
omens of weather, 125, 130, 140, 143;
risings and settings of, 5, 128;
other phases, 129;
time of the night, 40;
time of the year indicated by, 128
Summer and winter, 54, 89
Summer day, the, 81
Sun = day, 13
Sun (cp. solstices and equinoxes), seed-time indicated by, 317;
time of day indicated by the position of, 17
Swedish (cp. Scandinavian) lunar months, 302, 304;
month-names, 299;
quarter-years, 80
Tally, 104, 168, 320
Tetraeteris, 1
Tille on the division of the Germanic year, 77
Time-indications, 9;
concrete, 355;
discontinuous and ‘aoristic’, 9, 356
Time-reckoning, methods of, 8
Units of time-reckoning, 3
Weather, stars as omens of, 125, 130, 140, 143
Webster on the sabbath, 335
Week, seven-day, 333
Week-year, 78, 370
Weidner on Babylonian intercalary cycles, 259
Weinhold on the Germanic seasons, 76
Wind-seasons, greater, 57;
shorter, 85
Winter and summer, 54, 89;
w. the time of festivals, 339
Winter day, the, 81
Winters, years counted in, 9
Year, 86;
agricultural, 91, 95, 96;
Egyptian, 277;
incomplete, 89, 223, 240;
stellar, 4;
stellar, of primitive peoples, 93, 275;
tropic, 4
Years, counting of, 92;
designation of y. after events, 99;
after rulers etc., 101, 107
Yule-moon, 301
FOOTNOTES:
[1] In Swedish (or German) I should use the word _punktnell_ to
denote this mode of time-reckoning, since the calculation is based
upon a _punctum_, a single point, not upon the whole unit of time.
Unfortunately the word ‘punctual’ has quite another sense in English.
[2] Snouck Hurgronje, I. 201.
[3] Jochelson, _Yukaghir_ p. 42.
[4] Jenks, p. 219.
[5] Schoolcraft, II, 129.
[6] _Ibid._ I, 57 B.
[7] Haddon, p. 303.
[8] Ling Roth, p. 133.
[9] See further Usener, _Götternamen_, p. 289. E. g. Pindar, _Ol._
XIII, 37, ἀελίῳ ἀμφ’ ἑνί (‘in one day’), Euripides, _Helena_ 652,
ἡλίους δὲ μυρίους μόγις διελθών (‘with difficulty passing through
thousands of suns’), and in a sacred regulation ἐᾶσαι οὕτως ἔστε κα
τρεῖς ἅλιοι γένωνται (‘to leave so until three suns have passed’),
Blinkenberg, _Die lindische Tempelchronik_, p. 38, Part D, 1. 72,
(Bonn, 1915) etc. In Latin still more frequently, e. g. Silius,
_Punica_, III, 554, _Bis senos soles, totidem per vulnera saevas
emensi noctes, etc._
[10] Il. XXI v. 80 ἠὼς δέ μοί ἐστιν ἥδε δυωδεκάτη ὅτ’ ἐς Ἴλιον
εἰλήλουθα.
[11] Il. XXIV v. 413 δυωδεκάτη οἱ ἠως κειμένῳ.
[12] Otherwise, but in my opinion erroneously, G. Bilfinger, _Der
bürgerliche Tag_, p. 35.
[13] Tacitus, _Germ._ 11, _nec dierum numerum sed noctium computant_.
[14] Schrader, II. 235; Ginzel, I, 243; A. Fischer, p. 744.
[15] Fornander, I, 122.
[16] Taylor, p. 364.
[17] Ellis, _Polyn. Res._³ I, 88.
[18] Mathias G., p. 210.
[19] Skeat and Blagden, I, 393.
[20] Claus, p. 38.
[21] Cole, p. 323.
[22] Cranz, I, 239.
[23] Heckewelder, p. 523.
[24] Dunbar, p. 1.
[25] Swanton, p. 339.
[26] Mooney, p. 365.
[27] Riggs, p. 165.
[28] Fletcher and La Flesche, p. 111.
[29] Powers, p. 77.
[30] Carver, p. 177.
[31] Radloff, p. 308.
[32] Spencer and Gillen, _Centr. Austr._, pp. 25 ff.
[33] Schrader, II, 235.
[34] Spencer and Gillen, _Centr. Austr._, pp. 25 ff.
[35] Radloff, p. 308.
[36] Partridge, p. 244.
[37] Velten, p. 353.
[38] Claus, p. 38.
[39] _Loango Exp._, III: 2, 140.
[40] Hammar, p. 156.
[41] Merker, p. 153.
[42] Schulze, p. 373.
[43] Foa, p. 119.
[44] Alberti, p. 69.
[45] Fabry, p. 223.
[46] Oliveau, p. 343.
[47] Spencer and Gillen, _Across Austr._, II, 270.
[48] Jenks, p. 219.
[49] Hose, p. 169.
[50] Wilken, p. 200.
[51] Crawfurd, I, 287 f.
[52] Marsden, _Sumatra_, p. 194.
[53] Haddon, p. 303.
[54] Forster, pp. 441 ff.
[55] Fletcher and La Flesche, p. 111.
[56] Krause, p. 339.
[57] Crawfurd, I, 287.
[58] Merker, p. 153.
[59] Velten, p. 333.
[60] Mansfeld, p. 244.
[61] Stannus, p. 288.
[62] Wegener, p. 146.
[63] Skeat and Blagden, I, 393.
[64] ὅταν ᾖ δεκάπουν τὸ στοιχεῖον, λιπαρῷ χωρεῖν ἐπὶ δεῖπνον.
[65] G. Bilfinger, _Zeitmesser_, p. 19; art. _Horologium_ in
Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquités_.
[66] Paul, III, 447. See further Finn Magnusson.
[67] _Arkiv för Nord. Filologi_, 23, 1907, pp. 259 ff.
[68] Drake, p. 276.
[69] Hose, p. 169.
[70] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes_, p. 25; Spencer, pp. 444
ff.
[71] MacCaulay, p. 525.
[72] Fewkes, p 260.
[73] Fletcher and La Flesche, p. 111.
[74] Beverley, p. 4.
[75] _Ibid._ p. 182.
[76] _Handbook_, p. 189.
[77] Du Pratz, I, 223.
[78] Mooney, p. 365.
[79] Hill Tout, p. 155.
[80] Gilij, II, 12.
[81] Molina, pp. 139 ff.
[82] Hammar, p. 156.
[83] Gutmann, p. 241.
[84] Weeks, _JRAI, 39_, p. 417.
[85] Koelle, p. 284.
[86] Westermann, p. 105.
[87] Ellis, _Yoruba_, p. 150.
[88] Merker, p. 153.
[89] Hollis, _Masai_, p. 332.
[90] Roscoe, _JRAI, 32_, p. 71.
[91] Roscoe, _Baganda_, p. 38.
[92] Junod, _Thonga_, II, 282.
[93] Schulze, p. 373.
[94] Man, pp. 336 ff.
[95] Nieuwenhuis, I, 317.
[96] Maass, pp. 511 ff.
[97] Crawfurd, I, 287.
[98] Snouck Hurgronje, I, 199 ff.
[99] Snouck Hurgronje, I, 200 n. 2; translator’s note.
[100] Thurnwald, p. 334.
[101] _Ibid._, p. 346.
[102] Brown, p. 332.
[103] Fornander, I, 121.
[104] Malo, pp. 33 ff.
[105] Forster, pp. 441 ff.
[106] Wegener, pp. 146 ff.; Ellis, _Pol. Res._³, I, 89. The former
quotes the latter from the first edition, but Ellis l. c. leaves out
the translation of the concrete terms for the times later than noon,
and fills up the period from 7 a. m. to 6 p. m. with modern terms, e.
g. ‘about 7’, ‘8 a. m.’ etc.
[107] Mathias G., pp. 210 ff.
[108] Brown, p. 348.
[109] Velten, p. 333.
[110] Nieuwenhuis, I, 318.
[111] Gutmann, p. 241.
[112] Hollis, _Nandi_, p. 96.
[113] Crawfurd, I, 287.
[114] Cp. above, p. 27.
[115] Above, pp. 24, 30.
[116] Roscoe, _Bantu_, p. 140.
[117] ‘As the sun turned over to the unyoking of the oxen’.
[118] Feist, p. 262.
[119] Hollis, _Nandi_, pp. 96 ff.
[120] Sibree, pp. 69 ff.
[121] ἔσσεται ἢ ἠὼς ἢ δείλη ἢ μέσον ἦμαρ--Il. XXI, 111.
[122] εὗδον παννύχιος καὶ ἐπ’ ἠῶ καὶ μέσον ἦμαρ--Od. VII, 288.
[123] ὄφρα μὲν ἠὼς ἦν καὶ ἀέξετο ἱερὸν ἦμαρ--Od. IX, 56.
[124] ἦμος ... φάνη ... Ἠὼς--Od. IV, 431.
[125] ἦμος δ’ ἠέλιος μέσον οὐρανὸν ἀμφιβεβῃκη--Od. IV, 400.
[126] πᾶσαν δ’ ἠοίην μένομεν ... ἔνδιος δ’ ὁ γέρων ἦλθ’ ἐξ ἁλός--Od.
IV, 447-50.
[127] δείελον ἦμαρ--Od. XVII, 606.
[128] Od. I, 422.
[129] ἦμος δ’ οὔτ’ ἄρ πω ἠὼς ἔτι δ’ ἀμφιλύκη νύξ--Il. VII, 433.
[130] ἅμ’ ἠοῖ--Il. VII, 331, Od. XVI, 2; ἅμα δ’ ἠοῖ φαινομένηφιν--Il.
XI, 685; Od. IV, 407.
[131] Il. VIII, 538; Od. I, 24.
[132] ἠέλιος δ’ ἀνόρουσε λιπὼν περικαλλέα λίμνην οὐρανὸν εἰς
πολύχαλκον, ἵν’ ἀθανάτοισι φαείνοι--Od. III, 1 f.
[133] οὔθ’ ὁπότ’ ἂν στείχῃσι πρὸς οὐρανὸν ἀστεροέντα, οὔθ’ ὅτ’ ἂν ἂψ
ἔπὶ γαῖαν ἀπ’ οὐρανόθεν προτράπηται--Od. XI, 17.
[134] εὖτε γὰρ ἠέλιος φαέθων ὑπερέσχεθε γαίης--Il. XI, 735.
[135] ἠέλιος μὲν ἔπειτα νέον προσέβαλλεν ἀρούρας, ἐξ ἀκαλαρρείταο
βαθυρρόου Ὠκεανοῖο οὐρανὸν εἲς ἀνιών--Il. VII, 421 ff.
[136] μέμβλωκε μάλιστα ἦμαρ--Od. XVII, 190.
[137] εἶσ’ ὑπὸ γαῖαν--Od. X, 191.
[138] ἐν δ’ ἔπεσ’ Ὠκεανῷ λαμπρὸν φάος ἠελίοιο ἕλκον νύκτα
μέλαιναν--Il. VIII, 485.
[139] Od. XXII, 318.
[140] ἦμος δ’ ἠέλιος μετενίσσετο βουλυτόνδε--Il. XVI, 779; Od. IX, 58.
[141] ὥς οἱ ἐναργὲς ὄνειρον ἐπέσσυτο νυκτὸς ἀμολγῷ--Od. IV, 841.
[142] ἦμος δὲ δρυτόμος ἀνὴρ ὡπλίσσατο δεῖπνον ... ἐπεί τ’ ἐκορέσσατο
χεῖρας τάμνων δένδρεα μακρά--Il. XI, 86.
[143] ἦμος δ’ ἐπὶ δόρπον ἀνὴρ ἀγορῆθεν ἀνέστη κρίνων νείκεα
πολλά--Od. XII, 439.
[144] ἀγορῆς πληθυούσης--Herod. IV, 181; even in a Delphian sacred
decree, _Syll. inscr. graec._³ 257; περὶ ἀγορὰν πλήθουσαν--Xen.,
_Anab._ II, 1, 7; ἀγωρῆς πληθώρη--Herod. II, 173.
[145] πρὶν ἀγορὰν πεπληθέναι--Pherekr., _Autom._ 9.
[146] ἀγορῆς διάλυσις--Herod. III, 104.
[147] ἀλλ’ ἴομεν· μάλα γὰρ νὺξ ἄνεται, ἐγγύθι δ’ ἠώς. ἄστρα δὲ δὴ
προβεβήκε, παροίχωκεν δὲ πλέων νὺξ τῶν δύο μοιράων, τριτάτη δ’ ἔτι
μοῖρα λέλειπται--Il. X, 251.
[148] ἦμος δὲ τρίχα νυκτὸς ἔην, μέτα δ’ ἄστρα βεβήκει--Od. XII, 312,
and XIV, 483.
[149] Od. XIII, 93.
[150] _cum a curia inter rostra et graecostasin prospexisset solem;
a columna Maenia ad carcerem inclinato sidere supremam pronuntiavit,
sed hoc serenis tantum diebus_--Pliny, _Nat. Hist._, VII, 214.
[151] G. Bilfinger, _Stundenangaben_, _Zeitmesser_. _Hora sexta_ is,
for example, 6 o’clock, not the sixth hour. It seems to me as though
_hora_ refers to the hour-line.
[152] Bilfinger, _Stundenang._, p. 131; Ginzel, III, 89.
[153] _ea hora qua incipit homo hominem posse cognoscere_, XXV, 6.
[154] _cum aperit esse pullorum cantus_, XXXVI, 1.
[155] _de pullo primo_, XXXV, 1.
[156] Crantz, I, 294.
[157] p. 55.
[158] Wegener, p. 147.
[159] Ellis, _Pol. Res._³, I, 89.
[160] Malo, p. 49.
[161] Wegener, p. 146; cp. above, p. 29.
[162] Fornander, I, 121.
[163] Mooney, _Rep._, p. 365.
[164] Merker, p. 153.
[165] Westermann, p. 105.
[166] Hammar, p. 156.
[167] Schulze, p. 373.
[168] Malo, p. 33.
[169] Cp. above, p. 28.
[170] Schulze, p. 373.
[171] Merker, p. 153.
[172] See below, p. 40.
[173] Forster, p. 441.
[174] Mathias G., p. 210.
[175] Gutmann, p. 241.
[176] Crawfurd, p. 271.
[177] Velten, p. 333.
[178] Wilken, p. 200.
[179] Ellis, _Yoruba_, p. 150.
[180] Oliveau, p. 343.
[181] Forster, p. 441.
[182] Wegener, p. 148.
[183] Dibble, p. 107.
[184] Malo, p. 33.
[185] Nordenskjöld, _Indianlif_, p. 273.
[186] Holm, _10_, 142, or _39_, 85 and 106.
[187] Egede, p. 131.
[188] Drake, pp. 277 ff.
[189] Paul, III, 447; cp. above, p. 21.
[190] See above, p. 36.
[191] Sibree, pp. 69 ff.
[192] Mansfeld, p. 244.
[193] Snouck Hurgronje, I, 201.
[194] Brown, p. 332.
[195] Cp. Bilfinger, _Der bürgerliche Tag_, pp. 198 ff., and my
_Entstehung_, p. 13.
[196] Bilfinger, _Doppelstunde_; for the other side see Boll,
_Sphaera_, pp. 311 ff.
[197] Ginzel, III, 93 ff.
[198] Matthews, p. 4.
[199] Hesiod, _Op._, v. 448.
[200] Athenaeus, VIII, p. 360 C; for modern swallow-processions and
songs see Abbot, p. 18.
[201] Baumeister, _Denkm. des klass. Alt._, III, p. 1985, fig. 2128.
[202] αἵτ’ (γέρανοι) ἐπεὶ οὖν χειμῶνα φύγον--Il. III, 4.
[203] ὄρνιθος φωνήν, Πολυπαίδη, ὀξὺ βοώσης ἤκουσ’, ἥτε βροτοῖς
ἄγγελος ἦλθ’ ἀρότου ὡραίου--Theognis, vv. 1197 ff.
[204] Aristoph., _The Birds_, translated by J. H. Frere, vv. 709 ff.
[205] Cranz, I, 293.
[206] Wilson, p. 297.
[207] Stow, p. 112.
[208] Roscoe, _Bantu_, p. 140.
[209] Gilij, II, 20 ff.; ch. VII.
[210] Howitt, p. 432.
[211] Brown, p. 332.
[212] Thurnwald, p. 342.
[213] Mooney, _Rep._, p. 367.
[214] Ellis, _Pol. Res._³, I, 352.
[215] Heckewelder, p. 525.
[216] Junod, _Thonga_, p. 20.
[217] Junod, _Ronga_, pp. 196 ff.
[218] Grabowsky, p. 102.
[219] Sibree, p. 57.
[220] Dieffenbach, II, 122 ff.
[221] Sechefo, p. 931.
[222] Matthews, p. 4.
[223] Schiefner, p. 196.
[224] Homfray, p. 62.
[225] Turner, p. 202.
[226] Dalsager, pp. 54 ff.; cp. Cranz I, 293 ff.
[227] See below, pp. 66 ff.
[228] _R. T. Str._, pp. 226 ff.
[229] Cp. below, p. 57.
[230] Below ch. VI.