GERMAN FREEDOM AND UNITY.
FORMATION OF THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION (1815).--The German states, thirty-
nine in number, were reorganized by the Congress of Vienna as a
Confederation, with the emperor of Austria President of the league. A Diet
formed of representatives, of the several states was to settle all
questions of dispute between the members of the Confederation, and
determine matters of general concern, In all affairs concerning itself
alone, each state was to retain its independence. It might carry on war
with foreign states, or enter into alliance with them, but it must do
nothing to harm any member of the Confederation. The articles of union, in
a spirit of concession to the growing sentiment of the times, provided
that all sects of Christians should enjoy equal toleration, and that every
state should establish a constitutional form of government.
Under this scheme of union Germany was to rest half a century--until 1866.
Though Austria was nominally head of the Confederation, Prussia was
actually the most powerful member of the league.
THE UPRISINGS OF 1830: FIRST STEP TOWARDS FREEDOM.--For a long time
previous to the French Revolution there had been gradually forming among
the German people a double sentiment--a longing for freedom and for unity.
It was the influence of the rising patriotic party that had secured the
provision in the act of confederation which required that all the princes
of the union should give their states a representative form of government.
But the faces of these rulers, like those of the restored Bourbons in
France, were turned towards the past. They opposed all changes that should
give the people any part in the government, and clung to the old order of
things.
We have seen what was the consequence of the reactionary policy of the
Bourbons in France,--how in 1830 the people arose, drove out Charles X.,
and set upon the throne the "Citizen King," Louis Philippe. Events ran
exactly the same course in Germany. The princes refused or neglected to
carry out in good faith that article of the act of confederation which
provided for representative governments in all the German states. The
natural result was widespread discontent among the people. Consequently,
when the French Revolution of 1830 occurred, a sympathetic thrill shot
through Germany, and in places the popular party made threatening
demonstrations against their tyrannical rulers. The princes of several of
the smaller states were forced to give to their peoples the liberal
constitutions that were demanded. Thus a little was gained for freedom,
though after the flutter of the revolutionary year the princes again took
up their retrograde policy, and did all in their power to check the
popular movement and keep governmental matters out of the hands of the
people.
THE CUSTOMS UNION: FIRST STEP TOWARDS UNITY.--Just about this time the
first step was taken towards the real union of the German states through
the formation of what is known as the _Customs Union_. This was a sort of
commercial treaty binding those states that became parties to it, and
eventually all the states save Austria acceded to the arrangement, to
adopt among themselves the policy of free trade; that is, there were to be
no duties levied on goods passing from one state of the Union to another
belonging to it. The greatest good resulting from the Union was, that it
taught the people to think of a more perfect national union. And as
Prussia was a prominent promoter and the centre of the trade
confederation, it accustomed the Germans to look to her as their head and
chief.
UPRISING OF 1848: A SECOND STEP TOWARDS FREEDOM.--The history of Germany
from the uprising of 1830 to that of 1848 may be summarized by saying that
during all these years the people were steadily growing more and more
earnest in their demands for liberal forms of government, while the
princes, strangely blind to the spirit and tendency of the times, were
stubbornly refusing all concessions that should take from themselves any
of their power as absolute rulers. In some instances the constitutions
already granted were annulled, or their articles were disregarded.
Finally, in 1848, news flew across the Rhine of the uprising in France
against the reactionary government of Louis Philippe, and the
establishment by the French people of a new republic. The intelligence
kindled a flame of excitement throughout Germany. The liberal party
everywhere arose and demanded constitutional government.
Almost all of the princes of the minor states yielded to the popular
clamor, and straightway adopted the liberal measures and instituted the
reforms demanded. In Austria and Prussia, however, the popular party
carried their point only after demonstrations that issued in bloodshed.
Prince Metternich, the celebrated prime minister of the Emperor of
Austria, was forced to flee the country, because he had opposed so
obstinately all the demands of the Liberals.
The Revolution of 1848 thus effected much for the cause of liberal
government in Germany. The movements of that revolutionary year brought
into the hands of the people much more power than they had ever before
exercised.
HUNGARY: KOSSUTH.--Meanwhile the Austrian emperor was having serious
trouble with his Hungarian subjects. Led by the distinguished orator Louis
Kossuth, they had revolted, and declared their independence. A memorable
struggle now followed (1848-1849), in which the patriotic Hungarians made
a noble fight for freedom, but were at last overpowered and crushed by the
combined Austrian and Russian armies. Hungary was made a second Poland.
RIVALRY BETWEEN AUSTRIA AND PRUSSIA.--While the attention of Austria was
directed to the suppression of the Hungarian rebels, Prussia proposed a
plan for the unification of Germany, with herself as the head of the body,
Austria being excluded from the confederation. Several of the states
joined Prussia in this move, and an alliance called the "German Union" was
formed. Austria watched with the greatest concern this bold move of her
rival for leadership in German affairs, a move whereby she was to be
pushed aside entirely, and just as soon as the Hungarian trouble was
composed, she made a counter-move to that of Prussia, by forming a
confederation of all those states which she could persuade to accept her
leadership.
The state of Germany at this moment, divided between the allies of Austria
and those of Prussia, may be likened to the condition of Greece at the
outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, when the Hellenic states had grouped
themselves, according to their sympathies, about Athens and Sparta. It
does not require a second Pericles to see war lowering in the horizon.
THE SEVEN WEEKS' WAR BETWEEN AUSTRIA AND PRUSSIA (1866).--The inevitable
war which was to decide whether Austria or Prussia should be leader in
German affairs came on apace. In the year 1861, Frederick William IV. of
Prussia died, and his brother, already an old man of sixty, yet destined
to be for more than a score of years the central figure in the movement
for German unity, came to the Prussian throne as William I. (1861-1888).
He soon called to his side the now distinguished Otto von Bismarck as his
prime minister, a man of wonderful energy and decision, whose policies
have shaped German affairs for a quarter of a century. He saw clearly
enough how the vexed question between Austria and Prussia was to be
settled--"by blood and iron." His appearance at the head of Prussian
affairs marks an epoch in history. He was in disposition a conservative
and despot, and the liberal party distrusted and hated him.
Early in 1866 the war opened, the occasion of it being a dispute in regard
to some petty Danish provinces (Schleswig and Holstein). Almost all of the
lesser states grouped themselves about Austria. Prussia, however, found a
ready ally in Italy (see p. 713), which served to divert a part of the
Austrian forces. Yet it seemed an unequal contest, the population of
Prussia at this time not being more than one-third (19,000,000) that of
the states arrayed against her. But Bismarck had been preparing Prussia
for the struggle which he had long foreseen, and now the little kingdom,
with the best disciplined army in the world, headed by the great commander
Von Moltke, was to astonish the world by a repetition of her achievements
under the inspiration of Frederick the Great.
The Prussian armies, numbering more than a quarter of a million of men,
began to move about the middle of June. Battle followed battle in rapid
succession. Almost every encounter proved a victory for the Prussians. On
the third of July was fought the great battle of Sadowa, in Bohemia. It
was Austria's Waterloo. The emperor was forced to sue for peace, and on
the twenty-third day of August the Peace of Prague was signed.
The long debate between Austria and Prussia was over. By the terms of the
treaty Austria was shut out from participation in German affairs. Prussia
was now without a rival in Germany.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NORTH-GERMAN UNION (1867).--Now quickly followed the
reorganization of the northern states of Germany into what was called the
North-German Union, under the leadership of Prussia. Prussia was to have
command of the entire military force of the several states composing the
league, the Prussian king being President of the Union. A constitution was
adopted which provided that the affairs of the confederation should be
managed by a Diet, the members of which were to be chosen by the different
states.
Thus was a long step taken towards German unity. Bismarck's policy of
"blood and iron," though seemingly rough and brutal, now promised to prove
a cure indeed for all of Germany's troubles. Though so much had been
effected, there was still remaining much to be desired. The states to the
south of the Main--Baden, Bavaria, and Würtemberg--were yet wanting to
complete the unification of the Fatherland. Many patriots both north and
south of the dividing line earnestly desired the perfect union of North
and South. But the Catholics of the southern states were bitterly opposed
to Prussia's being exalted to the chief place in Germany, because she was
Protestant, while many of the democratic party were loth to see Germany
reconstructed under the supremacy of Prussia on account of the repressive
and despotic character of her government. But the fervid enthusiasm
awakened by another successful war serves to weld the states of both North
and South into a firm and close union, and complete the work of Germany's
unification.
[Illustration: EUROPE 1880]
THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1870-1871).--It will be recalled with what
jealousy France viewed the rise to power of the House of Hohenzollern. All
of her old bitter hostility to the House of Austria seems to have been
transferred to her successful rival in the North. So when in 1870 the
vacant throne of Spain was offered to Leopold, a member of the
Hohenzollern family, the Emperor Napoleon III. affected to see in this a
scheme on the part of the House of Hohenzollern to unite the interests of
Prussia and of Spain, just as Austria and Spain were united, with such
disastrous consequences to the peace of Europe, under the princes of the
House of Hapsburg. Even after Leopold, to avoid displeasing France, had
declined the proffered crown, the Emperor Napoleon demanded of King
William assurance that no member of the House of Hohenzollern should ever
become a candidate for the Spanish throne. The demand was rudely made, was
refused, and the two nations rushed together in a struggle which was
destined to prove terribly disastrous to France, and memorable to Germany
for the glory and unity it won for her.
The important thing for us to notice here is the enthusiasm that the war
awakened not only throughout the states of the North-German Confederation,
but among the states of the South as well, which placed their armies at
the disposal of King William. The cause was looked upon as a national one,
and a patriotic fervor stirred the hearts of all Germans alike.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE (1871).--The astonishing successes
of the German armies on French soil created among Germans everywhere such
patriotic pride in the Fatherland, that all the obstacles which had
hitherto prevented anything more than a partial union of the members of
the Germanic body were now swept out of the way by an irresistible tide of
national sentiment. While the siege of Paris was progressing,
commissioners were sent by the southern states to Versailles, the
headquarters of King William, to represent to him that they were ready and
anxious to enter the North-German Union. Thus in rapid succession Baden,
Bavaria, and Würtemberg were received into the Confederation, the name of
which was now changed to that of the German Confederation.
[Illustration: PROCLAMATION OF KING WILLIAM AS EMPEROR OF GERMANY, AT
VERSAILLES, JANUARY, 1871. (By Anton von Werner, Prussian Court Painter.)]
Scarcely was this accomplished, when, upon the suggestion of the king of
Bavaria, King William, who now bore the title of _President_ of the
Confederation, was given the title of _German Emperor_, which honor
was to be hereditary in his family. On the 18th of January, 1871, within
the Palace of Versailles,--the siege of Paris being still in progress,--
amidst indescribable enthusiasm, the Imperial dignity was formally
conferred upon King William, and Germany became a constitutional Empire.
Thus amidst the throes of war the free German _nation_ was born. The
German people, after long centuries of division and servitude, had at last
found Freedom and Unity.