Stefanoni (Luigi). Italian writer and publicist, b. Milan, 1842. In
'59, his first Romance, The Spanish in Italy was suppressed by
the Austrians. He joined Garibaldi's volunteers and contributed
to Unita Italiana. In '66, he founded at Milan the Society of
Freethinkers and the organ Il Libero Pensiero, in which he wrote A
critical History of Superstition, afterwards published separately
2 vols. '69. He also compiled a Philosophical Dictionary, '73-75;
and wrote several romances as L'Inferno, The Red and Black of Rome,
etc. He translated Büchner's Force and Matter, Morin's Jesus réduit,
La Mettrie's Man-machine, Letourneau's Physiology of the Passions,
and Feuerbach's Essence of Religion.
Steinbart (Gotthelf, Samuel), German rationalist, b. Züllichau, 21
Sept. 1738. Brought up in a pietist school, he became a Freethinker
through reading Voltaire. In '74, he became Prof. of Philosophy
at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, and wrote a System of Pure Philosophy,
'78. Died, 3 Feb. 1809.
Steinthal (Hajjim), German philologist, b. Gröbzig, 16 May, 1823,
has written many works on language and mythology.
Steller (Johann), Advocate at Leipsic, published an heretical work,
Pilatus liberatoris Jesu subsidio defensus, Dresden, 1674.
"Stendhal (M. de)," Pseud, see Beyle (M. H.)
Stephen (Sir James FitzJames), English judge and writer, b. London, 3
March, 1829. Studied at Cambridge, graduated B.A. '52, and was called
to the bar in '54. He was counsel for the Rev. Rowland Williams when
tried for heresy for writing in Essays and Reviews, and his speech
was reprinted in '62. He wrote in the Saturday Review, and reprinted
Essays by a Barrister. From Dec. '69, to April, '72, he was Legal
Member of the Indian Council, and in '79 was appointed judge. He is
author of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, '73, and some valuable
legal works. He has written much in the Nineteenth Century, notably
on the Blasphemy Law '83, and Modern Catholicism, Oct. '87.
Stephen (Leslie), English man of letters, brother of preceding,
b. London, 28 Nov. 1832. Educated at Cambridge where he graduated M.A.,
'57. He married a daughter of Thackeray, and became editor of the
Cornhill Magazine from '71-82, when he resigned to edit the Dictionary
of National Biography. Mr. Stephen also contributed to Macmillan, the
Fortnightly, and other reviews. Some of his boldest writing is found
in Essays on Freethinking and Plainspeaking, '73. He has also written
an important History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century,
'76, dealing with the Deistic movement, and The Science of Ethics,
'82, besides many literary works.
Stern (J)., Rabbiner, German writer, b. of Jewish parents,
Liederstetten (Wurtemburg), his father being Rabbi of the town. In
'58 he went to the Talmud High School, Presburg and studied the
Kabbalah, which he intended to translate into German. To do this he
studied Spinoza, whose philosophy converted him. In '63 he graduated at
Stuttgart. He founded a society, to which he gave discourses collected
in his first book, Gottesflamme, '72. His Old and New Faith Among the
Jews, '78, was much attacked by the orthodox Jews. In Women in the
Talmud, '79, he pleaded for mixed marriages. He has also written Jesus
as a Jewish Reformer, The Egyptian Religion and Positivism, and Is the
Pentateuch by Moses? In '81 he went to live at Stuttgart, where he has
translated Spinoza's Ethics, and is engaged on a history of Spinozism.
"Sterne (Carus)"; pseud. See Krause (E).
Stevens (E. A.), of Chicago, late secretary of American Secular Union,
b. 8 June, 1846. Author of God in the State, and contributor to the
American Freethought journals.
Stewart (John), commonly called Walking Stewart, b. London before
1750. Was sent out in 1763 as a writer to Madras. He walked through
India, Africa, and America. He was a Materialist. Died in London,
20 Feb. 1822.
"Stirner (Max)." See Schmidt (Kaspar).
Stosch (Friedrich Wilhelm), called also Stoss (Johann Friedrich),
b. Berlin, 1646, and studied at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. In 1692 he
published a little book, Concordia rationis et fidei, Amst. [or rather
Berlin]. It was rigorously suppressed, and the possession of the work
was threatened with a penalty of five hundred thalers. Lange classes
him with German Spinozists, and says "Stosch curtly denies not only
the immateriality, but also the immortality of the soul." Died 1704.
Stout (Sir Robert), New Zealand statesman, b. Lerwick (Shetland Isles),
1845. He became a pupil teacher, and in '63 left for New Zealand. In
'67 he began the study of the law, was elected to the General Assembly
in '75, and became Attorney-General in March, '78. He has since been
Minister of Education of the Colony.
Strange (Thomas Lumsden), late Madras Civil Service, and for many
years a judge of the High Court, Madras. A highly religious man, and
long an Evangelical Christian, he joined the Plymouth Brethren, and
ended in being a strong, and then weak Theist, and always an earnest
advocate of practical piety in life and conduct, and a diligent
student and writer. When judge, he sentenced a Brahmin to death,
and sought to bring the prisoner "to Jesus." He professed himself
influenced, but at the gallows "he proclaimed his trust to be in
Rama and not in Christ." This set the judge thinking. He investigated
Christianity's claims, and has embodied the result in his works. The
Bible, Is it the Word of God? '71; The Speaker's Commentary Reviewed,
'71; The Development of Creation on the Earth, '74; The Legends of the
Old Testament, '74; and The Sources and Development of Christianity,
'75. A friend of T. Scott and General Forlong, he died at Norwood,
4 Sept. 1884.
Strauss (David Friedrich), German critic, b. Ludwigsburg (Wurtemburg),
27 Jan. 1808. He studied Theology at Tübengen, was ordained in '30, and
in '32 became assistant-teacher. His Life of Jesus Critically Treated,
'35, in which he shows the mythical character of the Gospels, aroused
much controversy, and he was deprived of his position. In '39 the
Zürich Government appointed him professor of church history, but they
were obliged to repeal their decision before the storm of Christian
indignation. His next important work was on the Christian Doctrines
(2 vols.), '40. In '47 he wrote on Julian the Apostle, and in '58 an
account of the Life and Time of Ulrich von Hutten. He prepared a New
Life of Christ for the German People, '64, followed by the Christ of
the Creeds and the Jesus of History. In '70 he published his lectures
on Voltaire, and two years later his last work The Old Faith and the
New, in which he entirely breaks not only with Christianity but with
the belief in a personal God and immortality. A devoted servant of
truth, his mind was always advancing. He died at his native place,
8 Feb. 1874.
Strindberg (Johan August), Swedish writer, known as the Scandinavian
Rousseau, b. Stockholm, 22 Jan. 1849. He has published many prominent
rationalistic works, as The Red Chamber and Marriage. The latter
was confiscated. He is one of the most popular poets and novelists
in Sweden.
Stromer (Hjalmar), Swedish astronomer, b. 1849. He lectured on
astronomy and published several works thereon, and also wrote
Confessions of a Freethinker. Died 1887.
Strozzi (Piero), Italian general in the service of France, b. of
noble Florentine family 1500. Intended for the Church he abandoned
it for a military career, and was created marshal of France by Henry
II. about 1555. He was killed at the siege of Thionville, 20 June
1558, and being exhorted by the Duc de Guise to think of Jesus,
he calmly declared himself an Atheist.
Suard (Jean Baptiste Antione), French writer, b. Besançon, 15 Jan,
1734. He became a devoted friend of Baron d'Holbach and of Garat,
and corresponded with Hume and Walpole. He wrote Miscellanies of
Literature, etc. He had the post of censor of theatres. Died at Paris
20 July, 1817.
Sue (Marie Joseph, called Eugène), French novelist, b. Paris, 10
Dec. 1804. He wrote many romances, of which The Mysteries of Paris
and The Wandering Jew, '42-45, were the most popular. In '50 he was
elected deputy and sat at the extreme left, but was exiled by the
coup d'etat. He died as a Freethinker at Annecy (Savoy), 3 July 1857.
Sullivan (J.), author of Search for Deity, an inquiry as to the origin
of the conception of God (London, 1859).
Sully Prudhomme (Renè François Armand), French poet, b. Paris, 16
March 1839. He studied law but took to poetry and has published many
volumes. In '78 he was made Chevalier of Honor, and in '82 member of
the Academy. His poems are of pessimistic cast, and full of delicacy
of philosophical suggestion.
Sunderland (La Roy), American author and orator, b. Exeter (Rhode
Island), 18 May, 1803. He became a Methodist preacher and was prominent
in the temperance and anti-slavery movements. He came out of the Church
as the great bulwark of slavery and opposed Christianity during the
forty years preceding his death. He wrote many works against slavery
and Pathetism, '47; Book of Human Nature, '53, and Ideology, 3 vols.,
'86-9. Died in Quincy (Mass.) 15 May, 1885.
Suttner (Bertha von), Baroness, Austrian author of Inventory of a Soul,
1886, and of several novels.
Sutton (Henry S.), anonymous author of Quinquenergia; or, Proposals
for a New Practical Theology, and Letters from a Father to a Son on
Revealed Religion.
Swinburne (Algernon Charles), English poet and critic, b. London,
5 April, 1837, educated at Oxford, and went to Florence, where he
spent some time with W. S. Landor. Atalanta in Calydon, a splendid
reproduction of Greek tragedy, first showed his genius. Poems and
Ballads, 1866, evinced his unconventional lyrical passion and power,
and provoked some outcry. In his Songs before Sunrise, 1871, he
glorifies Freethought and Republicanism, with unsurpassed wealth
of diction and rhythm. Mr. Swinburne has put forward many other
volumes of melodious and dramatic poems, and also essays, studies,
and prose miscellanies.
Symes (Joseph), English lecturer and writer, b. Portland, 29 Jan. 1841,
of pious Methodist parents. In '64 he offered himself as candidate for
the ministry, and was sent to the Wesleyan College, Richmond, and in
'67 went on circuit as preacher. Having come to doubt orthodoxy,
he resigned in '72, preached his first open Freethought lecture
at Newcastle, 17 Dec. '76. Had several debates, wrote Philosophic
Atheism, Man's Place in Nature, Hospitals not of Christian Origin,
Christianity a Persecuting Religion, Blows at the Bible, etc. He
contributed to the Freethinker, and was ready to conduct it during
Mr. Foote's imprisonment. He went to Melbourne, Dec. '83, and there
established the Liberator, and has written Life and Death of My
Religion, '84; Christianity and Slavery, Phallic Worship, etc.
Symonds (John Addington), English poet and author, b. Bristol,
5 Oct. 1840, educated at Harrow and Oxford, and was elected in
'62 to a Fellowship at Magdalen College, which he vacated on his
marriage. His chief work is on the Renaissance in Italy, 7 vols.,
completed in '86. He has also written critical sketches, studies,
and poems. Ill health compels his living abroad.
Taine (Hippolyte Adolphe), D.C.L., brilliant French man of letters,
b. Vouziers, 21 April, 1828. Educated at the College Bourbon (now the
Condorcet Lyceum), in '53 he took the degree of Doctor of Letters. In
'56 appears his French Philosophers of the Nineteenth Century, in which
he sharply criticised the spiritualist and religious school. He came
to England and studied English Literature; his Hand History of which
was sent in for the Academy prize, '63, but rejected on the motion of
Bishop Dupanloup on account of its materialist opinions. Also wrote
on English Positivism, a study of J. S. Mill. In '71 Oxford made
him D.C.L., and in Nov. '78, he was elected to the French Academy;
his latest work is The Origins of Contemporary France.
Talandier (Alfred), French publicist, b. Limoges, 7 Sept. 1828. After
entering the bar, he became a socialist and took part in the revolution
of '48. Proscribed after 12 Dec. he came to England, started trades
unions and co-operation, translated Smiles's Self-Help, and wrote in
the National Reformer. Returned to Paris in '70 and became professor at
the Lycée Henri IV. In '74 he was deprived of his chair, but elected on
the Municipal council of Paris, and two years later chosen as deputy,
and was re-elected in '81. In '83 he published a Popular Rabelais
and has written in Our Corner on that great Freethinker.
Taubert (A.), the maiden name of Dr. Hartmann's first wife. She wrote
The Pessimists and their Opponents, 1873.
Taule (Ferdinand), M.D., of Strassburg, author of Notions on the
Nature and Properties of Organised Matter. Paris, 1866.
Taurellus (Nicolaus), German physician and philosopher, b. Montbéhard,
26 Nov. 1547, studied medicine at Tübingen and Basle. For daring to
think for himself, and asking how the Aristotelian doctrine of the
eternity of the world could be reconciled with the dogma of creation,
he was stigmatised as an atheist. Wrote many works in Latin, the
principal of which is Philosophiæ Triumphans, 1573. He died of the
plague 28 Sept. 1606.
Taylor (Robert), ex-minister, orator, and critic, b. Edmonton,
18 Aug. 1784. In 1805 he walked Guy's and St. Thomas's Hospital,
and became M.R.C.S., 1807. Persuaded to join the Church, he entered
St. John's, Cambridge, Oct. 1809, in Jan. '13 graduated B.A., and
soon after took holy orders. He was curate at Midhurst till '18, when
he first became sceptical through discussions with a tradesman. He
preached a sermon on Jonah which astonished his flock, and resigned. He
then went to Dublin and published The Clerical Review and started
"The Society of Universal Benevolence." In '24 he came to London and
started "The Christian Evidence Society," and delivered discourses with
discussion; also edited the Philalethian. In '27 he was indicted for
blasphemy, tried Oct. 24, after an able defence he was found guilty,
and on 7 Feb. '28 sentenced to one year's imprisonment in Oakham
Gaol. Here he wrote his Syntagma on the Evidences of Christianity,
and his chief work, The Diegesis, being a discovery of the origins,
evidences, and early history of Christianity. He also contributed a
weekly letter to The Lion, which R. Carlile started on his behalf. On
his liberation they both went on "an infidel mission" about the
country, and on May 30 the Rotunda, Blackfriars, was taken, where
Taylor attired in canonicals delivered the discourses published in
The Devil's Pulpit. He was again prosecuted, and on 4 July, '31, was
sentenced to two year's imprisonment. He was badly treated in gaol,
and soon after coming out married a wealthy lady and retired. Died
at Jersey, 5 June, 1844.
Taylor (Thomas), known as "The Platonist," b. London, 1758. He
devoted his life to the elucidation and propagation of the Platonic
philosophy. He translated the works of Plato, Aristotle, Porphyry, five
books of Plotinus, six books of Proclus, Gamblichus on the Mysteries,
Arguments of Celsus taken from Origen, Arguments of Julian against
the Christians, Orations of Julian, etc. He is said to have been so
thorough a Pagan that he sacrificed a bull to Zeus. Died in Walworth,
1 Nov. 1835.
Taylor (William), of Norwich, b. 7 Nov. 1765. He formed an acquaintance
with Southey, with whom he corresponded. His translations from
the German, notably Lessing's Nathan the Wise, brought him some
repute. He also wrote a Survey of German Poetry and English Synonyms,
1830. He edited the Norwich Iris, 1802, which he made the organ of his
political and religions views. In '10 he published anonymously A Letter
Concerning the Two First Chapters of Luke, also entitled Who was the
Father of Jesus Christ? 1810, in which he argues that Zacharias was
the father of Jesus Christ. Also wrote largely in the Monthly Review,
replying therein to the Abbé Barruel; and the Critical Review when
edited by Fellowes, in which he gave an account of the rationalism
of Paulus. Died at Norwich, 5 March, 1836.
Tchernychewsky (N. G.) See Chernuishevsky.
"Tela (Josephus)," the Latinised name of Joseph Webbe who in 1818
edited the Philosophical Library, containing the Life and Morals of
Confucius, Epicurus, Isoscrates, Mahomet, etc., and other pieces. Webbe
is also thought to have been concerned in the production of Ecce Homo,
'13. Cushing, in his Initials and Pseudonyms, refers Tela to "Joseph
Webb," 1735-87; an American writer; Grand Master of Freemasons in
America; died in Boston." I am not satisfied that this is the same
person.
Telesio (Bernardino), Italian philosopher, b. of noble family at
Cosenza, 1509. He studied at Padua, and became famous for his learning,
optical discoveries, and new opinions in philosophy. He wrote in
Latin On the Nature of Things according to Proper Principles, 1565. He
opposed the Aristotelian doctrine in physics, and employed mathematical
principles in explaining nature, for which he was prosecuted by the
clergy. He died Oct. 1588. His works were placed in the Index, but
this did not prevent their publication at Venice, 1590.
Telle (Reinier), or Regnerus Vitellius, Dutch Humanist, b. Zierikzee,
1578. He translated Servetus On the Errors of the Trinity, published
1620. Died at Amsterdam, 1618.
Testa (Giacinto), of Messina, Italian author of a curious Storia di
Gesù di Nazareth, 1870, in which he maintains that Jesus was the son
of Giuseppe Pandera, a Calabrian of Brindisi.
Thaer (Albrecht Daniel). German agriculturist, b. Celle, 14 May,
1752. Studied at Gottingen, and is said to have inspired Lessing's
work on The Education of the Human Race. Died 28 Oct. 1828.
Theodorus of Cyrene, a Greek philosopher, whose opinions resembled
those of Epicurus. He was banished for Atheism from his native city. He
resided at Athens about 312 B.C. When threatened with crucifixion, he
said it mattered little whether he rotted in the ground or in the air.
Theophile de Viau, French satiric poet, b. Clerac, 1590. For the
alleged publication of Le Parnasse Satyriques, he was accused of
Atheism, condemned to death, and burnt in effigy. He fled, and was
received by the Duc de Montmorency at Chantilly, where he died,
25 Sept. 1626.
Thompson (Daniel Greenleaf), American author of works on The Problem
of Evil, '87; The Religious Sentiments, etc. He is President of the
Nineteenth Century Club.
Thomson (Charles Otto), Captain, b. Stockholm, 3 Jan. 1833. Went to
sea in '49 and became a merchant captain in '57, and was subsequently
manager of the Eskilstuna gas works. At Eskilstuna he started a
Utilitarian Society in '88, of which he is president. He has done
much to support Mr. Lennstrand in his Freethought work in Sweden; has
translated articles by Ingersoll, Foote and others, and has lectured
on behalf of the movement. He shares in the conduct of Fritänkaren.
Thomson (James), Pessimistic poet, b. Port Glasgow, 23
Nov. 1834. Educated at the Caledonian Asylum, London, he became
a schoolmaster in the army, where he met Mr. Bradlaugh, whom he
afterwards assisted on the National Reformer. To this paper he
contributed many valuable essays, translations, and poems, including
his famous "City of Dreadful Night," the most powerful pessimistic
poem in the English language, (April, '74, afterwards published with
other poems in '80). "Vane's Story" with other poems was issued in
'81, and "A Voice from the Nile," and "Shelley" (privately printed in
'84). Thomson also contributed to the Secularist and Liberal, edited
by his friend Foote, who has published many of his articles in a
volume entitled Satires and Profanities, which includes "The Story of
a Famous Old Jewish Firm," also published separately. Thomson employed
much of his genius in the service of Freethought. Died 3 June, 1882.
Thomson (William), of Cork. A disciple of Bentham, and author of The
Distribution of Wealth, 1824; Appeal for Women, '25; Labor Reward,
'27, and in the Co-operative Magazine.
Thorild (Thomas), or Thoren, Swedish writer, b. Bohuslau, 18 April,
1759. In 1775 he studied at Lund, and in 1779 went to Stockholm,
and published many poems and miscellaneous pieces in Swedish, Latin,
German, and English, in which he wrote Cromwell, an epic poem. In
1786 he wrote Common Sense on Liberty, with a view of extending the
liberty of the press. He was a partisan of the French Revolution,
and for a political work was imprisoned and exiled. He also wrote a
Sermon of Sermons, attacking the clergy, and a work maintaining the
rights of women. Died at Greifswald; 1 Oct. 1808. He was a man far
in advance of his time, and is now becoming appreciated.
Thulie (Jean Baptiste Henri), French physician and anthropologist,
b. Bordeaux, 1832. In '56 he founded a journal, "Realism." In '66 he
published a work on Madness and the Law. He contributed to La Pensée
Nouvelle, defending the views of Büchner. He has written an able study,
La Femme, Woman, published in '85. M. Thulie has been President of
the Paris Municipal Council.
Tiele (Cornelis Petrus), Dutch scholar, b. Leyden, 16
Dec. 1830. Although brought up in the Church, his works all tell in
the service of Freethought, and he has shown his liberality of views
in editing the poems of Genestet together with his life, '68. He has
written many articles on comparative religion, and two of his works
have been translated into English, viz., Outlines of the History of
Religion, a valuable sketch of the old faiths, fourth ed. '88; and
Comparative History of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian Religions, '82.
Tillier (Claude), French writer, b. of poor parents, Clamecy,
11 April, 1801. He served as a conscript, and wrote some telling
pamphlets directed against tyranny and superstition, and some novels,
of which we note My Uncle Benjamin. Died at Nevers, 12 Oct. 1844. His
works were edited by F. Pyat.
Tindal (Matthew), LL.D., English Deist, b. Beer-ferris, Devon,
1657. Educated at Oxford, and at first a High Churchman, he was
induced to turn Romanist in the reign of James II., but returned to
Protestantism and wrote The Rights of the Christian Church. This work
was much attacked by the clergy, who even indicted the vendors. A
defence which he published was ordered to be burnt by the House of
Commons. In 1730 he published Christianity as Old as the Creation, to
which no less than 150 answers were published. He died 16 Aug. 1733,
and a second volume, which he left in MS., was destroyed by order of
Gibson, Bishop of London.
Toland (John), Irish writer, b. Redcastle, near Londonderry, 30
Nov. 1669. Educated as a Catholic, he renounced that faith in early
youth, went to Edinburgh University, where he became M.A. in 1690,
and proceeded to Leyden, studying under Spanheim, and becoming a
sceptic. He also studied at Oxford, reading deeply in the Bodleian
Library, and became the correspondent of Le Clerc and Bayle. In
1696 he startled the orthodox with his Christianity not Mysterious,
which was "presented" by the Grand Jury of Middlesex and condemned by
the Lower House of Convocation. The work was also burnt at Dublin,
Sept. 1697. He wrote a Life of Milton (1698), in which, mentioning
Eikon Basilike, he referred to the "suppositious pieces under the
name of Christ, his apostles and other great persons." For this he was
denounced by Dr. Blackhall before Parliament. He replied with Amytor,
in which he gives a catalogue of such pieces. He went abroad and
was well received by the Queen of Prussia, to whom he wrote Letters
to Serena (1704), which, says Lange, "handles the kernel of the
whole question of Materialism." In 1709 he published Adeisidænon and
Origines Judaicæ. In 1718 Nazarenus, on Jewish, Gentile and Mahommedan
Christianity, in which he gave an account of the Gospel of Barnabus. He
also wrote four pieces entitled Tetradymus and Pantheisticon, which
described a society of Pantheists with a liturgy burlesquing that
of the Catholics. Toland died with the calmness of a philosopher,
at Putney, 11 March, 1722. Lange praises him highly.
Tollemache (Hon. Lionel Arthur), b. 1838, son of Baron Tollemache,
a friend of C. Austin, of whom he has written. Wrote many articles
in Fortnightly Review, reprinted (privately) as Stones of Stumbling,
'84. Has also written Safe Studies, '84; Recollections of Pallison,
'85; and Mr. Romanes's Catechism, '87.
Tone (Theobald Wolfe), Irish patriot, b. Dublin, 20 June,
1763. Educated at Trinity College in 1784, he obtained a scholarship
in 1786, B.A. He founded the Society of United Irishmen, 1791. Kept
relations with the French revolutionists, and in 1796 induced the
French Directory to send an expedition against England. He was taken
prisoner and committed suicide in prison, dying 19 Nov. 1798.
Topinard (Paul), M.D., French anthropologist, b. Isle-Adam 1830. Editor
of the Revue d'Anthropologie, and author of a standard work on that
subject published in the Library of Contemporary Science.
Toulmin (George Hoggart), M.D., of Wolverhampton. Author of The
Antiquity and Duration of the World, 1785; The Eternity of the
Universe, 1789; the last being republished in 1825.
Tournai (Simon de). See Simon.
Traina (Tommaso), Italian jurist. Author of a work on The Ethics of
Herbert Spencer, Turin, 1881.
Travis (Henry), Dr., b. Scarborough, 1807. He interested himself
in the socialistic aspect of co-operation, and became a friend and
literary executor to Robert Owen. In '51-53 he edited Robert Owen's
Journal. He also wrote on Effectual Reform, Free Will and Law, Moral
Freedom and Causation, and A Manual of Social Science, and contributed
to the National Reformer. Died 4 Feb. 1884.
Trelawny (Edward John), b. Cornwall, Nov. 1792. Became intimate in
Italy with Shelley, whose body he recovered and cremated in August,
1822. He accompanied Byron on his Greek expedition, and married a
daughter of a Greek chief. He wrote Adventures of a Younger Son,
'31; and Records of Shelley, Byron, and the Author, '78. He died 13
Aug. 1881, and was cremated at Gotha, his ashes being afterwards placed
beside those of Shelley. Trelawny was a vehement Pagan despising the
creeds and conventions of society. Swinburne calls him "World-wide
liberty's lifelong lover."
Trenchard (John), English Deist and political writer, b. Somersetshire,
1669. He studied law, but abandoned it, and was appointed Commissioner
of Forfeited Estates in Ireland. In conjunction with Gordon he
wrote Cato's Letters on civil and religious liberty, and conducted
The Independent Whig. He sat in the House of Commons as M.P. for
Taunton; he also wrote the Natural History of Superstition, 1709; but
La Contagion Sacree, attributed to him, is really by d'Holbach. Died
17 Dec. 1723.
Trevelyan (Arthur), of Tyneholm, Tranent, N.B., a writer in the
Reasoner and National Reformer. Published The Insanity of Mankind
(Edinburgh, 1850), and some tracts. He was a Vice-President of the
National Secular Society. Died at Tyneholm, 6 Feb. 1878.
Trezza (Gaetano), Italian writer, b. Verona, Dec. 1828. Was brought
up and ordained a priest, and was an eloquent preacher. Study led him
to resign the clerical profession. He has published Confessions of a
Sceptic, '78; Critical Studies, '78; New Critical Studies, '81. He is
Professor of Literature at the Institute of High Studies, Florence. To
the first number of the Revue Internationale '83, he contributed Les
Dieux s'en vont. He also wrote Religion and Religions, '84; and a work
on St. Paul. A study on Lucretius has reached its third edition, '87.
Tridon (Edme Marie, Gustave), French publicist, b. Chatillon sur
Seine, Burgundy, 5 June, 1841. Educated by his parents who were rich,
he became a doctor of law but never practised. In '64 he published in
Le Journal des Ecoles, his remarkable study of revolutionary history
Les Hébertistes. In May, '65 he founded with Blanqui, etc., Le Candide,
the precursor of La Libre Pensée, '66, in both of which the doctrines
of materialism were expounded. Delegated in '65 to the International
Students Congress at Liége his speech was furiously denounced by Bishop
Dupanloup; he got more than two years' imprisonment for articles in
Le Candide and La Libre Pensée, and in Ste Pelagie contracted the
malady which killed him. While in prison he wrote the greater part
of his work Du Molochisme Juif, critical and philosophical studies
of the Jewish religion, only published in '84. After 4 Sept. '70,
he founded La Patrie en Danger. In Feb. '71 he was elected deputy to
the Bordeaux Assembly, but resigned after voting against declaration
of peace. He then became a member of the Paris Commune, retiring after
the collapse to Brussels where he died 29 Aug. 1871. He received the
most splendid Freethinker's funeral witnessed in Belgium.
Truebner (Nicolas), publisher, b. Heidelberg, 17 June, 1817. After
serving with Longman and Co., he set up in business, and distinguished
himself by publishing works on Freethought, religions, philosophy
and Oriental literature. Died London, 30 March, 1884.
Truelove (Edward), English publisher, b. 29 Oct. 1809. Early in
life he embraced the views of Robert Owen, and for nine years was
secretary of the John Street Institution. In '44 and '45 he threw
in his lot with the New Harmony Community, Hampshire. In '52 he
took a shop in the Strand, where he sold advanced literature. He
published Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary and Romances, Paine's
complete works, D'Holbach's System of Nature, and Taylor's Syntagma
and Diegesis. In '58 he was prosecuted for publishing a pamphlet on
Tyrannicide, by W. E. Adams, but the prosecution was abandoned. In
'78 he was, after two trials, sentenced to four months' imprisonment
for publishing R. D. Owen's Moral Physiology. Upon his release he
was presented with a testimonial and purse of 200 sovereigns.
Trumbull (Matthew M.), American general, a native of London,
b. 1826. About the age of twenty he went to America, served in the
army in Mexico, and afterwards in the Civil War. General Grant made
him Collector of Revenue for Iowa. He held that office eight years,
and then visited England. In 1882 he went to Chicago, where he exerted
himself on behalf of a fair trial for the Anarchists.
Tschirnhausen (Walthier Ehrenfried), German Count, b. 1651. He was a
friend of Leibniz and Wolff, and in philosophy a follower of Spinoza,
though he does not mention him. Died 1708.
Tucker (Benjamin R.), American writer, b. Dartmouth, Mass., 17 April,
1854. Edits Liberty, of Boston.
Turbiglio (Sebastiano), Italian philosopher, b. Chiusa, 7 July, 1842,
author of a work on Spinoza and the Transformation of his Thoughts,
1875.
Turgenev (Ivan Sergyeevich), Russian novelist, b. Orel, 28
Oct. 1818. In his novels, Fathers and Sons and Virgin Soil he has
depicted characters of the Nihilist movement. Died at Bougival,
near Paris, 3 Sept. 1883.
Turner (William), a surgeon of Liverpool, who, under the name of
William Hammon, published an Answer to Dr. Priestley's Letters to a
Philosophical Unbeliever, 1782, in which he avows himself an Atheist.
Tuuk (Titia, Van der), Dutch lady, b. Zandt, 27 Nov. 1854. Was
converted to Freethought by reading Dekker, and is now one of the
editors of De Dageraad.
Twesten (Karl), German publicist and writer, b. Kiel, 22 April,
1820. Studied law, '38-41, in Berlin and Heidelberg, and became
magistrate in Berlin and one of the founders of the National Liberal
Party. Wrote on the religious, political, and social ideas of Asiatics
and Egyptians (2 vols.), '72. Died Berlin, 14 Oct. 1870.
Tylor (Edward Burnet), D.C.L., F.R.S., English anthropologist,
b. Camberwell, 2 Oct. 1832. He has devoted himself to the study
of the races of mankind, and is the first living authority upon
the subject. He has wrote Anahuac, or Mexico and the Mexicans, '61;
Researches into the Early History of Mankind, '65; Primitive Culture;
being researches into the development of mythology, philosophy,
religion, art, and custom (2 vols.), '71. In this splendid work he
traces religion to animism, the belief in spirits. He has also written
an excellent handbook of Anthropology, an introduction to the Study
of Man and Civilisation, '81; and contributed to the Encyclopædia
Britannica, as well as to periodical literature. He is President of
the Anthropological Society.
Tyndall (John), LL.D., F.R.S., Irish scientist, b. near Carlow,
1820. In '47 he became a teacher in Queenswood College (Hants), and
afterwards went to Germany to study. In '56 he went to Switzerland
with Professor Huxley, and they wrote a joint work on glaciers. He
contributed to the Fortnightly Review, notably an article on Miracles
and Special Providence, '66. In '72 he went on a lecturing tour in
the United States, and two years later was president of the British
Association. His address at Belfast made a great stir, and has been
published. In addition to other scientific works he has published
popular Fragments of Science, which has gone through several editions.
Tyrell (Henry). See Church.
Tyssot de Patot (Simon), b. of French family in Delft, 1655. He
became professor of mathematics at Deventer. Under the pen name of
"Jacques Massé" he published Voyages and Adventures, Bordeaux, 1710,
a work termed atheistic and scandalous by Reimmann. It was translated
into English by S. Whatley, 1733, and has been attributed to Bayle.
Ueberweg (Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Leichlingen 22 Jan. 1826;
studied at Göttingen and Berlin, and became Professor of Philosophy at
Königsberg, where he died 9 June, 1871. His chief work is a History
of Philosophy. Lange cites Czolbe as saying "He was in every way
distinctly an Atheist and Materialist."
Uhlich (Johann Jacob Marcus Lebericht), German religious reformer,
b. Köthen 27 Feb. 1799. He studied at Halle and became a preacher. For
his rationalistic views he was suspended in 1847, and founded the
Free Congregation at Magdeburg. He wrote numerous brochures defending
his opinions. His Religion of Common Sense has been translated and
published in America. Died at Magdeburg, 23 March, 1872.
Ule (Otto), German scientific writer, b. Lossow 22 Jan. 1820. Studied
at Halle and Berlin. In '52 he started the journal Die Natur, and
wrote many works popularising science. Died at Halle 6 Aug. 1876.
Underwood (Benjamin F.). American lecturer and writer, b. New York
6 July, 1839. Has been a student and a soldier in the Civil War. He
fought at Ball's Bluff, Virginia, 21 Oct. '61, was wounded and held
prisoner in Richmond for nine months. In '81 he edited the Index in
conjunction with Mr. Potter, and in '87 started The Open Court at
Chicago. He has had numerous debates; those with the Rev. J. Marples
and O. A. Burgess being published. He has also published Essays and
Lectures, The Religion of Materialism, Influence of Christianity
on Civilisation, etc. His sister, Sara A., has written Heroines of
Freethought, New York, 1876.
Vacherot (Etienne), French writer, b. Langres, 29 July, 1809. In '39 he
replaced Victor Cousin in the Chair of Philosophy at the Sorbonne. For
his free opinions expressed in his Critical History of the School
of Alexandria, a work in three vols. crowned by the Institute,
'46-51, he was much attacked by the clergy and at the Empire lost
his position. He afterwards wrote Essays of Critical Philosophy,
'64, and La Religion, '69.
Vacquerie (Auguste), French writer, b. Villequier, 1819. A friend of
Victor Hugo. He has written many dramas and novels of merit, and was
director of Le Rappel.
Vaillant (Edouard Marie), French publicist, b. Vierzon, 26
Jan. 1840. Educated at Paris and Germany. A friend of Tridon he
took part in the Commune, and in '84 was elected Muncipal Councillor
of Paris.
Vairasse (Denis) d'Alais, French writer of the seventeenth century. He
became both soldier and lawyer. Author of Histoire des Sevarambes,
1677; imaginary travels in which he introduced free opinions and
satirised Christianity.
Vale (Gilbert) author, b. London, 1788. He was intended for the church,
but abandoned the profession and went to New York, where he edited
the Citizen of the World and the Beacon. He published Fanaticism;
its Source and Influence, N.Y. 1835, and a Life of Paine, '41. Died
Brooklyn, N.Y. 17 Aug. 1866.
Valk (T. A. F. van der), Dutch Freethinker, who, after being a
Christian missionary in Java, changed his opinions, and wrote in De
Dageraad between 1860-70, using the pen name of "Thomas."
Valla (Lorenzo), Italian critic, b. Piacenza, 1415. Having hazarded
some free opinions respecting Catholic doctrines, he was condemned to
be burnt, but was saved by Alphonsus, King of Naples. Valla was then
confined in a monastery, but Pope Nicholas V. called him to Rome and
gave him a pension. He died there, 1 Aug. 1457.
Vallee (Geoffrey), French martyr, b. Orleans, 1556. He wrote La
Béatitude des Chréstiens ou le Fléo de la Foy, for which he was accused
of blasphemy, and hanged on the Place de Gréve, Paris, 9 Feb. 1574.
Valliss (Rudolph), German author of works on The Natural History
of Gods (Leip., 1875); The Eternity of the World, '75; Catechism of
Human Duty, '76, etc.
Van Cauberg (Adolphe), Belgian advocate. One of the founders and
president of the International Federation of Freethinkers. Died 1886.
Van Effen. See Effen.
Vanini (Lucilio, afterwards Julius Cæsar), Italian philosopher and
martyr, b. Taurisano (Otranto), 1585. At Rome and Padua he studied
Averroism, entered the Carmelite order, and travelled in Switzerland,
Germany, Holland and France making himself admired and respected by
his rationalistic opinions. He returned to Italy in 1611, but the
Inquisition was on his track and he took refuge at Venice. In 1612 he
visited England, and in 1614 got lodged in the Tower. When released
he went to Paris and published a Pantheistic work in Latin On the
Admirable Secrets of Nature, the Queen and Goddess of Mortals. It was
condemned by the Sorbonne and burnt, and he fled to Toulouse in 1617;
but there was no repose for Freethought. He was accused of instilling
Atheism into his scholars, tried and condemned to have his tongue cut
out, his body burned and his ashes scattered to the four winds. This
was done 19 Feb. 1619. President Gramond, author of History of France
under Louis XIII., writes "I saw him in the tumbril as they led him
to execution, mocking the Cordelier who had been sent to exhort him
to repentance, and insulting our Savior by these impious words. 'He
sweated with fear and weakness, and I die undaunted.'"
Vapereau (Louis Gustave), French man of letters, b. Orleans 4 April,
1819. In '41 he became the secretary of Victor Cousin. He collaborated
on the Dictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiques and the Liberté
de Penser, but is best known by his useful Dictionnaire Universel
des Contemporains. In '70 he was nominated prefect of Cantal, but
on account of the violent attacks of the clericals was suspended in
'73 and resumed his literary labors, compiling a Universal Dictionary
of Writers, '76, and Elements of the History of French Literature,
1883-85.
Varnhagen von Ense (Earl August Ludwig Philipp), German author,
b. Dusseldorf, 21 Feb. 1785. He studied medicine and philosophy,
entered the Austrian and Russian armies, and served in the Prussian
diplomatic service. He was an intimate friend of Alex. von Humboldt,
and shared his Freethinking opinions. Died in Berlin, 10 Oct. 1858. He
vividly depicts the men and events of his time in his Diary.
Vauvenargues (Luc de Clapiers), Marquis; French moralist, b. Aix,
6 Aug. 1715. At eighteen he entered the army, and left the service
with ruined health in 1743. He published in 1746 an Introduction to
the Knowledge of the Human Mind, followed by Reflections and Maxims,
which was deservedly praised by his friend Voltaire. Died at Paris 28
May, 1747. His work, which though but mildly deistic, was rigorously
suppressed, and was reprinted about 1770.
Velthuysen (Lambert), Dutch physician, b. Utrecht, 1622. He wrote
many works on theology and philosophy in Latin. His works, De Officio
Pastorum and De Idolatria et Superstitione were proceeded against in
1668, but he was let off with a fine. Died 1685.
Venetianer (Moritz), German Pantheist, author of Der Allgeist, 1874,
and a work on Schopenhauer as a Scholastic.
Vereschagin (Vasily), Russian painter, b. Novgorod, 1842. He studied
at Paris under Gerome, took part in the Russo-Turkish war, and has
travelled widely. The realistic and anti-religious conceptions of his
Holy Family and Resurrection were the cause of their being withdrawn
from the Vienna Exhibition in Oct. '85, by order of the archbishop. In
his Autobiographical Sketches, translated into English, '87, he shows
his free opinions.
Vergniaud (Pierre Victurnien), French Girondist orator, b. Limoges,
31 May, 1759. He studied law, and became an advocate. Elected to
the Legislative Assembly in 1791, he also became President of the
Convention. At the trial of the King he voted for the appeal to
the people, but that being rejected, voted death. With Gensonné
and Guadet, he opposed the sanguinary measures of Robespierre, and,
being beaten in the struggle, was executed with the Girondins, 31
Oct. 1793. Vergniaud was a brilliant speaker. He said: "Reason thinks,
Religion dreams." He had prepared poison for himself, but as there
was not enough for his comrades, he resolved to suffer with them.
Verlet (Henri), French founder and editor of a journal, La Libre
Pensée, 1871, and author of a pamphlet on Atheism and the Supreme
Being.
Verliere (Alfred), French author of a Guide du Libre-Penseur (Paris,
1869); collaborated La Libre Pensée, Rationaliste, etc. To Bishop
Dupanloup's Athéisme et Peril Social he replied with Deisme et Peril
Social, for which he was condemned to several months' imprisonment.
Vermersch (Eugène), French journalist, b. Lille about 1840. Took part
in the Commune, and has written on many Radical papers.
Vernes (Maurice), French critic, b. Mauroy, 1845. Has published
Melanges de Critique Religieuse, and translated from Kuenen and Tiele.
Veron (Eugène), French writer and publicist, b. Paris, 29 May, 1825. He
wrote on many journals, founded La France Republicaine at Lyons, and
l'Art at Paris. Besides historical works he has written L'Esthetique
in the "Library of Contemporary Science," '78; The Natural History
of Religions, 2 vols., in the Bibliothèque Materialiste, '84; and La
Morale, '84.
Viardot (Louis), French writer, b. Dijon, 31 July, 1800. He came
to Paris and became an advocate, but after a voyage in Spain, left
the bar for literature, writing on the Globe National and Siècle. In
'41 he founded the Revue Independante with "George Sand," and Pierre
Leroux. He made translations from the Russian, and in addition to many
works on art he wrote The Jesuits, '57; Apology of an Unbeliever,
translated into English, '69, and republished as Libre Examen,
'71. Died 1883.
Vico (Giovanni Battista), Italian philosopher, b. Naples 1668. He
became Professor of Rhetoric in the University of that city, and
published a New Science of the Common Nature of Nations, 1725, in
which he argues that the events of history are determined by immutable
laws. It presents many original thoughts. Died Naples, 21 Jan. 1743.
Virchow (Rudolf), German anthropologist, b. Schivelbein Pomerania,
13 Oct. 1821. Studied medicine at Berlin and became lecturer, member
of the National Assembly of '48, and Professor of Pathological
Anatomy at Berlin. His Cellular Pathology, '58, established his
reputation. He was chosen deputy and rose to the leadership of the
Liberal opposition. His scientific views are advanced although he
opposed the Haeckel in regard to absolute teaching of evolution.
Vischer (Friedrich Theodor), German art critic, b. Ludwigsburg,
30 June, 1807. Was educated for the Church, became a minister, but
renounced theology and became professor of and is Jahrbücher der
Gegenwart, '44, was accused of blasphemy and for his Freethinking
opinions he was suspended two years. At the revolution of '48 he
was elected to the National Assembly. In '55 he became Professor
at Zürich. His work on Æsthetic, or the Science of the Beautiful,
'46-54, is considered classic. He has also written, Old and New,
'81, and several anonymous works. Died Gmunden, 14 Sept. 1887.
Vitry (Guarin de) French author of a Rapid Examination of Christian
Dogma, addressed to the Council of 1869.
Vloten (Johannes van), Dutch writer, b. Kampen, 18 Jan. 1818; studied
theology at Leiden and graduated D.D. in '43. He has, however, devoted
himself to literature, and produced many works, translating plays of
Shakespeare, editing Spinoza, and writing his life--translated into
English by A. Menzies. He edited also De Levensbode, 1865, etc.
Voelkel (Titus), Dr., German lecturer and writer, b. Wirsitz (Prussian
Poland) 14 Dec. 1841. Studied ('59-65) theology, natural philosophy,
and mathematics, and spent some years in France. He returned '70,
and was for ten years employed as teacher at higher schools. Since
'80 has been "sprecher" of Freethought associations and since '85
editor of the Neues Freireligiöses Sonntags-Blatt, at Magdeburg. In
'88 he was several times prosecuted for blasphemy and each time
acquitted. He represented several German societies at the Paris
Congress of Freethinkers, '89.
Voglet (Prosper), Belgian singer, b. Brussels, 1825. He was blinded
through his baptism by a Catholic priest, and has in consequence to
earn his living as a street singer. His songs, of his own composition,
are anti-religious. Many have appeared in La Tribune du Peuple,
which he edited.
Vogt (Karl), German scientist, b. Giessen, 5 July, 1817, the
son of a distinguished naturalist. He studied medicine and became
acquainted with Agassiz. In '48 he was elected deputy to the National
Assembly. Deprived of his chair and exiled, he became professor
of Natural History at Geneva. His lectures on Man, His Position in
Creation and in the History of the Earth, '63, made a sensation by
their endorsement of Darwinism. They were translated into English
and published by the Anthropological Society. He has also written
a Manual of Geology, Physiological Letters, Zoological Letters,
Blind Faith and Science, etc., and has contributed to the leading
Freethought journals of Germany and Switzerland.
Volkmar (Gustav), Swiss critic, b. Hersfeld, 11 Jan. 1809. Studied at
Marburg '29-32; became privat docent at Zurich, '53, and professor
'63. He has written rationalist works on the Gospel of Marcion,
'52; Justin Martyr, '53; the Origin of the Gospels, '66; Jesus and
the first Christian Ages, '82, etc.
Volney (Constantin François Chassebouf de), Count, French philosopher,
b. Craon (Anjou) 3 Feb. 1757. Having studied at Ancenis and Angers,
he went to Paris in 1774. Here he met D'Holbach and others. In 1783
he started for Egypt and Syria, and in 1787 published an account of
his travels. Made Director of Commerce in Corsica, he resigned on
being elected to the Assembly. Though a wealthy landlord, he wrote
and spoke for division of landed property. In 1791 his eloquent Ruins
appeared. During the Terror he was imprisoned for ten months. In '95
he visited America. Returning to France, Napoleon asked him to become
colleague in the consulship but Volney declined. He remonstrated
with Napoleon when he re-established Christianity by the Concordat,
April 1802. Among his other works was a History of Samuel and the
Law of Nature. Died 25 April, 1820.
Voltaire (François Marie. Arouet de), French poet, historian and
philosopher, b. Paris 21 Nov. 1694. Educated by the Jesuits, he
early distinguished himself by his wit. For a satirical pamphlet on
the death of Louis XIV he was sent to the Bastille for a year and
was afterwards committed again for a quarrel with the Chevalier de
Rohan. On his liberation he came to England at the invitation of Lord
Bolingbroke, and became acquainted with the English Freethinkers. His
Lettres Philosophiques translated as "Letters on the English," 1732,
gave great offence to the clergy and was condemned to be burnt. About
1735 he retired to the estate of the Marquise de Châtelet at Cirey,
where he produced many plays. We may mention Mahomet, dedicated
to the Pope, who was unable to see that its shafts were aimed at
the pretences of the church. In 1750 he accepted the invitation
of Frederick II. to reside at his court. But he could not help
laughing at the great king's poetry. The last twenty years of his
life was passed at Ferney near the Genevan territory, which through
his exertions became a thriving village. He did more than any other
man of his century to abolish torture and other relics of barbarism,
and to give just notions of history. To the last he continued to wage
war against intolerance and superstition. His works comprise over a
thousand pieces in seventy volumes. Over fifty works were condemned
by the Index, and Voltaire used no less than one hundred and thirty
different pen-names. His name has risen above the clouds of detraction
made by his clerical enemies. Died 30 May, 1778.
Voo (G. W. van der), Dutch writer, b. 6 April, 1806. For more than
half a century he was schoolmaster and teacher of the French language
at Rotterdam, where he still lives. He contributed many articles to
De Dageraad.
Vosmaer (Carel), Dutch writer, b. the Hague 20 March, 1826. Studied law
at Leyden. He edited the Tydstroom (1858-9) and Spectator (1860-73),
and wrote several works on Dutch art and other subjects. Died at
Montreux (Switzerland), 12 June, 1888.
Voysey (Charles), English Theist, b. London 18 March, 1828. Graduated
B.A. at Oxford, '51, was vicar of Healaugh, Yorkshire, '64-71, and
deprived 11 Feb. '71 for heresy in sermons published in The Sling
and the Stone. He has since established a Theistic Church in Swallow
Street, Piccadilly, and his sermons are regularly published. He has
also issued Fragments from Reimarus, '79, edited The Langham Magazine
and published Lectures on the Bible and the Theistic Faith, etc.
Vulpian (Edme Felix Alfred), French physician, b. 5 Jan. 1826. Wrote
several medical works and upon being appointed lecturer at the School
of Medicine, '69, was violently opposed on account of his Atheism. He
was afterwards elected to the Academy of Sciences. Died 17 May, 1887.
Wagner (Wilhelm Richard), German musical composer and poet, b. Leipsic,
22 May, 1813. From '42-49 he was conductor of the Royal Opera, Dresden,
but his revolutionary sentiments caused his exile to Switzerland, where
he produced his "Lohengrin." In '64 he was patronised by Ludwig II. of
Bavaria, and produced many fine operas, in which he sought that poetry,
scenery, and music should aid each other in making opera dramatic. In
philosophy he expressed himself a follower of Schopenhauer. Died at
Venice, 13 Feb. 1883.
Waite (Charles Burlingame), American judge, b. Wayne county, N.Y. 29
Jan. 1824. Educated at Knox College, Illinois, he was admitted to the
Bar in '47. After successful practice in Chicago, he was appointed
by President Lincoln Justice of the Supreme Court of Utah. In '81 he
issued his History of the Christian Religion to the year A.D. 200,
a rationalistic work, which explodes the evangelical narratives.
Wakeman (Thaddeus B.), American lawyer and Positivist, b. 29 Dec. 1834,
was one of the editors of Man and a president of the New York Liberal
Club. A contributor to the Freethinkers' Magazine.
Walferdin (François-Hippolyte), b. Langres, 8 June, 1795. A friend
of Arago he contributed with him to the enlargement of science, and
was decorated with the Legion of Honor in 1844. He published a fine
edition of the works of Diderot in '57, and left the bust of that
philosopher to the Louvre. Died 25 Jan. 1880.
Walker (E.), of Worcester. Owenite author of Is the Bible True? and
What is Blasphemy? 1843.
Walker (Edwin C.), editor of Lucifer and Fair Play, Valley Falls,
Kansas.
Walker (Thomas), orator, b. Preston, Lancashire, 5 Feb. 1858. Went
to America and at the age of sixteen took to the platform. In
'77 he went to Australia, and for a while lectured at the Opera,
Melbourne. In '82 he started the Australian Secular Association, of
which he was president for two years when he went to Sydney. In '85
he was convicted for lecturing on Malthusianism, but the conviction
was quashed by the Supreme Court. In '87 he was elected M.P. for
Northumberland district. Is President of Australian Freethought Union.
Walser (George H.), American reformer, b. Dearborn Co. Indiana,
26 May, 1834. Became a lawyer, and a member of the legislature
of his State. He founded the town of Liberal Barton Co. Missouri,
to try the experiment of a town without any priest, church, chapel
or drinking saloon. Mr. Walser has also sought to establish there a
Freethought University.
Ward (Lester Frank). American botanist, b. Joliet, Illinois, 18
June, 1841. He served in the National Army during the civil war and
was wounded. In '65 he settled at Washington and became librarian
of the U.S. bureau of statistics. He is now curator of botany and
fossil plants in the U.S. national museum. Has written many works
on paleo-botany, and two volumes of sociological studies entitled
Dynamic Sociology. He has contributed to the Popular Science Monthly.
Ward (Mary A.), translator of Amiel's Journal, and authoress of a
popular novel Robert Elsmere, 1888.
Warren (Josiah). American reformer, b. 26 June, 1798. He took an
active part in Robert Owen's communistic experiment at New Harmony,
Indiana, in '25-6. His own ideas he illustrated by establishing a
"time store" at Cincinnati. His views are given in a work entitled
True Civilisation. Died Boston, Mass. 14 April, 1874.
Washburn (L. K.), American lecturer and writer, b. Wareham, Plymouth,
Mass., 25 March, 1846. In '57 he went to Barre. Was sent to a Unitarian
school for ministers, and was ordained in Ipswich, Feb. '70. He read
from the pulpit extracts from Parker, Emerson, and others instead
of the Bible. He went to Minneapolis, where he organised the first
Freethought Society in the State. He afterwards resided at Revere,
and delivered many Freethought lectures, of which several have been
published. He now edits the Boston Investigator.
Waters (Nathaniel Ramsey), American author of Rome v. Reason, a memoir
of Christian and extra Christian experience.
Watson (James), English upholder of a free press, b. Malton (Yorks),
21 Sept. 1799. During the prosecution of Carlile and his shopmen in
1822 he volunteered to come from London to Leeds. In Feb. '23 he was
arrested for selling Palmer's Principles of Nature, tried 23 April,
and sentenced to twelve months' imprisonment, during which he read
Gibbon, Hume, and Mosheim. When liberated he became a compositor on the
Republican. In '31 Julian Hibbert gave him his type and presses, and he
issued Volney's Lectures on History. In Feb. '33 he was sentenced to
six months' imprisonment for selling The Poor Man's Guardian. Hibbert
left him £450, which he used in printing d'Holbach's System of Nature,
Volney's Ruins, F. Wright's Lectures, R. D. Owen's pamphlets, Paine's
works, and other volumes. Died at Norwood, 29 Nov. 1874.
Watson (Thomas), author of The Mystagogue, Leeds, 1847.
Watts (Charles), Secularist orator, b. Bristol, 28 Feb. 1835. Converted
to Freethought by hearing Charles Southwell, he became a lecturer
and assistant editor on the National Reformer. Mr. Watts has had
numerous debates, both in England and America, with Dr. Sexton,
Rev. Mr. Harrison, Brewin Grant, and others. He started the Secular
Review with G. W. Foote, and afterwards Secular Thought of Toronto. He
wrote a portion of The Freethinker's Text Book, and has published
Christianity: its Origin, Nature and Influence; The Teachings of
Secularism compared with Orthodox Christianity, and other brochures.
Watts (Charles A.), a son of above, b. 27 May, 1858. Conducts Watts's
Literary Gazette and edits the Agnostic Annual.
Watts (John), brother of Charles, b. Bedminster, Bristol, 2
Oct. 1834. His father was a Wesleyan preacher, and he was converted
to Freethought by his brother Charles. He became sub-editor of the
Reasoner, and afterwards for a time edited the National Reformer. He
edited Half Hours With Freethinkers with "Iconoclast," and published
several pamphlets, Logic and Philosophy of Atheism, Origin of Man,
Is Man Immortal? The Devil, Who were the Writers of the New Testament,
etc. Died 31 Oct. 1866.
Watts (of Lewes, Sussex), author of the Yahoo, a satire in verse
(first published in 1833), also The Great Dragon Cast Out.
Webber (Zacharias), Dutch painter, who in the seventeenth century
wrote heretical works On the Temptation of Christ and The Seduction
of Adam and Eve, etc. He defended Bekker, whom he surpassed in
boldness. Under the pen name J. Adolphs he wrote The True Origin,
Continuance and Destruction of Satan. Died in 1679.
Weber (Karl Julius), German author, b. Langenburg, 16 April,
1767. Studied law at Erlangen and Göttingen. He lived for a while
in Switzerland and studied French philosophy, which suited his
satirical turn of mind. He wrote a history of Monkery, 1818-20;
Letters of Germans Travelling in Germany, '26-28; and Demokritos,
or the Posthumous Papers of a Laughing Philosopher, '32-36. Died
Kupferzell, 19 July, 1832.
Weitling (Wilhelm), German social democrat, b. Magdeburg, 1808. He
was a leader of "Der Bund der Gerechten," the League of the Just,
and published at Zürich The Gospel of Poor Sinners. He also wrote
Humanity, As It Is and As It Should Be. He emigrated to America,
where he died 25 Jan. 1871.
Wellhausen (Julius), German critic, b. Hameln 17 May, 1844, studied
theology at Göttingen, and became professor in Griefswald, Halle,
and Marburg. Is renowned for his History of Israel in progress, '78,
etc., and his Prolegomena to the same, and his contributions to the
Encyclopædia Britannica.
Westbrook (Richard Brodhead), Dr., American author, b. Pike co.,
Pennsylvania, 8 Feb. 1820. He became a Methodist preacher in '40,
and afterwards joined the Presbyterians, but withdrew about '60,
and has since written The Bible: Whence and What? and Man: Whence and
Whither? In '88 Dr. Westbrook was elected President of the American
Secular Union, and has since offered a prize for the best essay on
teaching morality apart from religion.
Westerman (W. B.) During many years, from 1856-68, an active
co-operator on De Dageraad.
Westra (P.), Dutch Freethinker, b. 16 March, 1851. Has for some years
been active secretary of the Dutch Freethought society, "De Dageraad."
Wettstein (Otto), German American materialist, b. Barmen, 7 April,
1838. About '48 his parents emigrated. In '58 he set up in business as
a jeweller at Rochelle. He contributed to the Freethinkers' Magazine,
The Ironclad Age, and other journals, and is treasurer of the National
Secular Union.
White (Andrew Dickson), American educator, b. Homer, N.Y., 7
Nov. 1832. He studied at Yale, where he graduated in '53; travelled
in Europe, and in '57 was elected professor of history and English
literature in the University of Michigan. He was elected to the State
Senate, and in '67 became first president of Cornell, a university
which he has largely endowed. Among his works we must mention The
Warfare of Science (N.Y., '76) and Studies in General History and in
the History of Civilisation, '85.
Whitman (Walt), American poet, b. West Hills, Long Island, N.Y.,
31 May, 1819. Educated in public schools, he became a printer,
and travelled much through the States. In the civil war he served
as a volunteer army nurse. His chief work, Leaves of Grass, with
its noble preface, appeared in '55, and was acclaimed by Emerson as
"the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom that America has yet
contributed." It was followed by Drum Taps, November Boughs and Sands
at Seventy. This "good gray poet" has also written prose essays called
Democratic Vietas and Specimen Days and Collect.
Wicksell (Knut), Swedish author and lecturer, b. Stockholm, 30
Dec. 1851, studied at Upsala, and became licentiate of philosophy in
'85. Has written brochures on Population, Emigration, Prostitution,
etc., and anonymously a satirical work on Bible Stories, as by Tante
Malin. Represented Sweden at the Paris Conference of '89.
Wieland (Christopher Martin), German poet and novelist, b. near
Biberach, 5 Sept. 1733. A voluminous writer, he was called the
Voltaire of Germany. Among his works we notice Dialogues of the
Gods, Agathon, a novel, and Euthanasia, in which he argues against
immortality. He translated Horace, Lucian and Shakespeare. Died Weimer,
20 Jan. 1813. His last words were "To be or not to be."
Wiener (Christian), Dr., German author of a materialistic work on
the Elements of Natural Laws, 1863.
Wiessner (Alexander), German writer, author of an examination of
spiritualism (Leipsic, 1875).
Wigand (Otto Friedrich), German publisher, b. Göttingen, 10
Aug. 1795. In 1832 he established himself in Leipsic, where he
issued the works of Ruge, Bauer, Feuerbach, Scherr, and other
Freethinkers. Died 31 Aug. 1870.
Wightman (Edward), English anti-Trinitarian martyr of
Burton-on-Trent. Was burnt at Lichfield 11 April, 1612, being the
last person burnt for heresy in England.
Wihl (Ludwig), German poet, b. 24 Oct. 1807. Died Brussels, 16
Jan. 1882.
Wilbrandt (Adolf), German author, b. Rosbock, 24 Aug. 1837. Has
written on Heinrich von Kleist, Hölderlin, the poet of Pantheism,
and published many plays, of which we may mention Giordano Bruno,
1874, and also some novels.
Wilhelmi (Hedwig Henrich), German lecturess and author of Vortrage,
published at Milwaukee, 1889. She attended the Paris Congress of '89.
Wilkinson (Christopher), of Bradford, b. 1803. Wrote with Squire Farrah
an able Examination of Dr. Godwin's Arguments for the Existence of God,
published at Bradford, 1853.
Williams (David), Welsh deist, b. Cardiganshire, 1738. He became a
dissenting minister but after publishing two volumes of Sermons on
Religious Hypocrisy, 1774, dissolved the connections. In conjunction
with Franklin and others he founded a club and drew up a Liturgy on
the Universal Principles of Religion and Morality, which he used at a
Deistic chapel opened in Margaret Street, Cavendish Square, 7 April,
1776. He wrote various political and educational works, and established
the literary fund in 1789. Died Soho, London, 29 June, 1816.
Willis (Robert), physician and writer, b. Edinburgh, 1799. He studied
at the University and became M.D. in 1819. He soon after came to
London, and in '23 became M.R.C.S. He became librarian to the College
of Surgeons. Besides many medical works he wrote a Life of Spinoza,
'70, and Servetus and Calvin, '77. He also wrote on The Pentateuch and
Book of Joshua in the face of the Science and Moral Senses of our Age,
and A Dialogue by Way of Catechism, both published by T. Scott. Died
at Barnes, 21 Sept. 1878.
Wilson (John), M.A., of Trin. Coll., Dublin, author of Thoughts on
Science, Theology and Ethics, 1885.
Wirmarsius (Henrik), Dutch author of Den Ingebeelde Chaos, 1710.
Wislicenus (Gustav Adolf), German rationalist, b. Saxony, 20
Nov. 1803. He studied theology at Halle, and became a minister,
but in consequence of his work Letter or Spirit (1845) was suspended
and founded the Free Congregation. For his work on The Bible in the
Light of Modern Culture he was, in Sept. '53, sentenced to prison
for two years. He went to America, and lectured in Boston and New
York. He returned to Europe in '56, and stayed in Zürich, where he
died 14 Oct. 1785. His chief work, The Bible for Thinking Readers,
was published at Leipsic in '63.
Wittichius (Jacobus), Dutch Spinozist, b. Aken, 11 Jan. 1671. Wrote
on the Nature of God, 1711. Died 18 Oct. 1739.
Wixon (Susan H.), American writer and editor of the "Children's Corner"
in the Truthseeker, has for many years been an advocate of Freethought,
temperance, and women's rights. She was a school teacher and member
of the Board of Education of the City of Fall River, Mass., where
she resides. She contributes to the Boston Investigator.
Wollny (Dr. F.), German author of Principles of Psychology (Leipsic,
1887), in the preface to which he professes himself an Atheist.
Wollstonecraft (Mary), English authoress, b. Hoxton, 27 April,
1759. She became a governess. In 1796 she settled in London, and began
her literary labors with Thoughts on the Education of Daughters. She
also wrote a Vindication of the Rights of Man, in answer to Burke,
and Vindication of the Rights of Woman. In 1797 she married William
Godwin, and died in childbirth.
Wooley (Milton), Dr., American author of Science of the Bible 1877;
Career of Jesus Christ, '77; and a pamphlet on the name God. Died
Aug. 1885.
Woolston (Thomas), Rev. English deist, b. Northampton, 1669. He studied
at Cambridge, and became a Fellow at Sydney College and a minister. He
published in 1705 The Old Apology, which was followed by other works in
favor of an allegorical interpretation of Scripture. In 1726 he began
his Six Discourses upon the Miracles, which were assailed in forcible,
homely language. Thirty thousand copies are said to have been sold,
and sixty pamphlets were written in opposition. Woolston was tried for
blasphemy and sentenced (March, 1729) to one year's imprisonment and
a fine of £100. This he could not pay, and died in prison 29 Jan. 1733.
Wright (Elizur), American reformer, b. South Canaan, Litchfield
Co., Connecticut, 12 Feb. 1804. He graduated at Yale College,
'26. Having warmly embraced the principles of the Abolitionists,
he became secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society,
and edited the Abolitionist and Commonwealth. He was a firm and
uncompromising Atheist, and a contributor to the Boston Investigator,
the Freethinker's Magazine, etc. Died at Boston, 21 Dec. '85. His
funeral oration was delivered by Col. Ingersoll.
Wright (Frances), afterwards D'Arusmont, writer and lecturess,
b. Dundee, 6 Sept. 1795. At the age of eighteen she wrote A Few Days in
Athens, in which she expounds and defends the Epicurean philosophy. She
visited the United States, and wrote Views on Society and Manners
in America, 1820. She bought 2,000 acres in Tennessee, and peopled
it with slave families she purchased and redeemed. She afterwards
joined Owen's experiment; in part edited the New Harmony Gazette,
and afterwards the Free Inquirer. A Course of Popular Lectures was
published at New York in '29, in which she boldly gives her views on
religion. She also wrote a number of fables and tracts, and assisted
in founding the Boston Investigator. Died at Cincinnati, 14 Dec. 1852.
Wright (Henry Clarke), American reformer, b. Sharon, Litchfield
co. Connecticut, 29 Aug. 1797. A conspicuous anti-slavery orator,
he was a friend of Ernestine Rose, Lucretia Mott, etc. He wrote The
Living, Present and the Dead Past. Died Pawtucket, Rhode Island,
16 Aug. 1870.
Wright (Susannah), one of Carlile's shopwomen. Tried 14 Nov. 1822,
for selling pamphlets by Carlile. She made a good defence, in the
course of which she was continually interrupted.
Wundt (Wilhelm Max), German scientist, b. Neckaran (Baden),
16 Aug. 1832. His father was a clergyman. He studied medicine at
Tübingen, Heidelberg, and Berlin, and became professor of physiology at
Heidelberg in '64, and has since held chairs at Zurich and Leipsic. His
principal works are Principles of Physiological Psychology, '74;
Manual of Human Physiology; Logic, '83; Essays, '85; Ethik, '86.
Wuensch (Christian Ernest), German physician, b. Hohenstein, 1744. Was
Professor of Mathematics and Physics in Frankfort on the Oder, 1828.
Wyrouboff (Gr.), Count; Russian Positivist, who established the
Revue de Philosophie Positive with Littré, and edited it with him
from 1867-83.
Xenophanes, Greek philosopher, b. Colophon, about 600 B.C. He founded
the Eleatic school, and wrote a poem on Nature and Eleaticism, in
which he ridiculed man making gods in his own image.
Ximines (Augustin Louis), Marquis de, French writer, b. Paris, 26
Feb. 1726. Was an intimate friend of Voltaire, and wrote several
plays. Died Paris, 31 May, 1817.
York (J. L.), American lecturer, b. New York, 1830. He became a
blacksmith, then a Methodist minister, then Unitarian, and finally
Freethought advocate. He was for some years member of the California
Legislature, and has made lecturing tours in Australia and through
the States.
Yorke (J. F.), author of able Notes on Evolution and Christianity,
London, 1882.
Youmans (Edward Livingstone), American scientist, b. Coeymans, N.Y.,
3 June, 1821. Though partially blind he was a great student. He became
M.D. about 1851, and began to lecture on science, popularly expounding
the doctrines of the conservation of energy and evolution. He
popularised Herbert Spencer, planned the "International Scientific
Series," and in '72 established the Popular Science Monthly, in which
he wrote largely. Died at New York, 18 Jan. 1887.
Zaborowski Moindrin (Sigismond), French scientific writer, b. La
Créche, 1851. Has written on The Antiquity of Man, '74; Pre-historic
Man, '78; Origin of Languages, '79; The Great Apes, '81; Scientific
Curiosities, '83.
Zambrini (Francesco), Italian writer, b. Faenza, 25 Jan. 1810. Educated
at Ravenna and Bologna. He devoted himself to literature and produced
a great number of works. Died 9 July, 1887.
Zarco (Francisco), Mexican journalist, b. Durango, 4 Dec. 1829. Edited
El Siglo XIX and La Ilustracion, in which he used the pen-name of
"Fortun." He was elected to Congress in '55, and imprisoned by the
reactionaries in '60. Juarez made him Secretary of State and President
of Council. He was a friend of Gagern. Died Mexico, 29 Dec. 1869.
Zeller (Eduard), German critic, b. Kleinbottwar (Würtemberg), 22
Jan. 1814. Studied theology at Tübingen and Berlin, became professor
at Berne, '47. He married a daughter of Baur; gave up theology for
philosophy, of which he has been professor at Berlin since '72. Has
written a memoir of Strauss, '74; Outlines of the History of Greek
Philosophy, '83; Frederick the Great as a Philosopher, '86; and other
important works.
Zijde (Karel van der), Dutch writer, b. Overschie, 13 July, 1838. Has
been teacher at Rotterdam. Under the pen-name of M. F. ten Bergen
he wrote The Devil's Burial, 1874. Besides this he has written many
literary articles, and is now teacher of Dutch and German at Zaandam.
Zimmern (Helen), b. Hamburg, 25 March, 1846. Has lived in England
since '50, and is naturalised. She has written lives of Schopenhauer
and Lessing, and a paraphrase of Firdusi's Shah Nahmeh.
Zola (Emile), French novelist, b. of Italian father, Paris, 2 April,
1840. By his powerful collection of romances known as Les Rougon
Macquart, he made himself the leader of the "naturalist" school,
which claims to treat fiction scientifically, representing life as
it is without the ideal.
Zorrilla (Manuel Ruiz), Spanish statesman, b. Burgo-de-Osma, 1834,
became a lawyer, and in '56 was returned to the Cortes by the
Progressive party. For a brochure against the Neo-Catholics he was
prosecuted. In '70 he became President of the Cortes, and has since
been exiled for his Republicanism.
Zouteveen (H. H. H. van). See Hartogh.
Zuppetta (Luigi), Italian jurist and patriot, b. Castelnuovo, 21 June,
1810. He studied at Naples, took part in the democratic movement of
'48, was exiled and returned in 1860, and has been Professor of Penal
Law in the University of Pavia.