Potvin (Charles), Belgian writer b. Mons. 2 Dec. 1818, is member of the
Royal Academy of Letters, and professor of the history of literature
at Brussels. He wrote anonymously Poesie et Amour '58, and Rome and
the Family. Under the name of "Dom Jacobus" he has written an able
work in two volumes on The Church and Morality, and also Tablets of
a Freethinker. He was president of "La Libre Pensée" of Brussels from
'78 to '83, is director of the Revue de Belgique and has collaborated
on the National and other papers.
Pouchet (Felix Archimède), French naturalist, b. Rouen 26
Aug. 1800. Studied medicine under Dr. Flaubert, father of the author
of Mme. Bovary, and became doctor in '27. He was made professor of
natural history at the Museum of Rouen, and by his experiments enriched
science with many discoveries. He defended spontaneous generation and
wrote many monographs and books of which the principal is entitled
The Universe, '65. Died at Rouen, 6 Dec. 1872.
Pouchet (Henri Charles George), French naturalist, son of the
proceeding, b. Rouen, 1833, made M.D. in '64, and in '79 professor
of comparative anatomy in the museum of Natural History at Paris. In
'80 he was decorated with the Legion of Honor. He has written on The
Plurality of the Human Race, '58, and collaborated on the Siècle,
and the Revue des Deux Mondes and to la Philosophie Positive.
Pouchkine (A.), see Pushkin.
Pougens (Marie Charles Joseph de), French author, a natural son of the
Prince de Conti, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1755. About the age of 24 he was
blinded by small pox. He became an intimate friend of the philosophers,
and, sharing their views, embraced the revolution with ardor, though
it ruined his fortunes. He wrote Philosophical Researches, 1786, edited
the posthumous works of D'Alembert, 1799, and worked at a dictionary of
the French language. His Jocko, a tale of a monkey, exhibits his keen
sympathy with animal intelligence, and in his Philosophical Letters,
1826, he gives anecdotes of Voltaire, Rousseau, D'Alembert, Pechmeja,
Franklin, etc. Died at Vauxbuin, near Soissons, 19 Dec. 1833.
Poulin (Paul), Belgian follower of Baron Colins and author of What
is God? What is Man? a scientific solution of the religious problem
(Brussels, 1865), and re-issued as God According to Science, '75,
in which he maintains that man and God exclude each other, and that
the only divinity is moral harmony.
Poultier D'Elmolte (François Martin), b. Montreuil-sur-Mer, 31
Oct. 1753. Became a Benedictine monk, but cast aside his frock
at the Revolution, married, and became chief of a battalion of
volunteers. Elected to the Convention he voted for the death of
the King. He conducted the journal, L'Ami des lois, and became
one of the Council of Ancients. Exiled in 1816, he died at Tournay
in Belgium, 16 Feb. 1827. He wrote Morceaux Philosophiques in the
Journal Encyclopédique; Victoire, or the Confessions of a Benedictine;
Discours Décadaires, for the use of Theophilantropists, and Conjectures
on the Nature and Origin of Things, Tournay, 1821.
Powell (B. F.), compiler of the Bible of Reason, or Scriptures of
Ancient Moralists; published by Hetherington in 1837.
Prades (Jean Martin de), French theologian b. Castel-Sarrasin, about
1720. Brought up for the church, he nevertheless became intimate with
Diderot and contributed the article Certitude to the Encyclopédie. On
the 18th Nov. 1751 he presented to the Sorbonne a thesis for the
doctorate, remarkable as the first open attack on Christianity by
a French theologian. He maintained many propositions on the soul,
the origin of society, the laws of Moses, miracles, etc., contrary
to the dogmas of the Church, and compared the cures recorded in the
Gospels to those attributed to Esculapius. The thesis made a great
scandal. His opinions were condemned by Pope Benedict XIV., and he
fled to Holland for safety. Recommended to Frederick the Great by
d'Alembert he was received with favor at Berlin, and became reader to
that monarch, who wrote a very anti-Christian preface to de Prades'
work on ecclesiastical history, published as Abrége de l'Histoire
ecclesiastique de Fleury, Berne (Berlin) 1766. He retired to a benefice
at Glogau (Silesia), given him by Frederick, and died there in 1782.
Prater (Horatio), a gentleman of some fortune who devoted himself to
the propagation of Freethought ideas. Born early in the century, he
wrote on the Physiology of the Blood, 1832. He published Letters to
the American People, and Literary Essays, '56. Died 20 July, 1885. He
left the bulk of his money to benevolent objects, and ordered a deep
wound to be made in his arm to insure that he was dead.
Preda (Pietro), Italian writer of Milan, author of a work on Revelation
and Reason, published at Geneva, 1865, under the pseudonym of
"Padre Pietro."
Premontval (Andre Pierre Le Guay de), French writer, b. Charenton, 16
Feb. 1716. At nineteen years of age, while in the college of Plessis
Sorbonne, he composed a work against the dogma of the Eucharist. He
studied mathematics and became member of the Academy of Sciences
at Berlin. He wrote Le Diogene de D'Alembert, or Freethoughts on
Man, 1754, Panangiana Panurgica, or the false Evangelist, and Vues
Philosophiques, Amst., 2 vols., 1757. He also wrote De la Théologie
de L'Etre, in which he denies many of the ordinary proofs of the
existence of a God. Died Berlin, 1767.
Priestley (Joseph), LL.D., English philosopher, b. Fieldhead, near
Leeds, 18 March, 1733. Brought up as a Calvinist, he found his way
to broad Unitarianism. Famous as a pneumatic chemist, he defended the
doctrine of philosophical necessity, and in a dissertation annexed to
his edition of Hartley expressed doubts of the immateriality of the
sentient principal in man. This doctrine he forcibly supported in
his Disquisitions on Matter and Spirit, 1777. Through the obloquy
these works produced, he lost his position as librarian to Lord
Shelburne. He then removed to Birmingham, and became minister of
an independent Unitarian congregation, and occupied himself on his
History of the Corruptions of Christianity and History of the Early
Opinions Concerning Jesus Christ, which involved him in controversy
with Bishop Horsley and others. In consequence of his sympathy with
the French Revolution, his house was burnt and sacked in a riot,
14 July, 1791. After this he removed to Hackney, and was finally
goaded to seek an asylum in the United States, which he reached in
1794. Even in America he endured some uneasiness on account of his
opinions until Jefferson became president. Died 6 Feb. 1804.
Pringle (Allen), Canadian Freethinker, author of Ingersoll in Canada,
1880.
Proctor (Richard Anthony), English astronomer, b. Chelsea, 23 March,
1837. Educated at King's College, London, and at St. John's, Cambridge,
where he became B.A. in '60. In '66 he became Fellow of the Royal
Astronomical Society, of which he afterwards became hon. sec. He
maintained in '69 the since-established theory of the solar corona. He
wrote, lectured, and edited, far and wide, and left nearly fifty
volumes, chiefly popularising science. Attracted by Newman, he was for
a while a Catholic, but thought out the question of Catholicism and
science, and in a letter to the New York Tribune, Nov. '75, formally
renounced that religion as irreconcilable with scientific facts. His
remarks on the so-called Star of Bethlehem in The Universe of Suns,
and other Science Gleanings, and his Sunday lectures, indicated his
heresy. In '81 he started Knowledge, in which appeared many valuable
papers, notably one (Jan. '87), "The Beginning of Christianity." He
entirely rejected the miraculous elements of the gospels, which he
considered largely a rechauffé of solar myths. In other articles
in the Freethinkers' Magazine and the Open Court he pointed out the
coincidence between the Christian stories and solar myths, and also
with stories found in Josephus. The very last article he published
before his untimely death was a vindication of Colonel Ingersoll
in his controversy with Gladstone in the North American Review. In
'84 he settled at St. Josephs, Mobille, where he contracted yellow
fever and died at New York, 12 Sep. 1888.
Proudhon (Pierre Joseph), French anarchist and political thinker,
b. Besançon, 15 Jan. 1809. Self-educated he became a printer,
and won a prize of 1,500 francs for the person "best fitted for a
literary or scientific career." In '40 appears his memoir, What is
Property? in which he made the celebrated answer "C'est le vol." In
'43 the Creation of Order in Humanity appeared, treating of religion,
philosophy and logic. In '46 he published his System of Economical
Contradictions, in which appeared his famous aphorism, "Dieu,
c'est le mal." In '48 he introduced his scheme of the organisation
of credit in a Bank of the People, which failed, though Proudhon
saw that no one lost anything. He attacked Louis Bonaparte when
President, and was sentenced to three years' imprisonment and a fine
of 10,000 francs. On 2 Jan. '50 he married by private contract while
in prison. For his work on Justice in the Revolution and in the Church
he was condemned to three years' imprisonment and 4,000 francs fine in
'58. He took refuge in Belgium and returned in '63. Died at Passy,
19 Jan. 1865. Among his posthumous works was The Gospels Annotated,
'66. Proudhon was a bold and profound thinker of noble aspirations,
but he lacked the sense of art and practicability. His complete works
have been published in 26 vols.
Protagoras, Greek philosopher, b. Abdera, about 480 B.C. Is said to
have been a disciple of Democritus, and to have been a porter before
he studied philosophy. He was the first to call himself a sophist. He
wrote in a book on the gods, "Respecting the gods, I am unable to
know whether they exist or do not exist." For this he was impeached
and banished, and his book burnt. He went to Epirus and the Greek
Islands, and died about 411. He believed all things were in flux,
and summed up his conclusions in the proposition that "man is the
measure of all things, both of that which exists and that which does
not exist." Grote, who defends the Sophists, says his philosophy "had
the merit of bringing into forcible relief the essentially relative
nature of cognition."
Prudhomme (Sully). See Sully Prudhomme.
Pückler Muskau (Hermann Ludwig Heinrich), Prince, a German writer,
b. Muskau, 30 Oct. 1785. He travelled widely and wrote his observations
in a work entitled Letters of a Defunct, 1830; this was followed by
Tutti Frutti, '32; Semilasso in Africa, '36, and other works. Died
4 Feb. 1871.
Pushkin (Aleksandr Sergyeevich), eminent Russian poet, often
called the Russian Byron, b. Pskow, 26 May, 1799. From youth he
was remarkable for his turbulent spirit, and his first work, which
circulated only in manuscript, was founded on Parny's Guerre des
Dieux, and entitled the Gabrielade, the archangel being the hero. He
was exiled by the Emperor, but, inspired largely by reading Voltaire
and Byron, put forward numerous poems and romances, of which the most
popular is Eugene Onéguine, an imitation of Don Juan. He also wrote
some histories and founded the Sovremennik (Contemporary), 1836. In
Jan. 1837 he was mortally wounded in a duel.
Putnam (Samuel P.), American writer and lecturer, brought up as a
minister. He left that profession for Freethought, and became secretary
to the American Secular Union, of which he was elected president in
Oct. 1887. In '88 he started Freethought at San Francisco in company
with G. Macdonald. Has written poems, Prometheus, Ingersoll and Jesus,
Adami and Heva; romances entitled Golden Throne, Waifs and Wanderings,
and Gottlieb, and pamphlets on the Problem of the Universe, The New
God, and The Glory of Infidelity.
Putsage (Jules), Belgian follower of Baron Colins, founder of the
Colins Philosophical Society at Mons; has written on Determinism and
Rational Science, Brussels 1885, besides many essays in La Philosophie
de L'Avenir of Paris and La Societe Nouvelle of Brussels.
Pyat (Felix) French socialist, writer and orator, b. Vierzon, 4
Oct. 1810. His father was religious and sent him to a Jesuit college
at Bourges, but he here secretly read the writings of Beranger and
Courier. He studied law, but abandoned it for literature, writing in
many papers. He also wrote popular dramas, as The Rag-picker of Paris,
'47. After '52 he lived in England, where he wrote an apology for
the attempt of Orsini, published by Truelove, '58. In '71 he founded
the journal le Combat. Elected to the National Assembly he protested
against the treaty of peace, was named member of the Commune and
condemned to death in '73. He returned to France after the armistice,
and has sat as deputy for Marseilles. Died, Saint Gerainte near Nice,
3 Aug. 1889.
Pyrrho. Greek philosopher, a native of Elis, in Peloponesus, founder of
a sceptical school about the time of Epicurus; is said to have been
attracted to philosophy by the books of Democritus. He attached himself
to Anaxarchus, and joined her in the expedition of Alexander the Great,
and became acquainted with the philosophy of the Magi and the Indian
Gymnosophists. He taught the wisdom of doubt, the uncertainty of all
things, and the rejection of speculation. His disciples extolled his
equanimity and independence of externals. It is related that he kept
house with his sister, and shared with her in all domestic duties. He
reached the age of ninety years, and after his death the Athenians
honored him with a statue. He left no writings, but the tenets of his
school, which were much misrepresented, may be gathered from Sextus
and Empiricus.
Quental. See Anthero de Quental.
"Quepat (Nérée.") See Paquet (René).
Quesnay (François), French economist, b. Mérey, 4 June 1694. Self
educated he became a physician, but is chiefly noted for his Tableau
Economique, 1708, and his doctrine of Laissez Faire. He derived moral
and social rules from physical laws. Died Versailles, 16 Dec. 1774.
Quinet (Edgar), French writer, b. Bourgen Bresse, 17 Feb. 1803. He
attracted the notice of Cousin by a translation of Herder's The
Philosophy of History. With his friend Michelet he made many attacks
on Catholicism, the Jesuits being their joint work. He fought in
the Revolution of '48, and opposed the Second Empire. His work on
The Genius of Religion, '42, is profound, though mystical, and his
historical work on The Revolution, '65 is a masterpiece. Died at
Versailles, 27 March, 1875.
Quintin (Jean), Heretic of Picardy, and alleged founder of the
Libertines. He is said to have preached in Holland and Brabant in
1525, that religion was a human invention. Quintin was arrested and
burnt at Tournay in 1530.
Quris (Charles), French advocate of Angers, who has published some
works on law and La Défense Catholique et la Critique, Paris, 1864.
Rabelais (François), famous and witty French satirist and philosopher,
b. Chinon, Touraine, 7 Jan. 1495. At an early age he joined the order
of Franciscans, but finding monastic life incompatible with his genial
temper, quitted the convent without the leave of his superior. He
studied medicine at Montpelier about 1530, after which he practised
at Lyons. His great humorous work, published anonymously in 1535, was
denounced as heretical by the clergy for its satires, not only on their
order but their creed. The author was protected by Francis I. and was
appointed curé of Meudon. Died at Paris, 9 April, 1553. His writings
show surprising fertility of mind, and Coleridge says, "Beyond a
doubt he was among the deepest as well as boldest thinkers of his age."
Radenhausen (Christian), German philosopher, b. Friedrichstadt, 3
Dec. 1813. At first a merchant and then a lithographer, he resided
at Hamburg, where he published Isis, Mankind and the World (4 vols.),
'70-72; Osiris, '74; The New Faith, '77; Christianity is Heathenism,
'81; The True Bible and the False, '87; Esther, '87.
Radicati (Alberto di), Count. See Passerano.
Ragon (Jean Marie de), French Freemason, b. Bray-sur-Seine, 1781. By
profession a civil engineer at Nancy, afterwards Chief of Bureau to
the Minister of the Interior. Author of many works on Freemasonry,
and The Mass and its Mysteries Compared with the Ancient Mysteries,
1844. Died at Paris, 1862.
Ram (Joachim Gerhard), Holstein philosopher of the seventeenth century,
who was accused of Atheism.
Ramaer (Anton Gerard Willem), Dutch writer b. Jever, East Friesland,
2 Aug. 1812. From '29 he served as officer in the Dutch army. He
afterwards became a tax collector, and in '60 was pensioned. He wrote
on Schopenhauer and other able works, and also contributed largely
to De Dageraad, often under the pseudonym of "Laçhmé." He had a noble
mind and sacrificed much for his friends and the good cause. Died 16
Feb. 1867.
Ramee (Louise de la), English novelist, b., of French extraction,
Bury St. Edmunds, 1840. Under the name of "Ouida," a little sister's
mispronunciation of Louisa, she has published many popular novels,
exhibiting her free and pessimistic opinions. We mention Tricotin,
Folle Farine, Signa, Moths and A Village Commune. She has lived much
in Italy, where the scenes of several novels are placed.
Ramee (Pierre de la) called Ramus, French humanist, b. Cuth
(Vermandois) 1515. He attacked the doctrines of Aristotle, was accused
of impiety, and his work suppressed 1543. He lost his life in the
massacre of St. Bartholomew, 26 Aug. 1572.
Ramsey (William James), b. London, 8 June, 1844. Becoming a Freethinker
early in life, he for some time sold literature at the Hall of Science
and became manager of the Freethought Publishing Co. Starting in
business for himself he published the Freethinker, for which in '82
he was prosecuted with Mr. Foote and Mr. Kemp. Tried in March '83,
after a good defence, he was sentenced to nine months' imprisonment,
and on Mr. Foote's release acted as printer of the paper.
Ranc (Arthur), French writer and deputy, b. Poitiers, 10 Dec. 1831,
and was brought up a Freethinker and Republican by his parents. He
took the prize for philosophy at the College of Poitiers, and studied
law at Paris. He conspired with C. Delescluze against the Second
Empire and was imprisoned, but escaped to Geneva. He collaborated on
La Marseillaise, was elected on the Municipal Council of Paris in
'71, and Deputy, '73. Has written Under the Empire and many other
political works.
Randello (Cosimo), Italian author of The Simple Story of a Great
Fraud, being a criticism of the origin of Christianity, directed
against Pauline theology, published at Milan, 1882.
Rapisardi (Mario), Italian poet, b. Catania, Sicily, 1843. Has
translated Lucretius, '80, and published poems on Lucifer, and The
Last Prayer of Pius IX., '71, etc.
Raspail (François Vincent), French chemist and politician b. Carpentras
24 Jan. 1794, was brought up by ecclesiastics and intended for the
Church. He became, while quite young, professor of philosophy at the
theological seminary of Avignon but an examination of theological
dogmas led to their rejection. He went to Paris, and from 1815-24 gave
lessons, and afterwards became a scientific lecturer. He took part
in the Revolution of '30. Louis Philippe offered him the Legion of
Honor but he refused. Taking part in all the revolutionary outbreaks
he was frequently imprisoned. Elected to the chamber in '69 and sat
on the extreme left. Died at Arcueil 6 Jan. 1878.
Rau (Herbert), German rationalist b. Frankfort 11 Feb. 1813. He studied
theology and became preacher to free congregations in Stuttgart and
Mannheim. He wrote Gospel of Nature, A Catechism of the Religion of
the Future, and other works. Died Frankfort 26 Sept. 1876.
Rawson (Albert Leighton) LL.D. American traveller and author,
b. Chester, Vermont 15 Oct. 1829. After studying law, theology, and
art, he made four visits to the East, and made in '51-2 a pilgrimage
from Cairo to Mecca, disguised as a Mohammedan student of medicine. He
has published many maps and typographical and philological works,
and illustrated Beecher's Life of Jesus. Has also written on
the Antiquities of the Orient, New York, '70, and Chorography of
Palestine, London, '80. Has written in the Freethinkers' Magazine,
maintaining that the Bible account of the twelve tribes of Israel
is non-historical.
Raynal (Guillaume Thomas François) l'abbé, French historian and
philosopher, b. Saint Geniez, 12 April, 1713. He was brought up as a
priest but renounced that profession soon after his removal to Paris,
1747, where he became intimate with Helvetius, Holbach, etc. With
the assistance of these, and Diderot, Pechmeja, etc., he compiled a
philosophical History of European establishments in the two Indies
(4 vols. 1770 and 1780), a work full of reflections on the religious
and political institutions of France. It made a great outcry, was
censured by the Sorbonne, and was burnt by order of Parliament 29 May,
1781. Raynal escaped and passed about six years in exile. Died near
Paris, 6 March, 1796.
Reade (William Winwood), English traveller and writer, nephew of
Charles Reade the novelist, b. Murrayfield, near Crieff, Scotland,
26 Dec. 1824. He studied at Oxford, then travelled much in the heart
of Africa, and wrote Savage Africa, '63, The African Sketch Book,
and in '73, The Story of the Ashantee Campaign; which he accompanied
as Times correspondent. In the Martyrdom of Man ('72), he rejects
the doctrine of a personal creator. It went through several editions
and is still worth reading. He also wrote Liberty Hall, a novel,
'60; The Veil of Isis, '61, and See Saw, a novel, '65. He wrote his
last work The Outcast, a Freethought novel, with the hand of death
upon him. Died 24 April, 1875.
Reber (George), American author of The Christ of Paul, or the Enigmas
of Christianity (New York, 1876), a work in which he exposes the
frauds and follies of the early fathers.
Reclus (Jean Jacques Elisée), French geographer and socialist, the
son of a Protestant minister, b. Sainte-Foy-la-Grande (Gironde), 15
March, 1830, and educated by the Moravian brethren, and afterwards at
Berlin. He early distinguished himself by his love for liberty, and
left France after the coup d'état of 2 Dec. '51, and travelled till '57
in England, Ireland, and the North and South America, devoting himself
to studying the social and political as well as physical condition of
the countries he visited, the results being published in the Tour du
monde, and Revue des Deux Mondes, in which he upheld the cause of the
North during the American war. In '71 he supported the Commune and was
taken prisoner and sentenced to transportation for life. Many eminent
men in England and America interceded and his sentence was commuted
to banishment. At the amnesty of March '79, he returned to Paris,
and has devoted himself to the publication of a standard Universal
Geography in 13 vols. In '82 he gave two of his daughters in marriage
without either religious or civil ceremony. He has written a preface
to Bakounin's God and the State, and many other works.
Reddalls (George Holland), English Secularist, b. Birmingham,
Nov. 1846. He became a compositor on the Birmingham Daily Post, but
wishing to conduct a Freethought paper started in business for himself,
and issued the Secular Chronicle, '73, which was contributed to by
Francis Neale, H. V. Mayer, G. Standring, etc. He died 13 Oct. 1875.
Reghillini de Schio (M.), Professor of Chemistry and Mathematics,
b. of Venetian parents at Schio in 1760. He wrote in French an
able exposition of Masonry, 1833, which he traced to Egypt; and an
Examination of Mosaism and Christianity, '34. He was mixed in the
troubles of Venice in '48, and fled to Belgium, dying in poverty at
Brussels Aug. 1853.
Regnard (Albert Adrien), French doctor and publicist, b. Lachante
(Nièvre), 20 March, 1836, author of Essais d'Histoire et de
Critique Scientifique (Paris, '65)--a work for which he could
find no publisher, and had to issue himself--in which he proclaimed
scientific materialism. Losing his situation, he started, with Naquet
and Clemenceau, the Revue Encyclopédique, which being suppressed
on its first number, he started La Libre Pensée with Asseline,
Condereau, etc. His articles in this journal drew on him and Eudes
a condemnation of four months' imprisonment. He wrote New Researches
on Cerebral Congestion, '68, and was one of the French delegates to
the anti-Council of Naples, '69. Has published Atheism, studies of
political science, dated Londres, '78; a History of England since 1815;
and has translated Büchner's Force and Matter, '84. He was delegate
to the Freethinkers' International Congress at Antwerp, '85.
Regnard (Jean François), French comic poet, b. Paris. 8 Feb. 1655. He
went to Italy about 1676, and on returning home was captured by an
Algerian corsair and sold as a slave. Being caught in an intrigue
with one of the women, he was required to turn Muhammadan. The French
consul paid his ransom and he returned to France about 1681. He wrote
a number of successful comedies and poems, and was made a treasurer
of France. He died as an Epicurean, 4 Sept. 1709.
Regnier (Mathurin), French satirical poet, b. Chartres, 21
Dec. 1573. Brought up for the Church, he showed little inclination for
its austerities, and was in fact a complete Pagan, though he obtained
a canonry in the cathedral of his native place. Died at Rouen, 22
Oct. 1613.
Reich (Eduard) Dr., German physician and anthropologist of Sclav
descent on his father's side, b. Olmütz, 6 March 1839. He studied at
Jena and has travelled much, and published over thirty volumes besides
editing the Athenæum of Jena '75, and Universities of Grossenbain,
'83. Of his works we mention Man and the Soul, '72; The Church of
Humanity, '74; Life of Man as an Individual, '81; History of the Soul,
'84; The Emancipation of Women, '84.
Reil (Johann Christian), German physician, b. Rauden, East Friesland,
20 Feb. 1758. Intended for the Church, he took instead to medicine;
after practising some years in his native town he went in 1787
to Halle, and in 1810 he was made Professor of Medicine at Berlin
University. He wrote many medical works, and much advanced medical
science, displacing the old ideas in a way which brought on him the
accusation of pantheism. Attending a case of typhus fever at Halle
he was attacked by the malady, and succumbed 22 Nov. 1813.
Reimarus (Hermann Samuel), German philologist, b. Hamburg, 22
Dec. 1694. He was a son-in-law of J. A. Fabricus. Studied at Jena and
Wittenberg; travelled in Holland and England; and was appointed rector
of the gymnasium in Weimar, 1723, and in Hamburg, 1729. He was one of
the most radical among German rationalists. He published a work on
The Principle Truths of Natural Religion, 1754, and left behind the
Wolfenbüttel Fragments, published by Lessing in 1777. Died at Hamburg,
1 March, 1768. Strauss has written an account of his services, 1862.
Reitzel (Robert), German American revolutionary, b. Baden, 1849. Named
after Blum, studied theology, went to America, walked from New
York to Baltimore, and was minister to an independent Protestant
church. Studied biology and resigned as a minister, and became speaker
of a Freethought congregation at Washington for seven years. Is now
editor of Der Arme Teufel of Detroit, and says he "shall be a poor
man and a Revolutionaire all my life."
Remsburg (John E.), American lecturer and writer, b. 1848. Has
written a series of pamphlets entitled The Image Breaker, False
Claims of the Christian Church, '83, Sabbath Breaking, Thomas Paine,
and a vigorous onslaught on Bible Morals, instancing twenty crimes
and vices sanctioned by scripture, '85.
Renan (Joseph Ernest), learned French writer, b. Tréguier (Brittany)
27 Feb. 1823. Was intended for the Church and went to Paris to
study. He became noted for his linguistic attainment, but his
studies and independence of thought did not accord with his intended
profession. My faith, he says was destroyed not by metaphysics
nor philosophy but by historical criticism. In '45 he gave up all
thoughts of an ecclesiastic career and became a teacher. In '48
he gained the Volney prize, for a memoir on the Semitic Languages,
afterwards amplified into a work on that subject. In '52 he published
his work on Averroës and Averroïsm. In '56 was elected member of
the Academy of Inscriptions, and in '60 sent on a mission to Syria;
having in the meantime published a translation of Job and Song of
Songs. Here he wrote his long contemplated Vie de Jesus, '63. In
'61 he had been appointed Professor of Hebrew in the Institute of
France, but denounced by bishops and clergy he was deprived of his
chair, which was, however, restored in '70. The Pope did not disdain
to attack him personally as a "French blasphemer." The Vie de Jesus
is part of a comprehensive History of the Origin of Christianity, in
8 vols., '63-83, which includes The Apostles, St Paul, Anti-Christ,
The Gospels, The Christian Church, and Marcus Aurelius, and the end
of the Antique World. Among his other works we must mention Studies on
Religious History ('58), Philosophical Dialogues and Fragments ('76),
Spinoza ('77), Caliban, a satirical drama ('80), the Hibbert Lecture
on the Influence of Rome on Christians, Souvenirs, '84; New Studies
of Religious History,'84; The Abbess of Jouarre, a drama which made
a great sensation in '86; and The History of the People of Israel,
'87-89.
Renand (Paul), Belgian author of a work entitled Nouvelle Symbolique,
on the identity of Christianity and Paganism, published at Brussels
in 1861.
Rengart (Karl Fr.), of Berlin, b. 1803, democrat and freethought
friend of C. Deubler. Died about 1879.
Renard (Georges), French professor of the Academie of Lausanne;
author of Man, is he Free? 1881, and a Life of Voltaire, '83.
Renouvier (Charles Bernard), French philosopher, b. Montpellier,
1815. An ardent Radical and follower of the critical philosophy. Among
his works are Manual of Ancient Philosophy (2 vols., '44); Republican
Manual, '48; Essays of General Criticism, '54; Science of Morals, '69;
a translation, made with F. Pillon, of Hume's Psychology, '78; and A
Sketch of a Systematic Classification of Philosophical Doctrines, '85.
Renton (William), English writer, b. Edinburgh, 1852. Educated in
Germany. Wrote poems entitled Oil and Water Colors, and a work on The
Logic of Style, '74. At Keswick he published Jesus, a psychological
estimate of that hero, '76. Has since published a romance of the last
generation called Bishopspool, '83.
Rethore (François), French professor of philosophy at the Lyceum of
Marseilles, b. Amiens, 1822. Author of a work entitled Condillac,
or Empiricism and Rationalism, '64. Has translated H. Spencer's
Classification of Sciences.
Reuschle (Karl Gustav), German geographer, b. Mehrstetten, 12
Dec. 1812. He wrote on Kepler and Astronomy, '71, and Philosophy and
Natural Science, '74, dedicated to the memory of D. F. Strauss. Died
at Stuttgart, 22 May, 1875.
Revillon (Antoine, called Tony), French journalist and deputy,
b. Saint-Laurent-les Mâcon (Ain), 29 Dec. 1832. At first a lawyer in
'57, he went to Paris, where he has written on many journals, and
published many romances and brochures. In '81 he was elected deputy.
Rey (Marc Michel), printer and bookseller of Amsterdam. He printed
all the works of d'Holbach and Rousseau and some of Voltaire's,
and conducted the Journal des Savans.
Reynaud (Antoine Andre Louis), Baron, French mathematician, b. Paris,
12 Sept. 1777. In 1790 he became one of the National Guard of Paris. He
was teacher and examiner for about thirty years in the Polytechnic
School. A friend of Lalande. Died Paris, 24 Feb. 1844.
Reynaud (Jean Ernest), French philosopher, b. Lyons, 14 Feb. 1806. For
a time he was a Saint Simonian. In '36 he edited with P. Leroux the
Encyclopédie Nouvelle. He was a moderate Democrat in the Assembly
of '48. His chief work, entitled Earth and Heaven, '54, had great
success. It was formally condemned by a clerical council held at
Périgueux. Died Paris, 28 June, 1863.
Reynolds (Charles B.), American lecturer, b. 4 Aug. 1832. Was
brought up religiously, and became a Seventh Day Baptist preacher,
but was converted to Freethought. He was prosecuted for blasphemy
at Morristown, New Jersey, May 19, 20, 1887, and was defended by
Col. Ingersoll. The verdict was one of guilty, and the sentence was
a paltry fine of 25 dollars. Has written in the Boston Investigator,
Truthseeker, and Ironclad Age.
Reynolds (George William MacArthur), English writer; author of many
novels. Wrote Errors of the Christian Religion, 1832.
Rialle (J. Girard de), French anthropologist, b. Paris 1841. He
wrote in La Pensée Nouvelle, conducted the Revue de Linguistique et
de Philologie comparée, and has written on Comparative Mythology,
dealing with fetishism, etc., '78, and works on Ethnology.
Ribelt (Léonce), French publicist, b. Bordeaux 1824, author of several
political works and collaborator on La Morale Indépendante.
Ribeyrolles (Charles de), French politician, b. near Martel (Lot)
1812. Intended for the Church, he became a social democrat; edited the
Emancipation of Toulouse, and La Réforme in '48. A friend of V. Hugo,
he shared in his exile at Jersey. Died at Rio-Janeiro, 13 June, 1861.
Ribot (Théodule), French philosopher, b. Guingamp (Côtes du-Nord)
1839; has written Contemporary English Psychology '70, a resume of
the views of Mill, Bain, and Spencer, whose Principles of Psychology
he has translated. Has also written on Heredity, '73; The Philosophy
of Schopenhauer, '74; The maladies of Memory, personality and Will,
3 vols.; and Contemporary German Psychology. He conducts the Revue
Philosophique.
Ricciardi (Giuseppe Napoleone), Count, Italian patriot, b. Capodimonte
(Naples), 19 July, 1808, son of Francesco Ricciardi, Count of
Camaldoli, 1758-1842. Early in life he published patriotic poems. He
says that never after he was nineteen did he kneel before a priest. In
'32 he founded at Naples Il Progresso, a review of science, literature,
and art. Arrested in '34 as a Republican conspirator, he was imprisoned
eight months and then lived in exile in France until '48. Here he
wrote in the Revue Indépendante, pointing out that the Papacy from
its very essence was incompatible with liberty. Elected deputy to the
Neapolitan Parliament, he sat on the extreme left. He wrote a History
of the Revolution of Italy in '48 (Paris '49). Condemned to death in
'53, his fortune was seized. He wrote an Italian Martyrology from
1792-1847 (Turin '56), and The Pope and Italy, '62. At the time of the
Ecumenical Council he called an Anti-council of Freethinkers at Naples,
'69. This was dissolved by the Italian government, but it led to the
International Federation of Freethinkers. Count Ricciardi published
an account of the congress. His last work was a life of his friend
Mauro Macchi, '82. Died 1884.
Richepin (Jean), French poet, novelist, and dramatist, b. Médéah
(Algeria) in 1849. He began life as a doctor, and during the
Franco-German war took to journalism. In '76 he published the Song
of the Beggars, which was suppressed. In '84 appeared Les Blasphèmes,
which has gone through several editions.
Richer (Léon), French Deist and journalist, b. Laigh, 1824. He was
with A. Guéroult editor of l'Opinion Nationale, and in '69 founded and
edits L'Avenir des Femmes. In '68 he published Letters of a Freethinker
to a Village Priest, and has written many volumes in favor of the
emancipation of women, collaborating with Mdlle. Desraismes in the
Women's Rights congresses held in Paris.
Rickman (Thomas Clio), English Radical. He published several volumes
of poems and a life of his friend Thomas Paine, 1819, of whom he
also published an excellent portrait painted by Romney and engraved
by Sharpe.
Riem (Andreas), German rationalist b. Frankenthal 1749. He became
a preacher, and was appointed by Frederick the Great chaplain of a
hospital at Berlin. This he quitted in order to become secretary of the
Academy of Painting. He wrote anonymously on the Aufklaring. Died 1807.
Ritter (Charles), Swiss writer b. Geneva 1838, and has translated into
French Strauss's Essay of Religious History, George Eliot's Fragments
and Thoughts, and Zeller's Christian Baur and the Tübingen School.
Roalfe (Matilda), a brave woman, b. 1813. At the time of the blasphemy
prosecutions in 1843, she went from London to Edinburgh to uphold
the right of free publication. She opened a shop and circulated a
manifesto setting forth her determination to sell works she deemed
useful "whether they did or did not bring into contempt the Holy
Scriptures and the Christian Religion." When prosecuted for selling The
Age of Reason, The Oracle of Reason, etc., she expressed her intention
of continuing her offence as soon as liberated. She was sentenced to
two months imprisonment 23 Jan. '44, and on her liberation continued
the sale of the prosecuted works. She afterwards married Mr. Walter
Sanderson and settled at Galashiels, where she died 29 Nov. 1880.
Robert (Pierre François Joseph), French conventionnel and friend of
Brissot and Danton, b. Gimnée (Ardennes) 21 Jan. 1763. Brought up
to the law he became professor of public law to the philosophical
society. He was nominated deputy for Paris, and wrote Republicanism
adapted to France, 1790, became secretary to Danton, and voted for the
death of the king. He wrote in Prudhomme's Révolutions de Paris. Died
at Brussels 1826.
Robertson (A. D.), editor of the Free Enquirer, published at New
York, 1835.
Robertson (John Mackinnon), Scotch critic, b. Arran, 14 Nov. 1856. He
became journalist on the Edinburgh Evening News, and afterwards on
the National Reformer. Mr. Robertson has published a study of Walt
Whitman in the "Round Table Series." Essays towards a Critical Method,
'89, and has contributed to Our Corner, Time, notably an article on
Mithraism, March, '89, The Westminster Review, etc. He has also issued
pamphlets on Socialism and Malthusianism, and Toryism and Barbarism,
'85, and edited Hume's Essay on Natural Religion, '89.
Roberty (Eugène de), French positivist writer, of Russian birth,
b. Podolia (Russia), 1843; author of works on Sociology, Paris, '81,
and The Old and the New Philosophy, an essay on the general laws of
philosophic development, '87. He has recently written a work entitled
The Unknowable, '89.
Robin (Charles Philippe), French physician, senator member of the
Institute and of the Academy of Medecine, b. Jasseron (Aix), 4 June,
1821. Became M.D. in '46, and D.Sc. '47. In company with Littré he
refounded Nysten's Dictionary of Medicine, and he has written many
important medical works, and one on Instruction. In '72 his name was
struck out of the list of jurors on the ground of his unbelief in God,
and it thus remained despite many protests until '76. In the same
year he was elected Senator, and sits with the Republican Left. He
has been decorated with the Legion of Honor.
Robinet (Jean Baptiste René), French philosopher, b. Rennes, 23 June,
1735. He became a Jesuit, but gave it up and went to Holland to publish
his curious work, De la Nature, 1776, by some attributed to Toussaint
and to Diderot. He continued Marsy's Analysis of Bayle, edited the
Secret Letters of Voltaire, translated Hume's Moral Essays, and took
part in the Recueil Philosophique, published by J. L. Castilhon. Died
at Rennes, 24 March, 1820.
Robinet (Jean Eugène François), French physician and publicist,
b. Vic-sur-Seille, 1825. He early attached himself to the person
and doctrine of Auguste Comte, and became his physician and one of
his executors. During the war of '70 he was made Mayor of the Sixth
Arrondissement of Paris. He has written a Notice of the Work and
Life of A. Comte, '60, a memoir of the private life of Danton, '65,
The Trial of the Dantonists, '79, and contributed an account of the
Positive Philosophy of A. Comte and P. Lafitte to the "Bibliothèque
Utile," vol. 66, '81.
Roell (Hermann Alexander), German theologian, b. 1653, author of a
Deistic dissertation on natural religion, published at Frankfort in
1700. Died Amsterdam, 12 July, 1718.
Rogeard (Louis Auguste), French publicist, b. Chartres, 25 April,
1820. Became a teacher but was dismissed for refusing to attend
mass. In '49 he moved to Paris and took part in the revolutionary
movement. He was several times imprisoned under the Empire, and in
'65 was sentenced to five years' imprisonment for writing Les Propos
de Labienus (London, i.e. Zürich), '65. He fled to Belgium and wrote
some excellent criticism on the Bible in the Rive Gauche. In '71
he assisted Pyat on Le Vengeur, and was elected on the Commune but
declined to sit. An incisive writer, he signed himself "Atheist." Is
still living in Paris.
Rokitansky (Karl), German physician and scientist, founder of the
Viennese school in medicine, b. Königgrätz (Bohemia) 11 Feb. 1804,
studied medicine at Prague and Vienna, and received his degree of
Doctor in '28. His principal work is a Manual of Practical Anatomy,
'42-6. Died Vienna, 23 July, 1878.
Roland (Marie Jeanne), née Phlipon, French patriot, b. Paris, 17 March,
1754. Fond of reading, Plutarch's Lives influenced her greatly. At
a convent she noted the names of sceptics attached and read their
writings, being, she says, in turn Jansenist, stoic, sceptic, atheist,
and deist. The last she remained, though Miss Blind classes her with
Agnostics. After her marriage in 1779 with Jean Marie Roland de la
Platiêre (b. Lyons, 1732), Madame Roland shared the tasks and studies
of her husband, and the Revolution found her an ardent consort. On
the appointment of her husband to the ministry, she became the centre
of a Girondist circle. Carlyle calls her "the creature of Simplicity
and Nature, in an age of Artificiality, Pollution, and Cant," and
"the noblest of all living Frenchwomen." On the fall of her party
she was imprisoned, and finally executed, 8 Nov. 1793. Her husband,
then in hiding, hearing of her death, deliberately stabbed himself,
15 Nov. 1793.
Rolph (William Henry), German philosopher, b. of English father,
Berlin, 26 Aug. 1847. He became privat-docent of Zoology in the
University of Leipsic, and wrote an able work on Biological Problems,
'84, in which he accepts evolution, discards theology, and places
ethics on a natural basis. Died 1 Aug. 1883.
Romagnosi (Giovanni Domenico), Italian philosopher and jurist,
b. Salso Maggiore, 13 Dec. 1761. He published in 1791 an able work
on penal legislation, Genesis of Penal Law, many pages of which are
borrowed from d'Holbach's System of Nature. He became Professor of
Law in Parma, Milan, and Pavia. A member of the Italian Academy,
he was named professor at Corfu, where he died 8 June, 1835. In
'21 he wrote Elements of Philosophy, followed by What is a Sound
Mind? ('27) and Ancient Moral Philosophy, '32. A somewhat obscure
writer, he nevertheless contributed to the positive study of sociology.
Romiti (Guglielmo), Italian Positivist. Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Siena. Has published Anatomical Notes, and a Discourse
which excited some commotion among the theologians.
Romme (Gilbert), French Mathematician, b. Riou, 1750, became deputy
to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, and to the Convention in 1792. In
Sept. 1793 he introduced the new Republican Calendar, the plan of which
was drawn by Lalande, and the names assigned by Fabre d'Eglantine. He
advocated the Fêtes of Reason. Being condemned to death, he committed
suicide, 18 June, 1795. His brother Charles, b. 1744, was also an
eminent geometrician, and a friend of Laland. He died 15 June, 1805.
Ronge (Johannes), German religious reformer, b. Bischopwalde
(Silesia), 16 Oct. 1813. He entered the seminary of Breslau,
and became a Catholic priest in '40. His liberal views and bold
preaching soon led to his suspension. In '44 his letter denouncing the
worship of "the holy coat," exhibited by Arnoldi, Bishop of Treves,
made much clamor. Excommunicated by the Church, he found many free
congregations, but was proscribed after the revolution of '49 and took
refuge in England. In '51 he issued a revolutionary manifesto. In
'61 he returned to Frankfort, and in '73 settled at Darmstadt. Died
at Vienna, 25 Oct. 1887.
Ronsard (Pierre), French poet, b. of noble family 11 Sept. 1524. He
became page to the Duke of Orleans, and afterwards to James V. of
Scotland. Returning to France, he was a great favorite at the French
Court. Died 27 Dec. 1585.
Roorda van Eysinga (Sicco Ernst Willem), Dutch positivist, b. Batavia
(Java), 8 Aug. 1825. He served as engineer at Java, and was expelled
about '64 for writing on behalf of the Javanese. He contributed
to the De Dageraad and Revue Positive. Died Clarens (Switzerland),
23 Oct. 1887.
Roquetaillade (Jean de la), also known as Rupescina, early French
reformer of Auvillac (Auvergne), who entered the order of the
Franciscans. His bold discourses led to his imprisonment at Avignon
1356, by order of Innocent VI., when he wrote an apology. Accused
of Magic, Nostradamus says he was burnt at Avignon in 1362, but this
has been disputed.
Rose (Charles H.), formerly of Adelaide, Australia, author of A Light
to Lighten the Gentiles, 1881.
Rose (Ernestine Louise) née Süsmond Potowsky, Radical reformer
and orator, b. Peterkov (Poland), 13 Jan. 1810. Her father was
a Jewish Rabbi. From early life she was of a bold and inquiring
disposition. At the age of 17 she went to Berlin. She was in Paris
during the Revolution of '30. Soon after she came to England where she
embraced the views of Robert Owen, who called her his daughter. Here
she married Mr. William E. Rose, a gentleman of broad Liberal views. In
May '36, they went to the United States and became citizens of the
Republic. Mrs. Rose lectured in all the states on the social system,
the formation of character, priestcraft, etc. She lectured against
slavery in the slave-owning states and sent in '38 the first petition
to give married women the right to hold real estate. She was one
of the inaugurators of the Woman's Rights Movement, and a constant
champion of Freethought. An eloquent speaker, some of her addresses
have been published. Defence of Atheism, Women's Rights and Speech
at the Hartford Bible Convention in '54. About '73 she returned to
England where she still lives. One of her last appearances at public
was at the Conference of Liberal Thinkers at South Place Chapel in
'76, where she delivered a pointed speech. Mrs. Rose has a fine face
and head, and though aged and suffering, retains the utmost interest
in the Freethought cause.
Roskoff (Georg Gustav), German rationalist, b. Presburg, Hungary, 30
Aug. 1814. He studied theology and philosophy at Halle, and has written
works on Hebrew Antiquity, '57. The Samson legend and Herakles myth,
'60, and a standard History of the Devil in 2 vols., Leipzig, '69.
Ross (William Stewart), Scotch writer, b. 20 Mar. 1844. Author of
poems and educational works, and editor of Secular Review, now The
Agnostic Journal. Wrote God and his Book, '87, and several brochures
published under the pen name of "Saladin."
Rosseau (Leon), French writer in the Rationalist of Geneva under the
name of L. Russelli. He published separately the Female Followers of
Jesus, founded the Horizon, contributed to la Libre Pensée, and was
editor of l'Athée. Died 1870.
Rossetti (Dante Gabriel), poet and painter, b. of Italian parents,
London, 12 May, 1828. Educated at King's College, he became a student
at the Royal Academy and joined the pre-Raphaelites. As a poet
artist he exhibited the richest gifts of originality, earnestness,
and splendour of expression. Died at Westgate on Sea, 9 April, 1882.
Rossetti (William Michael) critic and man of letters, brother of
the preceding, b. London, 25 Sep. 1829. Educated at King's College,
he became assistant secretary in the Inland Revenue Office. He has
acted as critic for many papers and edited many works, the chief being
an edition of Shelley, '70, with a memoir and numerous notes. He is
Chairman of the Committee of the Shelley Society.
Rossmaessler (Emil Adolf), German naturalist b. Leipsic 3 March,
1806. Studied theology, but abandoned it for science, and wrote many
scientific works of repute. In '48 he was elected to Parliament. Among
his writings are Man in the Mirror of Nature. '49-55. The History of
the Earth, '68. Died as a philosopher 8 April, 1867.
Roth (Julius), Dr., German author of Religion and Priestcraft, Leipzig,
1869; Jesuitism, '71.
Rothenbuecher (Adolph), Dr., German author of an able little Handbook
of Morals, written from the Secular standpoint, Cottbus, 1884.
Rotteck (Karl Wenceslaus von), German historian and statesman
b. Freiburg 18 July, 1775. Studied in his native town, where in
1798 be became Professor of History. In 1819 he represented his
University in the States of Baden, where he distinguished himself by
his liberal views. He was forbidden by government to edit any paper
and was deprived of his chair. This persecution hastened his death,
which occurred 26 Nov 1840. Rotteck's General History of the World
(9 vols., 1827) was very popular and gave one of the broadest views
of history which had then appeared.
Rousseau (Jean Jacques), Swiss philosopher, b. Geneva, 28 June,
1712. After a varied career he went to Paris in 1741 and supported
himself. In 1751 he obtained a prize from the academy of Dijon for
negative answer to the question "whether the re-establishment of the
arts and sciences has conduced to the purity of morals." This success
prompted further literary efforts. He published a dictionary of music,
the New Heloise (1759), a love story in the form of letters, which
had great success, and Emilius (May 1762), a moral romance, in which
he condemns other education than that of following nature. In this
work occurs his Confession of Faith of a Savoyard Vicar, discarding
the supernatural element in Christianity. The French parliament
condemned the book 9 June, 1762, and prosecuted the writer, who fled
to Switzerland. Pope Clement XVIII fulminated against Emile, and
Rousseau received so many insults on account of his principles that
he returned to Paris and on the invitation of Hume came to England
in Jan. 1766. He knew little English and soon took offence with
Hume, and asked permission to return to Paris, which he obtained on
condition of never publishing anything more. He however completed his
Confessions, of which he had previously composed the first six books
in England. Rousseau was a sincere sentimentalist, an independent
and eloquent, but not deep thinker. His captious temper spoiled his
own life, but his influence has been profound and far-reaching. Died
near Paris, 2 July, 1778.
Rouzade (Leonie) Madame, French Freethought lecturess. Has written
several brochures and novels, notably Le Monde Renversé, 1872,
and Ci et ca, ca et la, ideas upon moral philosophy and social
progress. Writes in Malon's Revue Socialiste, and is one of the
editors of Les Droits des Femmes.
Roy (Joseph), French translator of Feuerbach's Essence of Christianity,
1864, and Religion, Death, Immortality, '66. Has also translated
Marx's Capital.
Royer (Clemence Auguste), French authoress, b. Nantes, 24 April, 1830,
of Catholic royalist family. Visiting England in '54, she studied our
language and literature. Going to Switzerland, in '59 she opened at
Lausanne a course of logic and philosophy for women. In '60 she shared
with Proudhon in a prize competition on the subject of taxation. In
'62 she translated Darwin's Origin of Species, with a bold preface
and notes. In '64 her philosophical romance The Twins of Hellas
appeared at Brussels, and was interdicted in France. Her ablest work
is on The Origin of Man and of Societies, '69. In this she states
the scientific view of human evolution, and challenges the Christian
creed. This was followed by many memoirs, Pre-historic Funeral Rites,
'76; Two Hypotheses of Heredity, '77; The Good and the Moral Law,
'81. Mdlle. Royer has contributed to the Revue Moderne, Revue de
Philosophie, Positive, Revue d'Anthropologie, etc., and has assisted
and spoken at many political, social, and scientific meetings.
Rüdt (P. A.), Ph. D., German lecturer and "apostle of unbelief,"
b. Mannheim, 8 Dec. 1844. Educated at Mannheim and Carlsruhe, he
studied philosophy, philology, and jurisprudence at Heidelberg
University, '65-69. Dr. Rüdt became acquainted with Lassalle,
and started a paper, Die Waffe, and in '70 was imprisoned for
participation in social democratic agitation. From '74 to '86 he
lived in St. Petersburg as teacher, and has since devoted himself to
Freethought propaganda. Several of his addresses have been published.
Ruelle (Charles Claude), French writer, b. Savigny, 1810. Author of
The History of Christianity, '66, and La Schmita, '69.
Ruge (Arnold), German reformer, b. Bergen (Isle Rügen), 13
Sept. 1802. Studied at Halle, Jena, and Heidelberg, and as a member of
the Tugenbund was imprisoned for six years. After his liberation in
'30 he became professor at Halle, and with Echtermeyer founded the
Hallische Jahrbücher, '38, which opposed Church and State. In '48 he
started Die Reform. Elected to the Frankfort Assembly, he sat on the
Extreme Left. When compelled to fly he came to England, where he wrote
New Germany in "Cabinet of Reason" series, and translated Buckle's
History of Civilisation. He acted as visiting tutor at Brighton,
where he died 30 Dec. 1880.
Ruggieri (Cosmo), Florentine philosopher and astrologer, patronised
by Catherine de Medicis. He began to publish Almanachs in 1604, which
he issued annually. He died at Paris in 1615, declaring himself an
Atheist, and his corpse was in consequence denied Christian burial.
Rumpf (Johann Wilhelm), Swiss author of Church, Faith, and Progress,
and The Bible and Christ, a criticism (Strasburg, 1858). Edited Das
Freire Wort (Basle, '56).
Russell (John). See Amberley.
Ryall (Malthus Questell), was secretary of the Anti-Persecution Union,
1842, and assisted his friend Mr. Holyoake on The Oracle of Reason
and The Movement. Died 1846.
Rydberg (Abraham Viktor), Swedish man of Letters, b. Jönköping, 18
Dec. 1829. He has written many works of which we mention The Last
Athenian Roman Days, and The Magic of the Middle Ages, which have
been translated into English.
Rystwick (Herman van), early Dutch heretic who denied hell and
taught that the soul was not immortal, but the elements of all
matter eternal. He was sent to prison in 1499, and set at liberty
upon abjuring his opinion, but having published them a second time,
he was arrested at the Hague, and burnt to death in 1511.
Sabin (Ibn), Al Mursi, Spanish Arabian philosopher, b. Murcia about
1218 of noble family. About 1249 he corresponded with Frederick II.,
replying to his philosophical questions. Committed suicide about 1271.
Sadoc, a learned Jewish doctor in the third century B.C. He denied
the resurrection, the existence of angels, and the doctrine
of predestination, and opposed the idea of future rewards and
punishments. His followers were named after him, Sadducees.
Saga (Francesco) de Rovigo, Italian heretic, put to death for
Anti-Trinitarianism at Venice, 25 Feb. 1566.
Saigey (Emile), French inspector of telegraph wires. Wrote Modern
Physics, 1867, and The Sciences in the Eighteenth Century: Physics
of Voltaire, '74. Died 1875.
Saillard (F.), French author of The Revolution and the Church (Paris,
'69), and The Organisation of the Republic, '83.
Sainte Beuve (Charles Augustin), French critic and man of letters
b. Boulogne, 23 Dec. 1804. Educated in Paris, he studied medicine,
which he practised several years. A favorable review of V. Hugo's
Odes and Ballades gained him the intimacy of the Romantic school. As
a critic he made his mark in '28 with his Historical and Critical
Picture of French Poetry in the Sixteenth Century. His other principal
works are his History of Port Royal, '40-62; Literary Portraits,
'32-39; and Causeries du Lundi, '51-57. In '45 he was elected to the
Academy, and in '65 was made a senator. As a critic he was penetrative,
comprehensive, and impartial.
Saint Evremond (Charles de Marguetel de Saint Denis) seigneur de,
French man of letters, b. St. Denys-le-Guast (Normandy), 1 April,
1713. He studied law, but subsequently entered the army and became
major-general. He was confined in the Bastile for satirising Cardinal
Mazarin. In England he was well received at the court of Charles
II. He died in London, 20 Sept. 1703, and was buried in Westminster
Abbey. Asked on his death-bed if he wished to reconcile himself to God,
he replied, he desired to reconcile himself to appetite. His works,
consisting of essays, letters, poems, and dramas, were published in
3 vols. 1705.
Saint-Glain (Dominique de), French Spinozist, b. Limoges, about
1620. He went into Holland that he might profess the Protestant
religion more freely; was captain in the service of the States,
and assisted on the Rotterdam Gazette. Reading Spinoza, he espoused
his system, and translated the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus into
French, under the title of La Clef du Sanctuaire, 1678. This making
much noise, and being in danger of prosecution, he changed the title to
Ceremonies Superstitieuses des Juifs, and also to Reflexions Curieuses
d'un Esprit Desintéressé, 1678.
Saint-Hyacinthe (Themiseul de Cordonnier de), French writer,
b. Orleans, 24 Sept. 1684. Author of Philosophical Researches,
published at Rotterdam, 1743. Died near Breda (Holland), 1746. Voltaire
published his Diner Du Comte de Boulainvilliers under the name of
St. Hyacinthe.
Saint John (Henry). See Bolingbroke, Lord.
Saint Lambert (Charles, or rather Jean François de), French writer,
b. Nancy, 16 Dec. 1717. After being educated among the Jesuits he
entered the army, and was admired for his wit and gallantry. He became
a devoted adherent of Voltaire and an admirer of Madame du Chatelet. He
wrote some articles in the Encyclopédie, and many fugitive pieces and
poems in the literary journals. His poem, the Seasons, 1769 procured
him admission to the Academy. He published essays on Helvetius and
Bolingbroke, and Le Catéchisme Universel. His Philosophical Works
were published in 1801. Died Paris, 9 Feb. 1803.
Sale (George), English Oriental scholar, b. Kent, 1680, educated
at Canterbury. He was one of a society which undertook to publish a
Universal History, and was also one of the compilers of the General
Dictionary. His most important work was a translation of the Koran,
with a preliminary discourse and explanatory notes, 1734. He was one
of the founders of the Society for the Encouragement of Learning. Died
14 Nov. 1736.
Salieres (A.), contributor to l'Athée, 1870. Has written a work on
Patriotism, 1881.
Sallet (Friedrich von), German pantheist poet of French descent,
b. Neisse (Silesia), 20 April, 1812. An officer in the army, he was
imprisoned for writing a satire on the life of a trooper. In '34 he
attended Hegel's lectures at Berlin, and in '38 quitted the army. He
wrote a curious long poem entitled the Layman's Gospel, in which he
takes New Testament texts and expounds them pantheistically--the God
who is made flesh is replaced by the man who becomes God. Died Reichau
(Silesia), 21 Feb. 1843.
Salmeron y Alonso (Nicolas), Spanish statesman, b. Alhama lo Seco,
1838. Studied law, and became a Democratic journalist; a deputy to the
Cortes in 1871, and became President thereof during the Republic of
'73. He wrote a prologue to the work of Giner on Philosophy and Arts,
'78, and his own works were issued in 1881.
Salt (Henry Stephens), English writer, b. India, 20 Sept. 1851;
educated at Eton, where he became assistant master. A contributor
to Progress, he has written Literary Sketches, '88. A monograph on
Shelley, and a Life of James Thomson, "B.V.", 1889.
Saltus (Edgar Evertson), American author, b. New York 8 June
1858. Studied at Concord, Paris, Heidelberg and Munich. In '84 he
published a sketch of Balzac. Next year appeared The Philosophy of
Disenchantment, appreciative and well written views of Schopenhauer
and Hartmann. This was followed by The Anatomy of Negation, a sketchy
account of some atheists and sceptics from Kapila to Leconte de Lisle,
'86. Has also written several novels, and Eden, an episode, '89. His
brother Francis is the author of Honey and Gall, a book of poems
(Philadelphia, '73.)
Salverte (Anne Joseph Eusèbe Baconniere de), French philosopher,
b. Paris, 18 July, 1771. He studied among the Oratorians. Wrote Epistle
to a Reasonable Woman, an Essay on What should be Believed, 1793,
contributed to Maréchal's Dictionnaire des Athées, published an eloge
on Diderot, 1801, and many brochures, among others a tragedy on the
Death of Jesus Christ. Elected deputy in '28, he was one of the warm
partisans of liberty, and in '30, demanded that Catholicism should not
be recognised as the state religion. He is chiefly remembered by his
work on The Occult Sciences, '29, which was translated into English,
'46. To the French edition of '56 Littré wrote a Preface. He died 27
Oct. 1839. On his death bed he refused religious offices.
Sand (George), the pen name of Amandine Lucile Aurore Dupin, afterwards
baroness Dudnevant, French novelist, b. Paris, 1 July, 1804, and
brought up by her grandmother at the Château de Nohant. Reading
Rousseau and the philosophers divorced her from Catholicism. She
remained a Humanitarian. Married Sept. 1822, Baron Dudnevant, an
elderly man who both neglected and ill-treated her, and from whom
after some years she was glad to separate at the sacrifice of her
whole fortune. Her novels are too many to enumerate. The Revolution of
'48 drew her into politics, and she started a journal and translated
Mazzini's Republic and Royalty in Italy, Died at her Chateau of Nohant,
8 June, 1876. Her name was long obnoxious in England, where she was
thought of as an assailant of marriage and religion, but a better
appreciation of her work and genius is making way.
Sarcey (Franscique), French critic, b. Dourdan, 8 Oct. 1828, editor
of Le XIXe. Siècle, has written plays, novels, and many anti-clerical
articles.
"Sarrasi," pseudonym of A. de C....; French Orientalist b. Department
of Tarn, 1837, author of L'Orient Devoilé, '80, in which he shows
the mythical elements in Christianity.
Saull (William Devonshire), English geologist, b. 1783. He established
a free geological museum, contributed to the erection of the John
Street Institute, and was principally instrumental in opening the
old Hall of Science, City Road. He wrote on the connection between
astronomy, geology, etc. He died 26 April, 1855, and is buried in
Kensal Green, near his friends, Allen Davenport and Henry Hetherington.
Saunderson (Nicholas), English mathematician b. Thurleston (Yorkshire),
2 Jan. 1682. He lost both his eyes and his sight by small pox when
but a year old, yet he became conversant with Euclid, Archimedes,
and Diophantus, when read to him in Greek. He lectured at Cambridge
University, explaining Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy, and even his works on light and color. It was said,
"They have turned out Whiston for believing in but one God, and put
in Saunderson, who believes in no God at all." Saunderson said that
to believe in God he must first touch him. Died 19 April, 1739.
Sauvestre (Charles), French journalist, b. Mans. 1818, one of
the editors of L'Opinion Nationale. Has written on The Clergy and
Education ('61), Monita Secreta Societatis Jesu; Secret Instructions
of the Jesuits ('65), On the Knees of the Church ('68), Religious
Congregations Unveiled ('70), and other anti-clerical works. He died
at Paris in 1883.
Saville (Sir George), Marquis of Halifax, English statesman,
b. Yorkshire, 1630. He became President of the Council in the reign
of James II., but was dismissed for opposing the repeal of the Test
Acts. He wrote several pieces and memoirs. Burnet gives a curious
account of his opinions, which he probably tones down.
Sawtelle (C. M.), American author of Reflections on the Science of
Ignorance, or the art of teaching others what you don't know yourself,
Salem, Oregon, 1868.
Sbarbaro (Pietro), Italian publicist and reformer, b. Savona, 1838;
studied jurisprudence. He published a work on The Philosophy of
Research, '66. In '70 he dedicated to Mauro Macchi a book on The Task
of the Nineteenth Century, and presided at a congress of Freethinkers
held at Loreto. Has written popular works on the Conditions of Human
Progress, the Ideal of Democracy, and an essay entitled From Socino
to Mazzini, '86.
Schade (Georg), German Deist, b. Apenrade, 1712. He believed in the
immortality of brutes. In 1770 he was imprisoned for his opinions
on the Isle of Christiansoe. He settled at Kiel, Holstein, in 1775,
where he died in 1795.
Scherer (Edmond), French critic and publicist, b. Paris 8 April,
1815. Of Protestant family, he became professor of exegesis at Geneva,
but his views becoming too free, he resigned his chair and went to
Strasburg, where he became chief of the School of Liberal Protestants,
and in the Revue de Théologie et de Philosophie Chrétienne, '50-60,
put forward views which drew down a tempest from the orthodox. He also
wrote in the Bibliotheque Universelle and Revue des Deux-Mondes. Some
of his articles have been collected as Mélanges de Critique Religieuse,
'60; and Mélanges d'Histoire Religieuse, '64. He was elected deputy in
'71, and sat with the Republicans of the Left. Died 1889.
Scherr (Johannes), German author, b. Hohenrechberg, 3
Oct. 1817. Educated at Zürich and Tübingen, he wrote in '43 with his
brother Thomas a Popular History of Religious and Philosophical Ideas,
and in '57 a History of Religion, in three parts. In '60 he became
Professor of History and Literature at Zürich, and has written many
able literary studies, including histories of German and English
literature. Died at Zürich, 21 Nov. 1887.
Schiff (Johan Moriz), German physiologist, b. Frankfort, 1823. Educated
at Berlin and Gottingen, he became Professor of Comparative Anatomy at
Berne, '54-63; of Physiology at Florence, '63-76, and at Genoa. Has
written many physiological treatises, which have been attacked as
materialistic.
Schiller (Johann Christoph Friedrich von), eminent German poet and
historian, b. Marbech, 10 Nov. 1759. His mother wished him to become a
minister, but his tastes led him in a different direction. A friend of
Goethe, he enriched German literature with numerous plays and poems,
a History of the Netherlands Revolt, and of the Thirty Years' War. He
died in the prime of mental life at Weimar, 9 May, 1805.
Schmidt (Eduard Oskar), German zoologist, b. Torgau, 21 Feb. 1823. He
travelled widely, and became professor of natural history at
Jena. Among the first of Germans to accept Darwinism, he has
illustrated its application in many directions, and published an able
work on The Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism in the "International
Scientific Series." Died at Strasburg, 17 Jan. 1886.
Schmidt (Kaspar), German philosopher, b. Bayreuth,
25 Oct. 1806. Studied at Berlin, Erlangen, and Königsberg, first
theology, then philosophy. Under the pseudonym of "Max Stirner"
he wrote a system of individualism The Only One, and His Possession
(Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum), '45. He also wrote a History of
Reaction in two parts (Berlin, '52), and translated Smith's Wealth
of Nations and Say's Text-book of Political Economy. Died at Berlin,
25 June, 1856.
Schneeberger (F. J.), Austrian writer, b. Vienna, 7 Sept, 1827. Has
written some popular novels under the name of "Arthur Storch," and
was one of the founders of the German Freethinkers' Union.
Schoelcher ( Victor), French philosophist, b. Paris, 21 July
1804. While still young he joined the secret society Aide-toi, le ciel
t'aidera, and studied social questions. He devoted himself from about
'26 to advocating the abolition of slavery, and wrote many works
on the subject. On 3 March, '48, he was made Under Secretary of the
Navy, and caused a decree to be issued by the Provisional Government
enfranchising all slaves on French territory. He was elected Deputy for
Martinique '48 and '49. After 2 Dec. '51, he came to London, where he
wrote occasionally in the Reasoner and National Reformer. He returned
to France during the war, and took part in the defence of Paris. In
'71 he was again returned for Martinique, and in '75 he was elected
a life senator.
Scholl (Aurélien), French journalist, b. Bordeaux, 14 July, 1833. He
began life as a writer on the Corsaire, founded Satan, Le Nain Jaune,
etc., and writes on l'Evénement. Has written several novels, and le
Procès de Jésus Christ, '77.
Scholl (Karl), German writer and preacher to the Free religious bodies
of Mannheim and Heidelberg, b. Karlsruhe, 17 Aug. 1820. He became
a minister '44, but was suspended for his free opinions in '45. His
first important work was on the Messiah Legend of the East (Hamburg,
'52), and in '61 he published a volume on Free Speech, a collection
of extracts from French, English, and American Freethinkers. In '70
he started a monthly journal of the Religion of Humanity, Es Werde
Licht! which continued for many years. Has published many discourses,
and written Truth from Ruins, '73, and on Judaism and the Religion
of Humanity, '79.
Schopenhauer (Arthur), German pessimist philosopher, b. Danzig,
22 Feb. 1788. The son of a wealthy and well-educated merchant and a
vivacious lady, he was educated in French and English, and studied
at Göttingen science, history, and the religions and philosophies of
the East. After two visits to Italy, and an unsuccessful attempt to
obtain pupils at Berlin, he took up his abode at Frankfort. In 1815
he wrote his chief work, The World as Will and Idea, translated into
English in '83. His philosophy is expressed in the title, will is
the one reality, all else appearance. He also wrote The Two Ground
Problems of Ethics, '61, On the Freedom of Will, and a collection
of essays entitled Parega and Paralipomena ('51). Died at Frankfort,
21 Sept. 1860. Schopenhauer was a pronounced Atheist, and an enemy of
every form of superstition. He said that religions are like glow-worms;
they require darkness to shine in.
Schroeter (Eduard), German American writer, b. Hannover, 4 June,
1810, studied theology at Jena; entered the Free-religious communion
in '45. In '50, he went to America, living since '53 in Sauk City,
and frequently lecturing there. In '81, he attended the International
Conference of Freethinkers at Brussels. He was a constant contributor
to the Freidenker, of Milwaukee, until his death 2 April, 1888.
Schroot (A.), German author of Visions and Ideas (Berlin, 1865),
Natural Law and Human Will; Creation and Man, and Science and Life
(Hamburg, 1873).
Schuenemann Pott (Friedrich), German American, b. Hamburg, 3 April,
1826. He joined the "Freie Gemeinde," and was expelled from Prussia
in '48. After the Revolution he returned to Berlin and took part
in democratic agitation, for which he was tried for high treason,
but acquitted. In '54 he removed to America, where he made lecturing
tours over the States settling at San Francisco.
Schultze (Karl August Julius Fritz), German writer, b. Celle, 7 May,
1846, studied at Jena, Göttingen and Münich, has written an able study
on Fetishism, Leipzig '71, a pamphlet on Religion in German Schools,
'72, a History of the Philosophy of the Renaissance, '74, and Kant
and Darwin, '75. In '76, he was appointed Professor of Philosophy in
Jena, since which he has written The Elements of Materialism, '80,
Philosophy of the Natural Sciences, 2 vols. '81-82, and Elements of
Spiritualism, 1883.
Schumann (Robert Alexander), German musical composer, b. Nekau, 8
July, 1810. He studied law at Leipsic, but forsook it for music. He
started a musical journal '34, which he edited for some years. His
lyrical compositions are unsurpassed, and he also composed a "profane"
oratorio, Paradise and the Peri ('40). His character and opinions
are illustrated by his Letters. Died 29 July, 1856.
Schweichel (Georg Julius Robert), German writer, b. Königsberg, 12
July, 1821. He studied jurisprudence, but took to literature. Taking
part in the events of '48, after the reaction he went to
Switzerland. Has written several novels dealing with Swiss life,
also a Life of Auerbach. He wrote the preface to Dulk's Irrgang des
Leben's Jesu, 1884.
Schweitzer (Jean Baptista von), German Socialist poet, b. Frankfort,
12 July, 1833. He studied law in Berlin and Heidelberg; became after
Lassalle's death president of the German Workmen's Union, and was
sent to Parliament in '67. He wrote the Zeitgeist and Christianity,
'62, The Darwinians, '75, and several other works. Died 28 July, 1875.
Scot (Reginald), English rationalist, author of The Discoverie of
Witchcraft, 1584, the first English work to question the existence of
witches. It was burnt by order of King James I, and was republished
in 1886. Scot died in 1599.
Scott (Thomas), English scholar, b. 28 April 1808. In early life he
travelled widely, lived with Indians and had been page to Chas. X,
of France. Having investigated Christianity, he in later life devoted
himself to Freethought propaganda by sending scholarly pamphlets among
the clergy and cultured classes. From '62-77, he issued from Mount
Pleasant, Ramsgate, over a hundred different pamphlets by Bp. Hinds,
F. W. Newman, Kalisch, Lestrange, Willis, Strange, etc., most of which
were given away. He issued a challenge to the Christian Evidence
Society, and wrote with Sir G. W. Cox, The English Life of Jesus
'71. Altogether his publications extend to twenty volumes. Little
known outside his own circle, Thomas Scott did a work which should
secure him lasting honor. Died at Norwood, 30 Dec. 1878.
Seaver (Horace Holley), American journalist, b. Boston, 25
Aug. 1810. In '37 he became a compositor on the Boston Investigator,
and during Kneeland's imprisonment took the editorship, which
he continued for upwards of fifty years during which he battled
strenuously for Freethought in America. His articles were always
very plain and to the point. A selection of them has been published
with the title Occasional Thoughts (Boston, '88). With Mr. Mendum, he
helped the erection of the Paine Memorial Hall, and won the esteem of
all Freethinkers in America. Died, 21 Aug. 1889. His funeral oration
was delivered by Colonel Ingersoll.
Sebille (Adolphe), French writer, who, under the pseudonym
of "Dr. Fabricus," published God, Man, and his latter end, a
medico-psychological study, 1868, and Letters from a Materialist to
Mgr. Dupanloup, 1868-9.
Sechenov or Setchenoff (Ivan), Russian philosopher, who, in 1863,
published Psychological Studies, explaining the mind by physiology. The
work made a great impression in Russia, and has been translated into
French by Victor Derély, and published in '84 with an introduction
by M. G. Wyrouboff.
Secondat (Charles de). See Montesquieu.
Seeley (John Robert), English historian and man of letters, b. London,
1834, educated at City of London School and Cambridge, where he
graduated in '57. In '63, he was appointed Professor of Latin in
London University. In '66, appeared his Ecce Homo, a survey of the
Life and Work of Jesus Christ, published anonymously, and which Lord
Shaftesbury denounced in unmeasured terms as vomitted from the pit of
hell. In '69, he became professor of modern history at Cambridge, and
has since written some important historical works as well as Natural
Religion ('82). Prof. Seeley is president of the Ethical Society.
Segond (Louis August), French physician and Positivist, author of
a plan of a positivist school to regenerate medicine, 1849, and of
several medical works.
Seidel (Martin), Silesian Deist, of Olhau, lived at the end of the
sixteenth century. He held that Jesus was not the predicted Messiah,
and endeavored to propagate his opinion among the Polish Socinians. He
wrote three Letters on the Messiah, The Foundations of the Christian
Religion, in which he considered the quotation from the Old Testament
in the new, and pointed out the errors of the latter.
Sellon (Edward), English archæologist, author of The Monolithic
Temples of India; Annotations on the Sacred Writings of the Hindus,
1865, and other scarce works, privately printed.
Semerie (Eugène), French Positivist, b. Aix, 6 Jan. 1832. Becoming
physician at Charenton, he studied mental maladies, and in '67
published a work on Intellectual Symptoms of Madness, in which
he maintained that the disordered mind went back from Positivism
to metaphysics, theology, and then to fetishism. This work was
denounced by the Bishop of Orleans. Dr. Semerie wrote A Simple Reply
to M. Dupanloup, '68. During the sieges of Paris he acted as surgeon
and director of the ambulance. A friend of Pierre Lafitte, he edited
the Politique Positive, and wrote Positivists and Catholics, '73,
and The Law of the Three States, '75. Died at Grasse, May, 1884.
Semler (Johann Salomo), German critic, b. Saalfeld, 18 Dec. 1725. He
was professor of theology at Halle and founder of historical Biblical
criticism there. He translated Simon's Critical History of the New
Testament, and by asserting the right of free discussion drew down
the wrath of the orthodox. Died at Halle, 4 March, 1791.
Serafini (Maria Alimonda), Italian authoress of a Catechism for
Female Freethinkers (Geneva, 1869), and a work on Marriage and Divorce
(Salerno, '73).
Serveto y Reves (Miguel), better known as Michael Servetus, Spanish
martyr, b. Villanova (Aragon), 1509. Intended for the Church, he
left it for law, which he studied at Toulouse. He afterward studied
medicine at Paris, and corresponded with Calvin on the subject
of the Trinity, against which he wrote De Trinitatis Erroribus
and Christianismi Restitutio, which excited the hatred of both
Catholics and Protestants. To Calvin Servetus sent a copy of his
last work. Calvin, through one Trie, denounced him to the Catholic
authorities at Lyons. He was imprisoned, but escaped, and to get to
Naples passed through Geneva, where he was seized at the instance of
Calvin, tried for blasphemy and heresy, and burnt alive at a slow fire,
26 Oct. 1553.
Seume (Johann Gottfried), German poet, b. near Weissenfels, 29
Jan. 1763. He was sent to Leipsic, and intended for a theologian,
but the dogmas disgusted him, and he left for Paris. He lived an
adventurous life, travelled extensively, and wrote Promenade to
Syracuse, 1802, and other works. Died at Teplitz, 13 June, 1810.
Sextus Empiricus, Greek sceptical philosopher and physician, who
probably lived early in the third century of the Christian era. He
left two works, one a summary of the doctrines of the sceptics in
three books; the other an attack on all positive philosophy.
Shadwell (Thomas), English dramatist, b. Straton Hall, Norfolk,
1640. Although damned by Dryden in his Mac Flecknoe, Shadwell's plays
are not without merit, and illustrate the days of Charles II. Died
6 Dec. 1692.
Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper), third Earl, b. London, 26
Feb. 1671. Educated by Locke, in 1693 he was elected M.P. for Poole,
and proposed granting counsel to prisoners in case of treason. His
health suffering, he resigned and went to Holland, where he made the
acquaintance of Bayle. The excitement induced by the French Prophets
occasioned his Letters upon Enthusiasm, 1708. This was followed,
by his Moralists and Sensus Communis. In 1711 he removed to Naples,
where he died 4 Feb. 1713. His collected works were published under
the title of Characteristics, 1732. They went through several editions,
and did much to raise the character of English Deism.
Shakespeare (William). The greatest of all dramatists,
b. Stratford-on-Avon, 23 April, 1564. The materials for writing his
life are slender. He married in his 19th year, went to London, where he
became an actor and produced his marvellous plays, the eternal honor
of English literature. Shakespeare gained wealth and reputation and
retired to his native town, where he died April 23, 1616. His dramas
warrant the inference that he was a Freethinker. Prof. J. R. Green
says, "Often as his questionings turned to the riddle of life
and death, and leaves it a riddle to the last without heeding the
common theological solutions around him." His comprehensive mind
disdained endorsement of religious dogmas and his wit delighted in
what the Puritans call profanity. Mr. Birch in his Inquiry into the
Philosophy and Religion of Shakespeare, sustains the position that
he was an Atheist.
Shaw (James Dickson), American writer, b. Texas, 27 Dec. 1841. Brought
up on a cattle farm, at the Civil War he joined the Southern Army,
took part in some battles, and was wounded. He afterwards entered the
Methodist Episcopal ministry, '70; studied biblical criticism to answer
sceptics, and his own faith gave way. He left the Church in March,
'83, and started the Independent Pulpit at Waco, Texas, in which he
publishes bold Freethought articles. He rejects all supernaturalism,
and has written The Bible, What Is It?, Studies in Theology, The
Bible Against Itself, etc.
Shelley (Percy Bysshe), English poet, b. Field Place (Sussex), 4
Aug. 1792. From Eton, where he refused to fag, he went to Oxford. Here
he published a pamphlet on the necessity of Atheism, for which he
was expelled from the University. His father, Sir Timothy Shelley,
also forbade him his house. He went to London, wrote Queen Mab, and
met Miss Westbrook, whom, in 1811, he married. After two children
had been born, they separated. In '16 Shelley learned that his wife
had drowned herself. He now claimed the custody of his children,
but, in March, '17, Lord Eldon decided against him, largely on
account of his opinions. Shelley had previously written A Letter
to Lord Ellenborough, indignantly attacking the sentence the judge
passed on D. I. Eaton for publishing Paine's Age of Reason. On 30
Dec. '16, Shelley married Mary, daughter of William Godwin and Mary
Wollstonecraft. In '18, fearing their son might also be taken from him,
he left England never to return. He went to Italy, where he met Byron,
composed The Cenci, the Witch of Atlas, Prometheus Unbound, Adonais,
Epipsychidion, Hellas, and many minor poems of exquisite beauty,
the glory of our literature. He was drowned in the Bay of Spezzia,
8 July, 1822. Shelley never wavered in his Freethought. Trelawny,
who knew him well, says he was an Atheist to the last.
Siciliani (Pietro), Professor in the University of Bologna b. Galatina,
19 Sep. 1835, author of works on Positive Philosophy, Socialism,
Darwinism, and Modern Sociology, '79; and Modern Psychogeny, with a
preface by J. Soury, '82. Died 28 Dec. '85.
Sidney (Algernon), English Republican, and second son of Robert, Earl
of Leicester, b. 1617. He became a colonel in the Army of Parliament,
and a member of the House of Commons. On the Restoration he remained
abroad till 1677, but being implicated in the Rye House Plot, was
condemned by Judge Jeffreys to be executed on Tower Hill, 7 Dec. 1678.
Sierebois (P.). See Boissière.
Siffle (Alexander François), Dutch writer, b. Middleburg, 11 May,
1801. Studied law at Leyden, and became notary at Middleburg. He
wrote several poems and works of literary value, and contributed
to de Dageraad. He was a man of wide reading. Died at Middleburg,
7 Oct. 1872.
Sigward (M.), b. St. Leger-sur-Dhume, France, 15 April, 1817. An
active French democrat and Freethinker, and compiler of a Republican
calendar. He took part in the International Congress at Paris '89,
and is one of the editors of Le Danton.
Simcox (Edith), author of Natural Law in the English and Foreign
Philosophical Library; also wrote on the Design Argument in the
Fortnightly Review, 1872, under the signature "H. Lawrenny."
Simon de Tournai, a Professor at Paris University early in the XIIIth
century. He said that "Three seducers," Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad,
"have mystified mankind with their doctrines." He was said to have
been punished by God for his impiety.
Simon (Richard), learned French theological critic, b. Dieppe, 15 May,
1638. Brought up by the Congregation of the Oratory, he distinguished
himself by bold erudition. His Critical History of the Old Testament,
1678, was suppressed by Parliament. He followed it with a Critical
History of the New Testament, which was also condemned. Died at Dieppe,
11 April, 1712.
Simonis.--A physician, b. at Lucques and persecuted in Poland for
his opinions given in an Atheistic work, entitled Simonis Religio,
published at Cracow, 1588.
Simpson (George), of the Glasgow Zetetic Society, who in 1838 put
forward a Refutation of the Argument a priori for the being and
attributes of God, in reply to Clarke and Gillespie. He used the
signature "Antitheos." Died about 1844.
Sjoberg (Walter), b. 24 May, 1865, at Borgo (Finland), lives near
Helsingfors, and took part in founding the Utilistiska Samfundet
there. During the imprisonment of Mr. Lennstrand he gave bold lectures
at Stockholm.
Skinner (William), of Kirkcaldy, Deist, author of Thoughts on
Superstition or an attempt to Discover Truth (Cupar, 1822), was
credited also with Jehovah Unveiled or the God of the Jews, published
by Carlile in 1819.
Slater (Thomas), English lecturer, b. 15 Sept. 1820. Has for many
years been an advocate of Secularism and Co-operation. He was on the
Town Council of Bury, and now resides at Leicester.
Slenker (Elmina), née Drake, American reformer, b. of Quaker parents,
23 Dec. 1827. At fourteen, she began notes for her work, Studying
the Bible, afterwards published at Boston, '70; she conducts the
Children's Corner in the Boston Investigator, and has contributed
to most of the American Freethought papers. Has written John's Way
('78), Mary Jones, The Infidel Teacher ('85), The Darwins ('79),
Freethought stories. Resides at Snowville, Virginia.
Smith (Geritt), American reformer, b. Utica (N.Y.), 6 March, 1799,
graduated at Hamilton's College. He was elected to Congress in 1850,
but only served one Session. Though of a wealthy slaveholding family,
he largely devoted his fortune to the Anti-Slavery cause. In religion,
originally a Presbyterian, he came to give up all dogmas, and wrote
The Religion of Reason, '64, and Nature the base of a Free Theology,
'67. Died, New York, 28 Dec. 1874.
Snoilsky (Karl Johan Gustav), Count, Swedish poet, b. Stockholm,
8 Sept. 1841. Studied at Upsala, '60. Displays his Freethought in
his poems published under the name of "Sventröst."
Socinus [Ital. Sozzini] (Fausto), anti-trinitarian, b. Siena, 5
Dec. 1539. He adopted the views of his uncle, Laelio, (1525-1562),
and taught them with more boldness. In 1574 he went to Switzerland,
and afterwards to Poland, where he made many converts, and died 3
March, 1604.
Sohlman (Per August Ferdinand), Swedish publicist, b. Nerika, 1824. He
edited the Aftonbladet, of Stockholm, from '57, and was a distinguished
Liberal politician. Died at Stockholm, 1874.
Somerby (Charles Pomeroy), American publisher, b. 1843. Has issued
many important Freethought works, and is business manager of the
Truthseeker.
Somerset (Edward Adolphus Saint Maur), 12th Duke of, b. 20
Dec. 1804. Educated at Eton and Oxford. He married a daughter of
Thomas Sheridan. Sat as M.P. for Totnes, '34-35, and was Lord of the
Treasury, '35-39, and First Lord of the Admiralty, '59-66. In '72 he
startled the aristocratic world by a trenchant attack on orthodoxy
entitled Christian Theology and Modern Scepticism. He also wrote on
mathematics and on Monarchy and Democracy. Died 28 Nov. 1885.
Soury (Auguste Jules), French philosopher, b. Paris, 1842. In '65 he
became librarian at the Bibliothèque Nationale. He has contributed
to the Revue des Deux Mondes, Revue Nouvelle, and other journals,
and has published important works on The Bible and Archæology, '72;
Historical Studies on Religions, '77; Essays of Religious Criticism,
'78; Jesus and the Gospels, '78, a work in which he maintains that
Jesus suffered from cerebral affection, and which has been translated
into English, together with an essay on The Religion of Israel from
his Historical Studies. Studies of Psychology, '79, indicated a new
direction in M. Soury's Freethought. He has since written A Breviary
of the History of Materialism, '80; Naturalist Theories of the World
and of Life in Antiquity, '81; Natural Philosophy, '82; Contemporary
Psychological Doctrines, '83. He has translated Noeldeke's Literary
History of the Old Testament, 73; Haeckel's Proofs of Evolution,
'79; and Preyer's Elements of General Physiology, '84.
Southwell (Charles), English orator, b. London, 1814. He served
with the British Legion in Spain, and became an actor and social
missionary. In Nov. '41 he started The Oracle of Reason at Bristol,
for an article in which on "The Jew Book" he was tried for blasphemy
14 Jan. '42, and after an able defence sentenced to twelve months'
imprisonment, and a fine of one hundred pounds. After coming out he
edited the Lancashire Beacon. He also lectured and debated both in
England and Scotland; wrote Christianity Proved Idolatry, '44; Apology
for Atheism, '46; Difficulties of Christianity, '48; Superstition
Unveiled; The Impossibility of Atheism which he held on the ground
that Theism was unproved, and Another Fourpenny Wilderness, in answer
to G. J. Holyoake's criticism of the same. He also wrote about '45,
Confessions of a Freethinker, an account of his own life. In '56 he
went to New Zealand, and died at Auckland 7 Aug. 1860.
Souverain (N.), French author of Platonism Unveiled 1700, a posthumous
work. He had been a minister in Poitou and was deposed on account of
his opinions.
Sozzini. See Socinus.
Spaink (Pierre François), Dutch physician, b. Amsterdam, 13 Dec. 1862,
and studied at the city, wrote for a time on De Dageraad, with the pen
names "A. Th. Eist." and "F.R.S." Has translated Romanes' Scientific
Evidences of Organic Evolution.
Spaventa (Bertrando), Italian philosopher, b. 1817. Since '61 he
has been professor of philosophy at Naples. Has written upon the
Philosophy of Kant, Gioberti, Spinoza, Hegel, etc. Died 1888.
Specht (Karl August), Dr. German writer, b. Lhweina, 2 July,
1845. Has been for many years editor of Menschenthum at Gotha, and
has written on Brain and Soul, Theology and Science and a Popular
History of the World's Development, which has gone through several
editions. Dr. Specht is a leading member of the German Freethinkers'
Union.
Spencer (Herbert), English philosopher, b. Derby, 1820. He was
articled to a civil engineer, but drifted into literature. He
wrote in the Westminster Review, and at the house of Dr. Chapman
met Mill, Lewes and "George Eliot." His first important work was
Social Statistics, '51. Four years later appeared his Principles of
Psychology, which with First Principles, '62; Principles of Biology,
'64; Principles of Sociology, '76-85, and Data of Ethics, '79, form
part of his "Synthetic Philosophy" in which he applies the doctrines
of evolution to the phenomena of mind and society no less than to
animal life. He has also published Essays, 3 vols, '58-74; a work on
Education '61; Recent Discussions on Science, Philosophy and Morals,
'71; The Study of Sociology, '72; Descriptive Sociology, '72-86,
an immense work compiled under his direction. Also papers directed
against Socialism; The Coming Slavery, '84; and Man and the State,
'85, and has contributed many articles to the best reviews.
Spinoza (Baruch), Pantheistic philosopher, b. of Jewish parents,
Amsterdam, 24 Nov. 1632. He early engaged in the study of theology and
philosophy, and, making no secret of his doubts, was excommunicated
by the Synagogue, 27 July, 1656. About the same time he narrowly
escaped death by a fanatic's dagger. To avoid persecution, he retired
to Rhinsburg, and devoted himself to philosophy, earning his living by
polishing lenses. About 1670 he settled at the Hague, where he remained
until his death. In 1670 he issued his Tractatus Theologico-politicus,
which made a great outcry; and for more than a century this great
thinker, whose life was gentle and self-denying, was stigmatized as
an atheist, a monster, and a blasphemer. A re-action followed, with
Lessing and Goethe, upon whom he had great influence. Though formerly
stigmatized as an atheist, Spinoza is now generally recognised as
among the greatest philosophers. He died in poverty at the Hague,
21 Feb. 1677. His Ethics was published with his Opera Posthuma. The
bi-centenary of his death was celebrated there by an eloquent address
from M. Rénan.
Spooner (Lysander), American writer, b. Athol (Mass.), 19
Jan. 1808. His first pamphlet was A Deist's Reply to the alleged
Supernatural Evidences of Christianity. He started letter-carrying from
Boston to New York, but was overwhelmed with prosecutions. He published
many works against slavery, and in favor of Individualism. Died at
Boston, 14 May, 1887.
Stabili (Francesco), see Cecco' d'Ascoli.
Stamm (August Theodor), German Humanist, wrote The Religion of Action,
translated into English, 1860. After the events of '48, he came to
England, went to America, Aug. '54.
Standring (George), English lecturer and writer, b. 18 Oct. 1855,
was for some years chorister at a Ritualistic Church, but discarded
theology after independent inquiry in '73. He became hon. sec. of the
National Secular Society about '75, resigning on appointment of paid
sec., was auditor and subsequently vice-president. Started Republican
Chronicle, April, 1875, this was afterwards called The Republican, and
in Sept. '88 The Radical. He is sec. of the London Secular Federation,
and has contributed to the National Reformer, Freethinker, Progress,
Our Corner, Reynolds's and Pall Mall Gazette. His brother, Sam.,
b. 27 July, 1853, is also an active Freethinker.
Stanley (F. Lloyd), American author of An Outline of the Future
Religion of the World (New York and London, 1884), a Deistic work in
which he criticises preceding religions.
Stanton (Elizabeth, née Cady), American reformer, b. Johnstone, New
York, 12 Nov. 1815. A friend of Ernestine Rose and Lucretia Mott, she
was associated with them in the Anti-Slavery and the Woman's Rights
crusades, of which last the first convention was held at her home in
Seneca Falls, July '48. She edited with her friends, Susan Anthony
and Parker Pilsbury, The Revolution, and is joint author of History
of Woman's Suffrage ('80-86). She has written in the North American
Review notably on "Has Christianity Benefited Woman," May, 1885.
Stap (A.), author of Historic Studies on the origins of
Christianity. Bruxelles, 1864, and The Immaculate Conception, 1869.
Starcke (Carl Nicolay), Dr. and teacher of philosophy in the
University of Copenhagen, b. 29 March, 1858. A decided disciple
of Feuerbach on whom he published a dissertation in '83. This able
Monograph on the whole doctrine of the German philosopher was in '85,
published in a German edition. Prof. Starcke has since published in
the "International Scientific Series," a work on The Primitive Family,
in which he critically surveys the views of Lubbock, Maine, McLennan,
etc. He is now engaged on a work on Ethics based on the doctrines of
Ludwig Feuerbach.