Korn (Selig), learned German Orientalist of Jewish birth, b. Prague,
26 April, 1804. A convert to Freethought, under the name of "F. Nork,"
he wrote many works on mythology which may still be consulted with
profit. A list is given in Fuerst's Bibliotheca Judaica. We mention
Christmas and Easter Explained by Oriental Sun Worship, Leipsic, '36;
Brahmins and Rabbins, Weissen, '36; The Prophet Elijah as a Sun Myth,
'37; The Gods of the Syrians, '42; Biblical Mythology of the Old and
New Testament, 2 vols. Stuttgart, '42-'43. Died at Teplitz, Bohemia,
16 Oct. 1850.
Krause (Ernst H. Ludwig), German scientific writer, b. Zielenzig
22 Nov. 1839. He studied science and contributed to the Vossische
Zeitung and Gartenlaube. In '63 he published, under the pen-name of
"Carus Sterne," a work on The Natural History of Ghosts, and in
'76 a work on Growth and Decay, a history of evolution. In '77 he
established with Hæckel, Dr. Otto Caspari, and Professor Gustav Jaeger,
the monthly magazine Kosmos, devoted to the spread of Darwinism. This
he conducted till '82. In Kosmos appeared the germ of his little book
on Erasmus Darwin, '79, to which Charles Darwin wrote a preliminary
notice. As "Carus Sterne" he has also written essays entitled Prattle
from Paradise, The Crown of Creation, '84, and an illustrated work
in parts on Ancient and Modern Ideas of the World, '87, etc.
Krekel (Arnold), American judge, b. Langenfield, Prussia 14 March,
1815. Went with parents to America in '32 and settled in Missouri. In
'42 he was elected Justice of the Peace and afterwards county
attorney. In '52 he was elected to the Missouri State Legislature. He
served in the civil war being elected colonel, was president of
the constitutional convention of '65 and signed the ordinance of
emancipation by which the slaves of Missouri were set free. He was
appointed judge by President Lincoln 9 March, '65. A pronounced
Agnostic, when he realized he was about to die he requested his wife
not to wear mourning, saying that death was as natural as birth. Died
at Kansas 14 July, 1888.
Krekel (Mattie H. Hulett), b. of freethinking parents, Elkhart Indiana
13 April, 1840. Educated at Rockford, Illinois, in her 16th year became
a teacher. Married Judge Krekel, after whose death, she devoted her
services to the Freethought platform.
Kropotkin (Petr Aleksyeevich) Prince, Russian anarchist, b. Moscow
9 Dec 1842. After studying at the Royal College of Pages he went to
Siberia for five years to pursue geological researches. In '71 he went
to Belgium and Switzerland and joined the International. Arrested
in Russia, he was condemned to three years imprisonment, escaped
'76 and came to England. In '79 he founded at Geneva, Le Révolté was
expelled. Accused in France in '83 of complicity in the outrage at
Lyons, he was condemned to five years imprisonment, but was released in
'86, since which he has lived in England. A brother who translated
Herbert Spencer's "Biology" into Russian, died in Siberia in the
autumn of 1886.
Laas (Ernst) German writer, b. Furstenwalde, 16 June, 1837. He has
written three volumes on Idealism and Positivism, 1879-'84, and also
on Kant's Place in the History of the Conflict between Faith and
Science, Berlin, 1882. He was professor of philosophy at Strassburg,
where he died 25 July, 1885.
Labanca (Baldassarre), professor of moral philosophy in the University
of Pisa, b. Agnone, 1829. He took part in the national movement of
'48, and in '51 was imprisoned and afterwards expelled from Naples. He
has written on progress in philosophy and also a study on primitive
Christianity, dedicated to Giordano Bruno, the martyr of Freethought,
'86.
Lachatre (Maurice), French writer, b. Issoudun 1814, edits a "Library
of Progress," in which has appeared his own History of the Inquisition,
and History of the Popes, '83.
Lacroix (Sigismund), the pen name of Sigismund Julien Adolph
Krzyzanowski, b. Warsaw 26 May, 1845. His father was a refugee. He
wrote with Yves Guyot The Social Doctrines of Christianity. In '74 he
was elected a municipal councillor of Paris. In '77 he was sentenced
to three months' imprisonment for calling Jesus "enfant adulterin"
in Le Radical. In Feb. '81 he was elected president of the municipal
council, and in '83 deputy to the French parliament.
Laffitte (Pierre), French Positivist philosopher, b. 21 Feb. 1823
at Beguey (Gironde), became a disciple of Comte and one of his
executors. He was professor of mathematics, but since the death of
his master has given a weekly course of instruction in the former
apartment of Comte. M. Laffitte has published discourses on The
General History of Humanity, '59, and The Great Types of Humanity,
'75-6. In '78 he founded La Revue Occidentale.
Lagrange (Joseph Louis), Count, eminent mathematician, b. Turin, 25
Jan. 1736. He published in 1788 his Analytical Mechanics, which is
considered one of the masterpieces of the human intellect. He became
a friend of D'Alembert, Diderot, Condorcet, and Delambre. He said he
believed it impossible to prove there was a God. Died 10 April 1813.
La Hontan (Jean), early French traveller in Canada, b. 1666. In
his account of Dialogues with an American Savage, 1704, which was
translated into English, he states objections to religion. Died in
Hanover, 1715.
Lainez (Alexandre), French poet, b. Chimay, Hainault, 1650, of the same
family with the general of the Jesuits. He lived a wandering Bohemian
life and went to Holland to see Bayle. Died at Paris 18 April, 1710.
Laing (Samuel), politician and writer, b. Edinburgh 1812, the son of
S. Laing of Orkney. Educated at Cambridge, where he took his degree
'32; called to the bar '42; became secretary of the railway department
of the Board of Trade; returned as Liberal M.P. for Kirkwall '52;
helped repeal duty on advertisements in newspapers. In '60 he became
finance minister for India. His Modern Science and Modern Thought,
'85, is a plain exposition of the incompatibility of the old and
new view of the universe. In the Modern Zoroastrian, '87, he gives
the philosophy of polarity, in which, however, he was anticipated by
Mr. Crozier, who in turn was anticipated by Emerson. In '88 he entered
into a friendly correspondence with Mr. Gladstone on the subject of
Agnosticism his portion of which has been published.
Lakanal (Joseph), French educator, b. Serres, 14 July, 1762. Studied
for priesthood, but gave up that career. He entered with ardor into the
Revolution, was a member of the Convention 1792-5, and there protected
the interests of science. At the restoration in 1814 he retired to
America, and was welcomed by Jefferson and became president of the
University of Louisiana. He returned to France after the Revolution of
'30, and died in Paris 14 Feb. 1845.
Lalande (Joseph Jèrome le Francais de), distinguished French
astronomer, b. Bourg en Bresse, 11 July 1732. Educated by the Jesuits,
he was made a member of the Academy of Sciences in his 20th year. In
1762 he became Professor of Astronomy at the College of France. In
1764 he published his Treatise of Astronomy, to which Dupuis subjoined
a memoir, which formed the basis of his Origin of all Religions, the
idea of which he had taken from Lalande. In Aug 1793 Lalande hazarded
his own life to save Dupont de Nemours, and some priests whom he
concealed in the observatory of Mazarin college. It was upon Lalande's
observations that the Republican calender was drawn up. At Lalande's
instigation Sylvain Maréchal published his Dictionary of Atheists,
to which the astronomer contributed supplements after Maréchal's
death. Lalande professed himself prouder of being an Atheist than
of being an astronomer. His Bibliographie Astronomique is called by
Prof. de Morgan "a perfect model of scientific bibliography." It was
said that never did a young man address himself to Lalande without
receiving proof of his generosity. He died at Paris 4 April, 1807.
Lamarck (Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet) French naturalist,
b. Picardy 1 Aug. 1744, educated for the Church, but entered the army
in 1761, and fought with distinction. Having been disabled, he went
to Paris, studied Botany, and published French Flora in 1788, which
opened to him the Academy of Sciences. He became assistant at the
Museum of Natural History, and in 1809 propounded, in his Zoological
Philosophy, a theory of transmutation of species. His Natural History
of Invertebrate Animals (1815-22) was justly celebrated. He became
blind several years before his death, 18 Dec. 1829.
Lamborelle (Louis). Belgian author of books on The Good Old Times,
Brussels, 1874; The Apostles and Martyrs of Liberty of Conscience,
Antwerp, 1882, and other anti-clerical works. Lamborelle lost a post
under government through his anticlerical views, and is one of the
council of the Belgian Freethought party.
Lamettrie (Julian Offray de). French physician and philosopher,
b. St. Malo, 25 Dec. 1709. Destined for the Church, he was educated
under the Jesuits at Caen. He, however, became a physician, studying
under Boerhaave, at Leyden. Returning to France, he became surgeon
to the French Guard, and served at the battles of Fontenoy and
Dettingen. Falling ill, he noticed that his faculties fluctuated with
his physical state, and drew therefrom materialistic conclusions. The
boldness with which he made his ideas known lost him his place, and he
took refuge in Holland. Here he published The Natural History of the
Soul, under the pretence of its being a translation from the English
of Charp [Sharp], 1745. This was followed by Man a Machine (1748),
a work which was publicly burnt at Leyden, and orders given for the
author's arrest. It was translated into English, and reached a second
edition (London, 1750). It was often attributed to D'Argens. Lamettrie
held that the senses are the only avenues to knowledge, and that it
is absurd to assume a god to explain motion. Only under Atheism will
religious strife cease. Lamettrie found an asylum with Frederick the
Great, to whom he became physician and reader (Feb. 1748). Here he
published Philosophical Reflections on the Origin of Animals (1750),
translated Seneca on Happiness, etc. He died 11 Nov. 1751, and desired
by his will to be buried in the garden of Lord Tyrconnel. The great
king thought so well of him that he composed his funeral eulogy.
La Mothe Le Vayer (François de). French sceptical philosopher,
b. Paris, 1588, was patronised by Louis XIV., and was preceptor to
the Duke of Anjou. Published The Virtue of Pagans and Dialogues
after the Manner of the Ancients, in which he gave scope to his
scepticism. Two editions of his collected works appeared, but neither
of these contains The Dialogues of Orasius Tubero (Frankfort 1606,
probably a false date). Died 1672.
Lancelin (Pierre F.), French materialist, b. about 1770. Became a
constructive engineer in the French navy, wrote an able Introduction
to the Analysis of Science, 3 vols. 1801-3, and a physico-mathematical
theory of the organisation of worlds, 1805. Died Paris, 1809.
Land (Jan Pieter Nicolaus), Dutch writer, b. Delft, 23 April, 1834. Has
written critical studies on Spinoza, and brought out an edition of
the philosopher's works in conjunction with J. van Vloten.
Landesmann (Heinrich). See Lorm.
Landor (Walter Savage), English poet, b. Ipsley Court, Warwickshire,
30 Jan. 1775. He was educated at Rugby and Oxford, and, inheriting
a fortune, could indulge his tastes as an author. He published a
volume of poems in 1795, and Gebir in 1798. An ardent Republican, he
served as a volunteer colonel in the Spanish Army against Napoleon
from 1808 to 1814, besides devoting a considerable sum of money to
the Spanish cause. He became a resident of Florence about 1816. His
reputation chiefly rests on his great Imaginary Conversations, in
which many bold ideas are presented in beautiful language. Landor
was unquestionably the greatest English writer of his age. While
nominally a Christian, he has scattered many Freethought sentiments
over his various works. Died at Florence, 17 Sept. 1864.
Lanessan (Jean Louis de), French naturalist, b. at Saint André de
Cubzac (Gironde), 13 July, 1843. At 19 he became a naval physician, and
M.D. in '68. He was elected in '79 as Radical member of the Municipal
Council of Paris, and re-elected in '81. In August of the same year
he was elected Deputy for the Department of the Seine. He founded
Le Reveil, edited the Marseillaise, and started the International
Biological Library, to which he contributed a study on the doctrine
of Darwin. He has written a standard work on botany, and has written
vol. iii. of the "Materialists' Library," on the Evolution of Matter.
Lanfrey (Pierre), French author and senator, b. Chambéry, 26 Oct. 1828,
became known by a book on The Church and the Philosophers of the
Eighteenth Century, '55, and celebrated by his History of Napoleon
I. '67-75. M. Lanfrey also wrote The Political History of the Popes,
a work placed on the Index. Died at Pau, 15 Nov. 1877.
Lang (Andrew), man of letters, b. Selkirk, 31 March, 1844. Educated
at St. Andrews and Oxford. Mr. Lang made his name by his translation
of the Odyssey with Mr. Butcher, and by his graceful poems and
ballads. He has written In the Wrong Paradise, and many other
pleasant sketches. More serious work is shown in Custom and Myth,
'84, and Myth, Ritual and Religion, '87. A disciple of E. B. Tylor,
Mr. Lang successfully upholds the evolutionary view of mythology.
Lang (Heinrich), German Rationalist, b. 14 Nov. 1826. Studied theology
under Baur at Tübingen, and became teacher at Zürich, where he died,
13 Jan. 1876.
Lange (Friedrich Albert), German philosopher and writer, b. Wald,
near Solix, 28 Sept. 1828. He studied at Bonn, and became teacher in
the gymnasium of Cologne, '52. In '53 he returned to Bonn as teacher
of philosophy, and there enjoyed the friendship of Ueberweg. He became
proprietor and editor of the democratic Landbote, and filled various
municipal offices. In '70 he was called to the chair of philosophy at
Zürich, but resigned in '72 and accepted a similar post at Marburg,
where he died 21 Nov. 1875. His fame rests on his important History
of Materialism, which has been translated into English.
Langsdorf (Karl Christian), German Deist, b. 18 May, 1757, author
of God and Nature, a work on the immortality of the soul, and some
mathematical books. Died Heidelberg, 10 June, 1834.
Lankester (Edwin Ray), F.R.S., LL.D., English scientist, b. London, 15
May, 1847, and educated at St. Paul's School and Oxford. Has published
many scientific memoirs, revised the translation of Haeckel's History
of Creation, and has done much to forward evolutionary ideas. In 1876
he exposed the spiritist medium Slade, and procured his conviction. He
is Professor of Zoology and Natural History in the University of
London.
La Place (Pierre Simon). One of the greatest astronomers,
b. Beaumont-en-Auge, 23 March, 1749. His father was a poor
peasant. Through the influence of D'Alembert, La Place became professor
of mathematics in the military school, 1768. By his extraordinary
abilities he became in 1785 member of the Academy of Science, which
he enriched with many memoirs. In 1796 he published his Exposition
of the System of the Universe, a popularisation of his greater work
on Celestial Mechanics, 1799-1825. Among his sayings were, "What we
know is but little, what we know not is immense." "There is no need
for the hypothesis of a God." Died Paris, 5 March, 1827.
Larevelliere-Lepaux (Louis Marie DE), French politician, b. Montaigu
25 Aug. 1753. Attached from youth to the ideas of Rousseau, he was
elected with Volney to represent Angers in the national assembly. He
was a moderate Republican, defended the proscribed Girondins, was
doomed himself but escaped by concealment, and distinguished himself
by seeking to replace Catholicism with theophilanthropy or natural
religion. He wrote Reflections on Worship and the National Fêtes. He
became President of the Directory, and after the 18 Brumaire retired,
refusing to swear fealty to the empire though offered a pension by
Napoleon. Died Paris, 27 March, 1824.
Larousse (Pierre Athanase), French lexicographer, b. of poor parents,
23 Oct. 1817, at Toucy, Yonne, where he became teacher. He edited
many school books and founded the Grand Dictionnaire Universel du
XIXe. Siecle, 1864-77. This is a collection of dictionaries, and may
be called the Encyclopedie of this century. Most of M. Larousse's
colleagues were also Freethinkers. Died at Paris, 3 Jan. 1875.
Larra (Mariano José de), distinguished Spanish author, b. Madrid,
4 March, 1809. He went with his family to France and completed his
education. He returned to Spain in '22. At eighteen he published
a collection of poems, which was followed by El Duende Satirico
(The Satirical Goblin). In '31 appeared his Pobrecito Hablador (Poor
Gossip), a paper in which he unmercifully satirised the public affairs
and men of Spain. It was suppressed after its fourteenth number. He
edited in the following year the Revista Española, signing his articles
"Figaro." He travelled through Europe, and on his return to Madrid
edited El Mundo. Larra wrote also some dramas and translated Lamennais'
Paroles d'un Croyant. Being disappointed in love he shot himself,
13 April, 1837. Ch. de Mazade, after speaking of Larra's scepticism,
adds, "Larra could see too deep to possess any faith whatever. All
the truths of this world, he was wont to say, can be wrapped in a
cigarette paper!"
Larroque (Patrice), French philosopher, b. Beaume, 27 March, 1801. He
became a teacher and was inspector of the academy of Toulouse, 1830-36,
and rector of the academies of Cahors, Limoges, and Lyons, 1836-49. In
the latter year he was denounced for his opposition to clerical ideas
and lost his place. Among his numerous works we mention De l'Esclavage
chez les Nations Chrétiennes, '57, in which he proves that Christianity
did not abolish slavery. This was followed by an Critical Examination
of the Christian Religion, '59, and a work on Religious Renovation,
'59, which proposes a moral system founded upon pure deism. Both were
for a while prohibited in France. M. Larroque also wrote on Religion
and Politics, '78. Died at Paris, 15 June, 1879.
Lassalle (Ferdinand Johann Gottlieb), founder of German Social
Democratic party, b. of Jewish parents, 11 April, 1825, in Breslau,
studied philosophy and law at Breslau and Berlin. He became a
follower of Hegel and Feuerbach. Heine, at Paris, '46, was charmed
with him. Humboldt called him "Wunderkind." In 1858 he published
a profound work on the philosophy of Heraclitus. For planning an
insurrection against the Prussian Government he was arrested, but
won his acquittal. Died through a duel, 31 Aug. 1864.
Lastarria (José Victorino), Chilian statesman and Positivist,
b. Rancagua, 1812. From youth he applied himself to teaching
and journalism, and in '38 was appointed teacher of civil law and
literature in the National Institute. He has founded several journals
and literary societies. From '43 he has been at different times deputy
to the legislature and secretary to the republic of Chili. He has
also served as minister to Peru and Brazil. In '73 he founded the
Santiago Academy of Science and Literature; has written many works,
and his Lecciones de Politicia Positiva has been translated into
French by E. de Rivière and others, 1879.
Lau (Theodor Ludwig), German philosopher, b. at Königsberg, 15 June
1670, studied at Königsberg and Halle, and about 1695 travelled
through Holland, England, and France. In 1717 he published in Latin,
at Frankfort, Philosophical Meditations on God, the World, and Man,
which excited an outcry for its materialistic tendency and was
suppressed. He was a follower of Spinoza, and held several official
positions from which he was deposed on account of his presumed
atheism. Died at Altona, 8 Feb. 1740.
Laurent (François), Belgian jurisconsult, b. Luxembourg, 8 July,
1810. Studied law and became an advocate. In '35 he was made
Professor of Civil Law in the University of Ghent, a post he held,
despite clerical protests, till his retirement in '80. A voluminous
author on civil and international law, his principal work is entitled
Studies in the History of Humanity. He was a strong advocate of the
separation of Church and State, upon which he wrote, 1858-60. He also
wrote Letters on the Jesuits, '65. Died in 1887.
Law (Harriet), English lecturess, who for many years occupied the
secular platform, and engaged in numerous debates. She edited the
Secular Chronicle, 1876-1879.
Lawrence (James), Knight of Malta, b. Fairfield, Jamaica, 1773, of good
Lancashire family. Educated at Eton and Gottingen; became acquainted
with Schiller and Goethe at Stuttgart and Weimar, was detained with
English prisoners at Verdun. In 1807 he published his The Empire of
the Nairs, or the Rights of Women, a free-love romance which he wrote
in German, French, and English. He also wrote in French and English,
a curious booklet The Children of God, London, 1853. He addressed a
poem on Tolerance to Mr. Owen, on the occasion of his denouncing the
religions of the world. It appears in The Etonian Out of Bounds. Died
at London 26 Sept. 1841.
Lawrence (Sir William), surgeon, b. Cirencester, 1783. Admitted
M.R.C.S., 1805, in '13 he was chosen, F.R.S., and two years later
was named Professor of Anatomy and Surgery at the Royal College of
Surgeons. While he held that chair he delivered his Lectures on Man,
which on their publication in 1819 roused a storm of bigotry. In his
early manhood, Lawrence was an earnest advocate of radical reform;
but notwithstanding his early unpopularity, he acquired a lucrative
practice. Died London, 5 July, 1867.
Layton (Henry), educated at Oxford, and studied at Gray's Inn, being
called to the bar. He wrote anonymously observations on Dr. Bentley's
Confutation of Atheism (1693), and a Search After Souls, and Spiritual
Observations in Man (1700).
Leblais (Alphonse), French professor of mathematics, b. Mans,
1820. Author of a study in Positivist philosophy entitled Materialism
and Spiritualism (1865), to which Littré contributed a preface.
Le Bovier de Fontenelle. See Fontenelle.
Lecky (William Edward Hartpole), historian, b. near Dublin, 26 March,
1838. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. His works, which are
characterised by great boldness and originality of thought, are
A History of the Rise and Spirit of Rationalism in Europe ('65),
A History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne ('69),
and A History of England in the Eighteenth Century (1878-87).
Leclerc (Georges Louis). See Buffon.
Leclerc de Septchenes (N.), b. at Paris. Became secretary to Louis
XVI., translated the first three vols. of Gibbon, and wrote an essay
on the religion of the ancient Greeks (1787). A friend of Lalande,
he prepared an edition of Freret, published after his death. Died at
Plombieres, 9 June, 1788.
Leconte de Lisle (Charles Marie René), French poet, b. Isle of Bourbon,
23 Oct. 1818. After travelling in India, returned to Paris, and took
part in the revolution of '48, but has since devoted himself mainly
to poetry, though he has written also A Republican Catechism and A
Popular History of Christianity ('71). One of his finest poems is
Kain. On being elevated to the seat of Victor Hugo at the Academy in
'87, he gave umbrage to Jews and Catholics by incidentally speaking
of Moses as "the chief of a horde of ferocious nomads."
Lecount (Peter), lieutenant in the French navy. He was engaged in
the battle of Navarino. Came to England as a mathematician in the
construction of the London and Birmingham Railway, of which he wrote
a history (1839). He wrote a curious book in three volumes entitled A
Few Hundred Bible Contradictions; A Hunt After the Devil and other Old
Matters, by John P. Y., M.D.; published by H. Hetherington ('43). The
author's name occurs on p. 144, vol i., as "the Rev. Peter Lecount."
Leenhof (Frederick van), b. Middelburg (Zealand), Aug. 1647. Became
a minister of Zwolle, where he published a work entitled Heaven on
Earth (1703), which subjected him to accusations of Atheism. It was
translated into German in 1706.
Lefevre (André), French writer, b. Provins, 9 Nov. 1834. He became,
at the age of twenty-three, one of the editors of the Magasin
Pittoresque. He wrote much in La Libre Pensée and La Pensée Nouvelle;
has translated Lucretius in verse ('76), and written Religions and
Mythologies Compared ('77); contributed a sketchy History of Philosophy
to the Library of Contemporary Science ('78); has written Man Across
the Ages ('80) and the Renaissance of Materialism ('81). He has also
edited the Lettres Persanes of Montesquieu, some Dialogues of Voltaire,
and Diderot's La Religieuse ('86).
Lefort (César), disciple of Comte. Has published a work on the method
of modern science (Paris, 1864).
Lefrancais de Lalande. See Lalande.
Legate (Bartholomew), Antitrinitarian native of Essex, b. about 1572,
was thrown into prison on a charge of heresy, 1611. King James had
many personal interviews with him. On one occasion the king asked him
if he did not pray to Jesus Christ. He replied that he had done so in
the days of his ignorance, but not for the last seven years. "Away,
base fellow!" said His Majesty, "It shall never be said that one
stayeth in my presence who hath never prayed to the Savior for seven
years together." He was burnt at Smithfield by the King's writ, De
Hæretico Comburendo, 18 March, 1612, being one of the last persons
so punished in England.
Leguay de Premontval. See Premontval.
Le Hon (Henri) Belgian scientist, b. Ville-Pommeroeul (Hainault) 1809,
was captain in the Belgian army, professor at the military school of
Brussels, and Chevalier of the Order of Leopold. Author of L'Homme
Fossile en Europe, '66. Translated Professor Omboni's exposition of
Darwinism. Died at San Remo, 1872.
Leidy (Joseph), M.D., American naturalist, b. Philadelphia, 9
Sept. 1823. He became professor of biology at the University of
Philadelphia, and is eminent for his contributions to American
palæontology.
Leigh (Henry Stone), English author of a Deistic work on the Religions
of the World, 1869.
Leland (Theron C.), American journalist, b. 9 April, 1821. He edited
with Wakeman the journal Man. Died 2 June, 1885.
Lemaire (Charles), member of the Academical Society of Saint Quentin,
author of an atheistic philosophical work, in two vols., entitled
Initiation to the Philosophy of Liberty, Paris, 1842.
Lemonnier (Camille), Belgian writer, b. Ixel les Bruxelles, 1845,
author of stories and works on Hysteria, Death, etc., in which he
evinces his freethought sentiments.
Lenau (Nicolaus), i.e. Nicolaus Franz Niembsch von Strehlenau,
Hungarian poet, b. Czatad, 15 Aug. 1802. His poems, written in German,
are pessimistic, and his constitutional melancholy deepened into
insanity. Died Ober-Döbling, near Vienna, 22 Aug. 1850.
Lennstrand (Viktor E.), Swedish writer and orator, b. Gefle,
30 Jan. 1861. Educated at Upsala University. Founded the Swedish
Utilitarian Society, March '88, and in May was sentenced to a fine of
250 crowns for denial of the Christian religion. On the 29th Nov. he
was imprisoned for three months for the same offence. Has written
several pamphlets and has incurred several fresh prosecutions. In
company with A. Lindkvist he has founded the Fritankaren as the organ
of Swedish freethought.
Leontium, Athenian Hetæra, disciple and mistress of Epicurus (q.v.) She
acquired distinction as a philosopher, and wrote a treatise against
Theophrastus, which is praised by Cicero as written in a skilful and
elegant manner.
Leopardi (Giacomo), count, Italian pessimist poet, b. Recanati
(Ancona), 29 June, 1798. In 1818 he won a high place among poets by
his lines addressed To Italy. His Canti, '31, are distinguished by
eloquence and pathos, while his prose essays, Operette Morali, '27, are
esteemed the finest models of Italian prose of this century. Leopardi's
short life was one long disease, but it was full of work of the
highest character. As a poet, philologist, and philosopher, he is
among the greatest of modern Italians. Died at Naples, 14 July, 1837.
Lequinio (Joseph Marie), French writer and Conventionnel, b. Sarzeau,
1740. Elected Mayor of Rennes, 1790, and Deputy from Morbihar to
the Legislative Assembly. He then professed Atheism. He voted the
death of Louis XVI. "regretting that the safety of the state did not
permit his being condemned to penal servitude for life." In 1792 he
published Prejudices Destroyed, signed "Citizen of the World," in
which he considered religion as a political chain. He took part in the
Feasts of Reason, and wrote Philosophy of the People, 1796. Died 1813.
Lermina (Jules Hippolyte), French writer, b. 27 March, 1839. Founded
the Corsair and Satan, and has published an illustrated biographical
dictionary of contemporary France, 1884-5.
Lermontov (Mikhail Yur'evich), Russian poet and novelist, b. Moscow,
3 Oct. 1814. Said to have come of a Scotch family, he studied at Moscow
University, from which he was expelled. In '32 he entered the Military
Academy at St. Petersburg, and afterwards joined the Hussars. In
'37 some verses on the death of Pushkin occasioned his being sent to
the Caucasus, which he describes in a work translated into English,
'53. His poems are much admired. The Demon, exhibiting Satan in love,
has been translated into English, and so has his romance entitled A
Hero of Our Times. He fell in a duel in the Caucasus, 15 July, 1840.
Leroux (Pierre), French Socialist and philosophic writer, b. Bercy,
near Paris, 6 April, 1797. At first a mason, then a typographer, he
invented an early composing machine which he called the pianotype. In
1824 he became editor of the Globe. Becoming a Saint Simonian,
he made this paper the organ of the sect. He started with Reynaud
L'Encyclopédie Nouvelle, and afterwards with L. Viardot and Mme. George
Sand the Revue Indépendante ('41), which became noted for its pungent
attacks on Catholicism. His principal work is De l'Humanite ('40). In
June '48 M. Leroux was elected to the Assembly. After the coup d'état
he returned to London and Jersey. Died at Paris, 12 April, 1871.
Leroy (Charles Georges), lieutenant ranger of the park of Versailles,
b. 1723, one of the writers on the Encyclopédie. He defended the work
of Helvetius on the Mind against Voltaire, and wrote Philosophical
Letters on the Intelligence and Perfectibility of Animals (1768),
a work translated into English in 1870. Died at Paris 1789.
Lespinasse (Adolf Frederik Henri de). Dutch writer, b. Delft, 14 May,
1819. Studied medicine, and established himself first at Deventer and
afterwards at Zwartsluis, Vaassen, and Hasselt. In the Dageraad he
wrote many interesting studies under the pen-name of "Titus," and
translated the work of Dupuis into Dutch. In 1870 he emigrated to
America and became director of a large farm in Iowa. Died in Orange
City (Iowa) 1881.
L'Espinasse (Julie Jeanne Eléonore de). French beauty and wit,
b. Lyons, 9 Nov. 1732. She became the protégé of Madame du Deffand, and
gained the favor of D'Alembert. Her letters are models of sensibility
and spirit. Died Paris, 23 May, 1776.
Lessing (Gotthold Ephraim). German critic and dramatic poet, b. Kamenz,
22 Jan. 1729. He studied at Leipsic, and at Berlin became acquainted
with Voltaire and Mendelssohn. Made librarian at Wolfenbüttel he
published Fragments of an Unknown (1777), really the Vindication of
Rational Worshippers of God, by Reimarus, in which it was contended
that Christian evidences are so clad in superstition as to be unworthy
credence. Among his writings were The Freethinker and Nathan the
Wise, his noblest play, in which he enforces lessons of toleration
and charity to all faiths. The effect of his writings was decidedly
sceptical. Heine calls Lessing, after Luther, the greatest German
emancipator. Died at Brunswick 15 Feb. 1781.
Lessona (Michele). Italian naturalist, b. 20 Sept., 1823; has
translated some of the works of Darwin.
Leucippus. Greek founder of the atomic philosophy.
L'Estrange (Thomas), writer, b. 17 Jan. 1822. With a view to entering
the Church he graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, 26 Feb. '44,
but became an attorney. Having read F. A. Paley's Introduction to the
Iliad, he became convinced that the "cooking" process there described,
has been undergone by all sacred books now extant. He wrote for Thomas
Scott's series valuable tracts on Our First Century, Primitive Church
History, Irenæus, Order, The Eucharist. He also edited Hume's Dialogues
on Natural Religion, and wrote The First Ten Alleged Persecutions.
Levallois (Jules), French writer, b. Rouen 18 May, 1829. In '55 he
became secretary to Sainte Beuve. Wrote Déisme et Christianisme, 1866.
Lewes (George Henry), English man of letters, b. in London, 18
April, 1817, he became a journalist and dramatic critic. In 1845-6
appeared his Biographical History of Philosophy, which showed higher
power. This has been republished as History of Philosophy from Thales
to Comte. Lewes was one of the first to introduce English readers to
Comte in his account of Comte's Philosophy of the Sciences, '47. In
'49 he became one of the founders of the Leader, for which he wrote
till '54. In that year he began his association with "George Eliot"
(q.v.). His Life of Goethe appeared in '55, and from this time he
began to give his attention to scientific, especially biological,
studies. In '64 he published an important essay on Aristotle. On
the foundation of the Fortnightly Review, '65, Lewes was appointed
editor. His last work, Problems of Life and Mind, 5 vols. '74-79,
was never completed owing to his death, 28 Nov. 1878. He bequeathed
his books to Dr. Williams's library.
Lichtenberg (Georg Christoph), German satirical writer and scientist,
b. Ober-Ramstädt, 1 July, 1742; a friend of G. Forster, he left many
thoughts showing his advanced opinions. Died Göttingen, 24 Feb. 1799.
Lick (James), American philanthropist, b. Fredericksburg, Pa., 25
Aug. 1796. In 1847 he settled in California and made a large fortune
by investing in real estate. He was a Materialist and bequeathed
large sums to the Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, and for other
philanthropic purposes. Died San Francisco, 1 Oct. 1876.
Lilja (Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Rostanga, 18 Oct. 1808. Studied
at Lund and became parish clerk in the Lund diocese. He wrote, on Man;
his Life and Destiny. Died Lund 1870.
Lincoln (Abraham), sixteenth President of the United States,
b. Kentucky, 12 Feb. 1809. An uncompromising opponent of slavery,
his election (Nov. '60) led to the civil war and the emancipation
of slaves. Ward H. Lamon, who knew him well, says he "read Volney
and Paine and then wrote a deliberate and labored essay, wherein
he reached conclusions similar to theirs. The essay was burnt, but
he never denied or regretted its composition." Mrs. Lincoln said,
"Mr. Lincoln had no hope and no faith in the usual acceptance of those
words." Assassinated 14 April, 1865, he expired the following morning.
Lindet (Robert Thomas), "apostate" French bishop, b. Bernay, 1743. Was
elected to the States-General by the clergy of his district. He
embraced Republican principles, and in March, 1791, was made Bishop
of L'Eure. In Nov. 1792 he publicly married. On 7 Nov. 1793, renounced
his bishopric. He proposed that civil festivals should take the place
of religious ones. He became member of the Conseil des Anciens. Died
Bernay, 10 Aug. 1823, and was buried without religious service.
Lindh (Theodor Anders), b. Borgo (Finland), 13 Jan. 1833. Studied
at Helsingfors University, '51-57; became lawyer in '71, and is
now a member of the Municipal Council of Borgo. He has written many
poems in Swedish, and also translated from the English poets, and has
published Freethought essays, which have brought him into controversy
with the clergy.
Lindkvist (Alfred), Swedish writer, b. Gefle, 21 Oct. 1860, of
pious parents. At the University of Upsala he studied European
literature, and became acquainted with the works of Mill, Darwin,
and Spencer. He has published two volumes of poems, Snow Drops and
April Days, and lost a stipend at the University by translating
from the Danish a rationalistic life of Jesus entitled The Reformer
from Galilee. Mr. Lindkvist has visited Paris, and collaborated on
a Stockholm daily paper. In '88 he joined his friend Lennstrand in
propagating Freethought, and in Nov. received a month's imprisonment
for having translated one of J. Symes's anti-Christian pamphlets. He
now edits Fritankaren in conjunction with Mr. Lennstrand.
Lindner (Ernst Otto Timotheus), German physician, b. Breslau, 28
Nov. 1820. A friend of Schopenhauer, whose philosophy he maintained
in several works on music. He edited the Vossische Zeitung from
'63. Died at Berlin, 7 Aug. 1867.
Liniere (François Payot de), French satiric poet, b. Paris, 1628;
known as the Atheist of Senlis. Boileau says the only act of piety
he ever did was drinking holy water because his mistress dipped her
finger in it. Wrote many songs and smart epigrams, and is said to have
undertaken a criticism of the New Testament. Died at Paris in 1704.
Linton (Eliza, née Lynn) novelist and journalist, daughter of vicar
of Crosthwaite, Cumberland, b. Keswick, 1822. Has contributed largely
to the leading Radical journals, and has written numerous works of
fiction, of which we must mention Under which Lord? and The Rebel of
the Family. In '72 she published The True History of Joshua Davidson,
Christian and Communist, and in '85 the Autobiography of Christopher
Kirkland. She has also written on the woman question, and contributed
largely to periodical literature.
Linton (William James), poet, engraver, and author, b. at London,
1812. A Chartist in early life, he was intimately associated with
the chief political refugees. He contributed to the democratic press,
and also, we believe, to the Oracle of Reason. He wrote the Reasoner
tract on "The Worth of Christianity." He was one of the founders of
the Leader, has edited the Truthseeker, the National and the English
Republic, and has published Famine a Masque, a Life of Paine, and a
memoir of James Watson and some volumes of poems. In '67 he went to
America, but has recently returned.
Liscow (Christian Ludwig), one of the greatest German satirists,
b. Wittenberg, 29 April, 1701. He studied law in Jena, and became
acquainted with Hagedorn in Hamburg. In 1745 he was Councillor of War
at Dresden. This post he abandoned, occupying himself with literature
until his death, 30 Oct. 1760. Liscow's principal satires are The
Uselessness of Good Works for our Salvation and The Excellence and
Utility of Bad Writers. He has been called the German Swift, and his
works show him to have been an outspoken Freethinker.
Lisle (Lionel), author of The Two Tests: the Supernatural Claims of
Christianity Tried by Two of its own Rules (London, 1877).
Liszinski (Casimir), Polish martyr of noble birth. Denounced as an
Atheist in 1688 by the Bishop of Wilna and Posnovia, he was decapitated
and burnt at Grodno 30 March, 1689. His ashes were placed in a cannon
and scattered abroad. Among the statements in Liszinski's papers was
that man was the creator of God, whom he had formed out of nothing.
Littre (Maximilian Paul Emile), French philologist and philosopher,
b. Paris, 1 Feb. 1801. He studied medicine, literature and most of
the sciences. An advanced Republican, he was one of the editors of
the National. His edition of the works of Hippocrates (1839-61) proved
the thoroughness of his learning. He embraced the doctrines of Comte,
and in '45 published a lucid analysis of the Positive Philosophy. He
translated the Life of Jesus, by Strauss, and wrote the Literary
History of France. His Dictionary of the French Language, in which he
applied the historical method to philology, is one of the most colossal
works ever performed by one man. He wrote on Comte and Positive
Philosophy, Comte and Mill, etc., but refused to follow Comte in his
later vagaries. From '67 till his death he conducted La Philosophie
Positive. Littré also wrote Science from the Standpoint of Philosophy,
'73; Literature and History, '75; Fragments of Positive Philosophy
and Contemporary Sociology, '76. He was proposed for the Academy in
'63, but was bitterly opposed by Bishop Dupanloup, and was elected in
'71. In the same year he was elected to the National Assembly, and in
'75 was chosen senator. Under the Empire he twice refused the Legion
of Honor. After a long life of incessant labor, he died at Paris,
2 June 1881.
Lloyd (John William), American poet and writer, b. of Welsh-English
stock at Westfield, New Jersey, 4 June, 1857. Is mostly
self-educated. After serving apprenticeship as a carpenter, became
assistant to Dr. Trall. Brought up as an orthodox Christian he became
an Agnostic and Anarchist, and has written much in Liberty and Lucifer.
Lohmann (Hartwic), a native of Holstein, who in 1616 occupied a
good position in Flensburg. He was accused of Atheism. In 1635 he
practised medicine at Copenhagen. He wrote a work called the Mirror
of Faith. Died 1642.
Lollard (Walter), heretic and martyr, b. England, towards end of
thirteenth century, began to preach in Germany in 1315. He rejected
the sacraments and ceremonies of the Church. It is said he chose
twelve apostles to propagate his doctrines and that he had many
followers. Arrested at Cologne in 1322, he was burnt to death, dying
with great courage.
Loman (Abraham Dirk), Dutch rationalist, b. The Hague 16 Sep. 1823. He
holds the entire New Testament to be unhistorical, and the Pauline
Epistles to belong to the second century, and has written many
critical works.
Lombroso (Cesare). Italian writer and scientist, b. Nov. 1836,
has been a soldier and military physician. Introduced Darwinism to
Italy. Has written several works, mostly in relation to the physiology
of criminals.
Longet (François Achille), French physiologist, b. St. Germain-en-Laye,
1811, published a Treatise on Physiology in 3 vols. and several
medical works. Died Bordeaux, 20 April, 1871.
Longiano (Sebastiano). See Fausto.
Longue (Louis Pierre de), French Deist, writer in the service of
the house of Conti; wrote Les Princesses de Malabares, Adrianople,
1734, in which he satirised religion. It was condemned to be burnt
31 Dec. 1734, and a new edition published in Holland with the imprint
Tranquebar, 1735.
Lorand (Georges), Belgian journalist, b. Namur, 1851, studied
law at Bologna (Italy) and soon became an active propagator of
Atheistic doctrines among the youth of the University and in workmen
associations. He edits La Réforme at Brussels, the ablest daily
exponent of Freethought and Democratic doctrines in Belgium. He has
lately headed an association for the suppression of the standing army.
"Lorm (Hieronymus)," the pen name of Heinrich Landesmann. German
pessimistic poet, b. Nikolsberg, 9 Aug. 1821. In addition to many
philosophical poems, he has written essays entitled Nature and Spirit,
Vienna, '84.
Lozano (Fernando), Spanish writer in Las Dominicales dal Libre
Pensamiento, where he uses the signature "Demofilo." He has written
Battles of Freethought, Possessed by the Devil, The Church and
Galeote, etc.
Lubbock (Sir John), banker, archæologist, scientist and statesman,
b. in London, 30 April, 1834. Educated at Eton, he was taken into
his father's bank at the age of fourteen, and became a partner in
'56. By his archæological works he has most distinguished himself. He
has written Prehistoric Times as Illustrated by Ancient Remains,
and the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages ('65), and The Origin
of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man ('70).
Lucretius Carus (Titus). Roman philosophical poet, b. about
B.C. 99. Little is known of his life, but his name is immortalised
by his atheistic work, De Rerum Natura, in six books, which is the
finest didactic poem in any language. Lucretius has been said to
have believed in one god, Epicurus, whose system he expounds. Full
of animation, dignity, and sublimity, he invests philosophy with the
grace of genius. Is said to have died by his own hand B.C. 55.
Luetzelberger (Ernst Karl Julius), German controversialist
b. Ditterswind, 19 Oct. 1802. He was a friend of the Feuerbachs. He
wrote on The Church Tradition of the Apostle John. He also wrote a
work on Jesus, translated in Ewerbeck's Qu'est ce que la Religion. In
'56 he was appointed town librarian at Nuremberg.
Lunn (Edwin), Owenite lecturer. Published pamphlets On Prayer, its
Folly, Inutility, etc. 1839, and Divine Revelation Examined, 1841.
Luys (Jules Bernard), French alienist, b. Paris, 1828. Is physician
at l'Hopital de la Charité, Paris, and author of a work on The Brain
and its Functions in the "International Scientific Series."
Lyell (Sir Charles), geologist, b. Kinnordy, Forfarshire, 14
Nov. 1797. Was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and devoted himself
to geology. In 1830-33 appeared his great work, The Principles of
Geology, which went through numerous editions. His last important
work was Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, in which he
accepts the Darwinian theory. Died 22 Feb. 1875.
Maccall (William), writer, b. Largs. Scotland, 1812. Educated at
Glasgow, he found his way to the Unitarian Church which he left
as insufficiently broad. He wrote Elements of Individualism ('47),
translated Spinoza's Treatise on Politics ('54), wrote to the Critic as
"Atticus," contributed to the National Reformer, Secular Review, etc.,
published Foreign Biographies ('73), and translated Dr. Letourneau's
Biology and other works. Maccall was an idealistic Pantheist of strong
individual character. Died at Bexley, 19 Nov. 1888.
Macchi (Mauro), Italian writer, b. Milan, 1 July, 1818. Became
professor of rhetoric at the age of twenty-four, when, becoming
obnoxious to the Austrians by the liberty of his opinions, he was
deprived of his position. He betook himself to radical journalism,
founded l'Italia, a Republican journal, for which he was exiled. He
was associated with Ausonio Franchi and Luigi Stefanoni in the Libero
Pensiero and the Libero Pensatore, and founded an Italian Association
of Freethinkers. In '61 he was elected deputy to Parliament for
Cremona, and in '79 was elevated to the Senate. Died at Rome, 24
Dec. 1880. One of his principal works is on the Council of Ten.
Macdonald (Eugene Montague), editor of the New York Truthseeker,
b. Chelsea, Maine, 4 Feb. 1855. He learned the printer's trade in
New York, where he became foreman to D. M. Bennett, and contributed
to the paper, which he has conducted since Mr. Bennett's death.
Macdonald (George), brother of the preceding. Wrote on the Truthseeker,
and now conducts Freethought, of San Francisco, in company with
S. P. Putnam. George Macdonald is a genuine humorist and a sound
Freethinker.
McDonnell (William), American novelist, b. 15 Sept. 1824. Author of The
Heathens of the Heath and Exeter Hall, '73, both Freethought romances.
Mackay (Robert William), author of The Progress of the Intellect,
1850, Sketch of the Rise and Progress of Christianity, '53, and The
Tubingen School, '63.
Mackey (Sampson Arnold), astronomer and shoemaker, of Norwich,
who is said to have constructed an orrery out of leather. He wrote
The Mythological Astronomy of the Ancients, Norwich, 1822-24,
Pious Frauds, '26, A Lecture on Astronomy and Geology, edited by
W. D. Saull, '32, Urania's Key to the Revelation, '33, and The Age
of Mental Emancipation, '36-39. Mackey also wrote the Sphinxiad,
a rare book. Died 1846.
Mackintosh (Thomas Simmons), author of The Electrical Theory of the
Universe, 1848, and An Inquiry into the Nature of Responsibility. Died
1850.
MacSweeney (Myles), mythologist, b. at Enniskillen 1814. He came to
London, and hearing Robert Taylor at the Rotunda in 1830, adopted his
views. He held that Jesus never existed, and wrote in the National
Reformer, Secular Chronicle, and other papers. He published a pamphlet
on Moses and Bacchus in 1874. Died Jan. 1881.
Madach (Imré), Hungarian patriot and poet, b. 21 Jan. 1823, at
Sztregova, studied at the University of Buda Pesth, and afterwards
lived at Cseszlova. He was in '52 incarcerated for a year for having
given asylum at his castle to a political refugee. He became in '61
delegate at Pesth. In this year he published his fine poem Az Ember
Tragédiája (The Human Tragedy), in which mankind is personified as
Adam, with Lucifer in his company. Many Freethought views occur in
this poem. Died 5 Oct. 1864. His works were published in 3 vols., 1880.
Maier (Lodewyk). See Meyer.
Maillet (Benôit de). French author, b. Saint Michiel, 12 April,
1656. He was successively consul in Egypt and at Leghorn; and died at
Marseilles, 30 Jan. 1738. After his death was published "Telliamed"
(the anagram of his name), in which he maintained that all land
was originally covered with water and that every species of animal,
man included, owes its origin to the sea.
"Mainlaender" (Philipp), pseudonym of Philipp Batz, German pessimist,
author of a profound work entitled the Philosophy of Redemption,
the first part of which was published in 1876. It was said that
"Mainländer" committed suicide in that year, but the second part of
his work has come out 1882-86. He holds that Polytheism gives place
to Monotheism and Pantheism, and these again to Atheism. "God is dead,
and his death was the life of the world."
Malherbe (François de). French poet, b. Caen, 1555. He served in
the civil wars of the League, and enjoyed the patronage of Henry
IV. He was called the prince of poets and the poet of princes. Many
stories are told illustrating his sceptical raillery. When told upon
his death-bed of paradise and hell he said he had lived like others
and would go where others went. Died Paris, 16 Oct. 1628.
Mallet (Mme. Josephine). French authoress of a work on The Bible,
its origin, errors and contradictions (1882).
Malon (Benoît). French Socialist, b. near St. Etienne, 1841. One
of the founders of the International; he has written a work on that
organisation, its history and principles (Lyons, 1872). He is editor
on L'Intransigeant, conducted the Revue Socialiste, and has written
on the religion and morality of the Socialists and other works.
Malvezin (Pierre). French journalist, b. Junhac, 26 June 1841. Author
of La Bible Farce (Brussels, 1879.) This work was condemned
and suppressed, 1880, and the author sentenced to three month's
imprisonment. He conducts the review La Fraternité.
Mandeville (Bernhard), b. Dort. 1670. He studied medicine, was made
a doctor in Holland, and emigrated to London. In 1705 he published
a poetical satire, The Grumbling Hive, or Knaves Turned Honest. In
1709, he published The Virgin Unmasked, and in 1723, Free Thoughts on
Religion the Church and National Happiness. In the same year appeared
his Fables of the Bees or Private Vices, Public Benefits. This work
was presented by the grand jury of Middlesex, 1723 and 1728. It was
attacked by Law, Berkeley, and others. Mandeville replied to Berkeley
in A Letter to Dion, occasioned by a book called Alciphron, or the
Minute Philosopher, 1732. He also wrote An Inquiry of Honor, and
Usefulness of Christianity in War, 1731. Died, London, 19 Jan. 1733.
Mantegazza (Paolo), Italian anthropologist, b. Monza, 31
Oct. 1831. Studied medicine at Milan, Pisa, and Paria, and travelled
considerably through Europe, and produced at Paris in 1854 his first
book The Physiology of Pleasure. He has also written on the physiology
of pain, spontaneous generation, anthropological works on Ecstacy,
Love and other topics, and a fine romance Il Dio Ignoto, the unknown
god (1876). Mantegazza is one of the most popular and able of Italian
writers.
Manzoni (Romeo), Dr. Italian physician, b. Arogno, 1847, studied
philosophy at Milan, and graduated at Naples. He has written on the
doctrine of love of Bruno and Schopenhauer A Life of Jesus, also Il
Prete, a work translated into German with the title Religion as a
Pathological Phenomenon, etc.
Marchena (José), Spanish writer, b. Utrera, Andalusia, 1768. Brought
up for the church, reading the writings of the French philosophers
brought on him the Inquisition. He fled to France where he became
a friend of Brissot and the Girondins. He wrote a pronounced Essai
de Théologie, 1797, and translated into Spanish Molière's Tartufe,
and some works of Voltaire. He translated Dupuis' Origine de tous
les Cultes, became secretary to Murat, and died 10 Jan. 1821.
Marechal (Pierre Sylvain), French author, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1750;
was brought up to the Bar, which he quitted for the pursuit of
literature. He was librarian to the Mazarin College, but lost his
place by his Book Escaped from the Deluge, Psalms, by S. Ar. Lamech
(anagram), 1784. This was a parody of the style of the prophets. In
1781 he wrote Le Nouveau Lucrece. In 1788 appeared his Almanack of
Honest People, in which the name of Jesus Christ was found beside
that of Epicurus. The work was denounced to Parliament, burnt at the
hands of the hangman, and Maréchal imprisoned for four months. He
welcomed the Revolution, and published a republican almanack, 1793. In
1797 and 1798 he published his Code of a Society of Men without God,
and Free Thoughts on the Priests. In 1799 appeared his most learned
work, Travels of Pythagoras in Egypt, Chaldea, India, Rome, Carthage,
Gaul, etc. 6 vols. Into this fiction Maréchal puts a host of bold
philosophical, political, and social doctrines. In 1800 he published
his famous Dictionary of Atheists, which the Government prohibited and
interdicted journals from noticing. In the following year appeared
his For and Against the Bible. Died at Montrouge, 18 Jan. 1803. His
beneficence is highly spoken of by Lalande.
Maret (Henry), French journalist and deputy, b. Santerre, 4 March,
1838. He ably combatted against the Empire, and edits Le Radical;
was elected deputy in '81.
Marguerite, of Valois, Queen of Navarre, sister to Francis I. b. at
Angouleme, 11 April, 1492. Deserves place for her protection to
religious reformers. Died 21 Dec. 1549.