Jacobson (Augustus), American, author of Why I do not Believe,
Chicago 1881, and The Bible Inquirer.
"Jacobus (Dom)" Pseudonym of Potvin (Charles) q.v.
Jacoby (Leopold) German author of The Idea of Development. 2
vols. Berlin 1874-76.
Jacolliot (Louis), French orientalist, b. Saint Etienne, 1806. Brought
up to the law, in '43 he was made judge at Pondichery. He first aroused
attention by his work, The Bible in India, '70. He also has written
on Genesis of Humanity, '76. The Religions Legislators, Moses, Manu
and Muhammad, '80, and The Natural and Social History of Humanity,
'84, and several works of travel.
Jantet (Charles and Hector), two doctors of Lyons, b. the first
in 1826, the second in '28, have published together able Aperçus
Philosophiques on Rènan's Life of Jesus, '64, and Doctrine Medicale
Matérialiste, 1866.
Jaucourt (Louis de), Chevalier, French scholar and member of the
Royal Society of London and of the academies of Berlin and Stockholm,
b. Paris 27 Sept. 1704. He studied at Geneva, Cambridge, and Leyden,
furnished the Encyclopédie with many articles, and conducted the
Bibliothèque Raisonnée. Died at Compiègne, 3 Feb. 1779.
Jefferies (Richard), English writer, b. 1848, famous for his
descriptions of nature in The Gamekeeper at Home, Wild Life in a
Southern Country, etc. In his autobiographical Story of My Heart
(1883) Mr. Jefferies shows himself a thorough Freethinker. Died
Goring-on-Thames, 14 Aug. 1887.
Jefferson (Thomas), American statesman, b. Shadwell, Virginia, 2 April
1743. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1767. He became
a member of the House of Burgesses, 1769-75. In 1774 he published
his Summary Views of the Rights of British-Americans. He drafted
and reported to Congress the "Declaration of Independence" which
was unanimously adopted, 4 July 1766. He was Governor of Virginia
from 1719 to 1781, and originated a system of education in the
State. He was Ambassador to Paris from 1785-89, secretary of state
from 1789-93, vice-president 1791-1801 and third president of the
United States 1801-9. In '19 he founded the University of Virginia, of
which he was rector till his death, 4 July 1826. Dr. J. Thomas in his
Dictionary of Biography says "In religion he was what is denominated a
freethinker." He spoke in old age of "the hocus-pocus phantom of God,
which like another Cerberus had one body and three heads." See his
life by J. Parton.
Johnson (Richard Mentor), Colonel, American soldier and statesman,
b. Bryant's Station, Kentucky, 17 Oct. 1781. Was educated at Lexington,
studied law, and practiced with success. Became member of the Kentucky
Legislature in 1805, and raised a regiment of cavalry '12. Fought
with distinction against British and Indians. Was member of Congress
from 1807-19, and from '29-37; a United States Senator from '19-29,
and Vice-President of the United States, '37-40. Is remembered by his
report against the suspension of Sunday mails and his speeches in favor
of rights of conscience. Died at Frankfort, Kentucky, 19 Nov. 1850.
Johnson (Samuel), American author, b. Salem, Massachusetts, 10
Oct. 1822. He was educated at Harvard, and became pastor of a "Free
Church" at Lynn in '53. He never attached himself to any denomination,
although in some points his views were like those of the Unitarians
and Universalists. About '46 he published, in conjunction with
S. Longfellow, brother of the poet, Hymns of the Spirit, Oriental
Religions in relation to Universal Religion, of which the volume
on India appeared in '72, China '77, and Persia '84. Died Andover,
19 Feb. 1882.
Jones (Ernest Charles), barrister and political orator, b. Berlin,
25 Jan. 1819. His father was in the service of the King of Hanover,
who became his godfather. Called to the bar in '44 in the following
year he joined the Chartist movement, editing the People's Paper, Notes
to the People, and other Chartist periodicals. In '48 he was tried for
making a seditious speech, and condemned to two years' imprisonment,
during which he wrote Beldagon Church and other poems. He stood for
Halifax in '47, and Nottingham in '53 and '57, without success. He
was much esteemed by the working classes in Manchester, where he died
26 Jan. 1869.
Jones (John Gale), Political orator, b. 1771. At the time of the French
Revolution he became a leading member of the London Corresponding
Society. Arrested at Birmingham for sedition, he obtained a verdict of
acquittal. He was subsequently committed to Newgate in Feb. 1810, for
impugning the proceedings of the House of Commons, and there remained
till his liberation was effected by the prorogation of Parliament,
June 21. On 26 Dec. '11 he was again convicted for "a seditious and
blasphemous libel." He was a resolute advocate of the rights of free
publication during the trials of Carlile and his shopmen. Died Somers
Town, 4 April, 1838.
Jones (Lloyd), Socialist, b. of Catholic parents at Brandon, co. Cork,
Ireland, in March, 1811. In '27 he came over to Manchester, and
in '32 joined the followers of Robert Owen. He became "a social
missionary," and had numerous debates with ministers, notably one on
"The Influence of Christianity" with J. Barker, then a Methodist, at
Manchester, in '39. Lloyd Jones was an active supporter of co-operation
and trades-unionism, and frequently acted as arbitrator in disputes
between masters and men. He contributed to the New Moral World, Spirit
of the Age, Glasgow Sentinel, Leeds Express, North British Daily Mail,
Newcastle Chronicle, and Co-operative News. Died at Stockwell, 22 May,
1886, leaving behind a Life of Robert Owen.
Joseph II., Emperor of Germany, son of Francis I. and Maria Theresa,
b. Vienna 13 March 1741. In 1764 he was elected king of the Romans, and
in the following year succeeded to the throne of Germany. He wrought
many reforms, suppressed the Jesuits 1773, travelled in France as Count
Falkenstein, saw d'Alembert but did not visit Voltaire. He abolished
serfdom, allowed liberty of conscience, suppressed several convents,
regulated others, abridged the power of the pope and the clergy,
and mitigated the condition of the Jews. Carlyle says "a mighty
reformer he had been, the greatest of his day. Austria gazed on him,
its admiration not unmixed with terror. He rushed incessantly about,
hardy as a Charles Twelfth; slept on his bearskin on the floor of any
inn or hut;--flew at the throat of every absurdity, however broad
and based or dangerously armed. 'Disappear I say.' A most prompt,
severe, and yet beneficent and charitable kind of man. Immensely
ambitious, that must be said withal. A great admirer of Friedrich;
bent to imitate him with profit. 'Very clever indeed' says Friedrich,
'but has the fault (a terribly grave one!) of generally taking the
second step without having taken the first.'" Died Vienna 20 Feb. 1790.
Jouy (Victor Joseph Etienne de), French author b. Jouy near Versailles
1764. He served as soldier in India and afterwards in the wars of
the Republic. A disciple of Voltaire to whom he erected a temple,
he was a prolific writer, his plays being much esteemed in his own
day. Died 4 Sept. 1846.
Julianus (Flavius Claudius), Roman Emperor, b. Constantinople 17
Nov. 331. In the massacre of his family by the sons of Constantine
he escaped. He was educated in the tenets of Christianity but
returned to an eclectic Paganism. In 354 he was declared Cæsar. He
made successful campaigns against the Germans who had overrun Gaul
and in 361 was made Emperor. He proclaimed liberty of conscience
and sought to uproot the Christian superstition by his writings, of
which only fragments remain. As Emperor he exhibited great talent,
tact, industry, and skill. He was one of the most gifted and learned
of the Roman Emperors, and his short reign (Dec. 361--26 June, 363),
comprehended the plans of a life-long administration. He died while
seeking to repel a Persian invasion, and his death was followed by
the triumph of Christianity and the long night of the dark ages.
Junghuhn (Franz Wilhelm), traveller and naturalist, b. Mansfeld,
Prussia 29 Oct 1812. His father was a barber and surgeon. Franz
studied at Halle and Berlin. He distinguished himself by love for
botany and geology. In a duel with another student he killed him and
was sentenced to imprisonment at Ehrenbreitster for 20 years. There
he simulated madness and was removed to the asylum at Coblentz,
whence he escaped to Algiers. In '34 he joined the Dutch Army in the
Malay Archipelago. He travelled through the island of Java making
a botanical and geological survey. In '54 he published his Licht
en Schaduwbeelden uit de binnenlanden van Java (Light and Shadow
pictures from the interior of Java), which contains his ideas of God,
religion and science, together with sketches of nature and of the
manners of the inhabitants. This book aroused much indignation from
the pious, but also much agreement among freethinkers, and led to
the establishment of De Dageraad (The Daybreak,) the organ of the
Dutch Freethinkers Union. Junghuhn afterwards returned to Java and
died 21 April, '64 at Lemberg, Preanges, Regentsch. His Light and
Shadow pictures have been several times reprinted.
Kalisch (Moritz Marcus), Ph.D., b. of Jewish parents in Pomerania,
16 May, 1828. Educated at the University of Berlin, where he
studied under Vatke and others. Early in '49 he came to England as a
political refugee, and found employment as tutor to the Rothschild
family. His critical Commentary on the Pentateuch commenced with a
volume on Exodus, '55, Genesis '58, Leviticus in two vols. in '67
and '72 respectively. His rational criticism anticipated the school
of Wellhausen. He published Bible Studies on Balaam and Jonah '77,
and discussions on philosophy and religion in a very able and learned
work entitled Path and Goal, '80. Kalisch also contributed to Scott's
series of Freethought tracts. Died at Baslow, Derbyshire, 23 Aug. 1885.
Kames (Lord). See Home (Henry).
Kant (Immanuel), German critical philosopher, b. Königsberg, 22
April, 1724. He became professor of mathematics in 1770. In 1781 he
published his great work, The Critick of Pure Reason, which denied
all knowledge of the "Thing itself," and overthrew the dogmatism of
earlier metaphysics. In 1792 the philosopher fell under the royal
censorship for his Religion within the Limits of Pure Reason. Kant
effected a complete revolution in philosophy, and his immediate
influence is not yet exhausted. Died at Königsberg, 12 Feb. 1804.
Kapila. One of the earliest Hindu thinkers. His system is known as
the Atheistic philosophy. It is expounded in the Sankhya Karika, an
important relic of bold rationalistic Indian thought. His aphorisms
have been translated by J. R. Ballantyne.
Karneades. See Carneades.
Keeler (Bronson C.) American author of an able Short History of the
Bible, being a popular account of the formation and development of
the canon, published at Chicago 1881.
Keim (Karl Theodor), German rationalist, b. Stuttgart,
17 Dec. 1825. Was educated at Tübingen, and became professor of
theology at Zürich. Is chiefly known by his History of Jesus of Nazara
('67-'72). He also wrote a striking work on Primitive Christianity
('78), and endeavored to reproduce the lost work of Celsus. His
rationalism hindered his promotion, and he was an invalid most of
his days. Died at Giessen, where he was professor, 17 Nov. 1878.
Keith (George), Lord Marshall, Scotch soldier, b. Kincardine 1685,
was appointed by Queen Anne captain of Guard. His property being
confiscated for aiding the Pretender, he went to the Continent, and
like his brother, was in high favor with Frederick the Great. Died
Berlin, 25 May, 1778.
Keith (James Francis Edward), eminent military commander, b. Inverugie,
Scotland, 11 June, 1696. Joined the army of the Pretender and was
wounded at Sheriffmuir, 1715. He afterwards served with distinction
in Spain and in Russia, where he rose to high favor under the
Empress Elizabeth. In 1747 he took service with Frederick the Great
as field-marshal, and became Governor of Berlin. Carlyle calls him
"a very clear-eyed, sound observer of men and things. Frederick, the
more he knows him, likes him the better." From their correspondence
it is evident Keith shared the sceptical opinions of Frederick. After
brilliant exploits in the seven years' war at Prague, Rossbach, and
Olmutz, Marshal Keith fell in the battle of Hochkirch, 14 Oct. 1758.
Kenrick (William), LL.D., English author, b. near Watford, Herts,
about 1720. In 1751 he published, at Dublin, under the pen-name of
Ontologos, an essay to prove that the soul is not immortal. His first
poetic production was a volume of Epistles, Philosophical and Moral
(1759), addressed to Lorenzo; an avowed defence of scepticism. In
1775 he commenced the London Review, and the following year attacked
Soame Jenyns's work on Christianity. He translated some of the works
of Buffon, Rousseau, and Voltaire. Died 10 June 1779.
Kerr (Michael Crawford) American statesman, b. Titusville, Western
Pennsylvania, 15 March 1827. He was member of the Indiana Legislature
'56, and elected to Congress in '74 and endeavoured to revise the
tariff in the direction of free-trade. Died Rockbridge, Virginia,
19 Aug. 1876, a confirmed Freethinker and Materialist.
Ket, Kett, or Knight (Francis), of Norfolk, a relative of the
rebellious tanner. He was of Windham and was an M.A. He was prosecuted
for heresy and burnt in the castle ditch, Norwich, 14 Jan. 1588. Stowe
says he was burnt for "divers detestable opinions against Christ
our Saviour."
Khayyam (Omar) or Umar Khaiyam, Persian astronomer, poet, b. Naishapur
Khorassan, in the second half of the eleventh century, and was
distinguished by his reformation of the calendar as well as by his
verses (Rubiyat), which E. Fitzgerald has so finely rendered in
English. He alarmed his contemporaries and made himself obnoxious to
the Sufis. Died about 1123. Omar laughed at the prophets and priests,
and told men to be happy instead of worrying themselves about God and
the Hereafter. He makes his soul say, "I myself am Heaven and Hell."
Kielland (Alexander Lange), Norwegian novelist, b. Stavanger, 18
Feb. 1849. He studied law at Christiania, but never practised. His
stories, Workpeople, Skipper Worse, Poison, and Snow exhibit his
bold opinions.
Kleanthes. See Cleanthes.
Klinger (Friedrich Maximilian von), German writer, b. Frankfort, 19
Feb. 1753. Went to Russia in 1780, and became reader to the Grand
Duke Paul. Published poems, dramas, and romances, exhibiting the
revolt of nature against conventionality. Goethe called him "a true
apostle of the Gospel of nature." Died at Petersburg, 25 Feb. 1831.
Kneeland (Abner), American writer, b. Gardner, Mass., 7 April, 1774,
became a Baptist and afterwards a Universalist minister. He invented
a new system of orthography, published a translation of the New
Testament, 1823, The Deist (2 Vols.), '22, edited the Olive Branch
and the Christian Inquirer. He wrote The Fourth Epistle of Peter,
'29, and a Review of the Evidences of Christianity, being a series
of lectures delivered in New York in '29. In that year he removed to
Boston, and in April '31 commenced the Boston Investigator, the oldest
Freethought journal. In '33 he was indicted and tried for blasphemy
for saying that he "did not believe in the God which Universalists
did." He was sentenced 21 Jan. '34, to two months' imprisonment and
fine of five hundred dollars. The verdict was confirmed in the Courts
of Appeal in '36, and he received two months' imprisonment. Kneeland
was a Pantheist. He took Frances Wright as an associate editor, and
soon after left the Boston Investigator in the hands of P. Mendum and
Seaver, and retired to a farm at Salubria, where he died 27 August,
1844. His edition, with notes, of Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary,
was published in two volumes in 1852.
Knoblauch (Karl von), German author, b. Dillenburg, 3 Nov. 1757. He
was a friend of Mauvillon and published several works directed against
supernaturalism and superstition. Died at Bernburg, 6 Sept. 1794.
Knowlton (Charles) Dr., American physician and author, b. Templeton,
Mass., 10 May, 1800. He published the Fruits of Philosophy, for which
he was imprisoned in '32. He was a frequent correspondent of the Boston
Investigator, and held a discussion on the Bible and Christianity with
the Rev. Mr. Thacher of Harley. About '29 he published The Elements
of Modern Materialism. Died in Winchester, Mass., 20 Feb. 1850.
Knutzen (Matthias), b. Oldensworth, in Holstein, 1645. He early lost
his parents, and was brought to an uncle at Königsberg, where he
studied philosophy. He took to the adventurous life of a wandering
scholar and propagated his principles in many places. In 1674 he
preached Atheism publicly at Jena, in Germany, and had followers who
were called "Gewissener," from their acknowledging no other authority
but conscience. It is said there were seven hundred in Jena alone. What
became of him and them is unknown. A letter dated from Rome gives his
principles. He denied the existence of either God or Devil, deemed
churches and priests useless, and held that there is no life beyond
the present, for which conscience is a sufficient guide, taking the
place of the Bible, which contains great contradictions. He also
wrote two dialogues.
Koerbagh (Adriaan), Dutch martyr, b. Amsterdam, 1632 or 1633. He became
a doctor of law and medicine. In 1668 he published A Flower Garden
of all Loveliness, a dictionary of definitions in which he gave bold
explanations. The work was rigidly suppressed, and the writer fled
to Culemborg. There he translated a book De Trinitate, and began a
work entitled A Light Shining in Dark Places, to illuminate the chief
things of theology and religion by Vrederijk Waarmond, inquisitor of
truth. Betrayed for a sum of money, Koerbagh was tried for blasphemy,
heavily fined and sentenced to be imprisoned for ten years, to be
followed by ten years banishment. He died in prison, Oct. 1669.
Kolb (Georg Friedrich), German statistician and author, b. Spires 14
Sept. 1808, author of an able History of Culture, 1869-70. Died at
Munich 15 May, 1884.