for the Agarics an open shallow basket is preferable. A great number
of the woody kinds may be carried in the coat-pocket, and foliicolous
species placed between the leaves of a pocket-book. It is a good
plan to be provided with a quantity of soft bibulous paper, in
which specimens can be wrapped when collected, and this will
materially assist in their preservation when transferred to box or
basket. A large clasp-knife, a small pocket-saw, and a pocket-lens
will complete the outfit for ordinary occasions. In order to
preserve the fleshy fungi for the herbarium, there is but one
method, which has often been described. The Agaric, or other
similar fungus, is cut perpendicularly from the pileus downwards
through the stem. A second cut in the same direction removes a thin
slice, which represents a section of the fungus; this may be laid
on blotting paper, or plant-drying paper, and put under slight
pressure to dry. From one-half of the fungus the pileus is removed,
and with a sharp knife the gills and fleshy portion of the pileus
are cut away. In the same manner the inner flesh of the half stem is
also cleared. When dried, the half of the pileus is placed in its
natural position on the top of the half stem, and thus a portrait of
the growing fungus is secured, whilst the section shows the
arrangement of the hymenium and the character of the stem. The
other half of the pileus may be placed, gills downward, on a piece
of black paper, and allowed to rest there during the night. In the
morning the spores will have been thrown down upon the paper,
which may be placed with the other portions. When dry, the section,
profile, and spore paper may be mounted together on a piece of stiff
paper, and the name, locality, and date inscribed below, with any
additional particulars. It is advisable here to caution the collector
never to omit writing down these particulars at once when the
preparations are made, and to place them together, between the
folds of the drying paper, in order to prevent the possibility of a
mistake. Some small species may be dried whole or only cut down the
centre, but the spores should never be forgotten. When dried, either
before or after mounting, the specimens should be poisoned, in
order to preserve them from the attacks of insects. The best medium
for this purpose is carbolic acid, laid on with a small hog-hair
brush. Whatever substance is used, it must not be forgotten by the
manipulator that he is dealing with poison, and must exercise
caution. If the specimens are afterwards found to be insufficiently
poisoned, or that minute insects are present in the herbarium, fresh
poisoning will be necessary. Some think that benzine or spirits of
camphor is sufficient, but as either is volatile, it is not to be
trusted as a permanent preservative. Mr. English, of Epping, by an
ingenious method of his own, preserves a great number of the fleshy
species in their natural position, and although valueless for an
herbarium, they are not only very ornamental, but useful, if space
can be devoted to them.
Leaf parasites, whether on living or dead leaves, may be dried in the
usual way for drying plants, between folds of bibulous paper under
pressure. It may be sometimes necessary with dead leaves to throw them
in water, in order that they may be flattened without breaking, and
then dry them in the same manner as green leaves. All species produced
on a hard matrix, as wood, bark, etc., should have as much as possible
of the matrix pared away, so that the specimens may lie flat in the
herbarium. This is often facilitated in corticolous species by
removing the bark and drying it under pressure.
The dusty _Gasteromycetes_ are troublesome, especially the minute
species, and if mounted openly on paper are soon spoiled. A good plan
is to provide small square or round cardboard boxes, of not more than
a quarter of an inch in depth, and to glue the specimen to the bottom
at once, allowing it to dry in that position before replacing the
cover. The same method should be adopted for many of the moulds, such
as _Polyactis_, etc., which, under any circumstances, are difficult to
preserve.
In collecting moulds, we have found it an excellent plan to go out
provided with small wooden boxes, corked at top and bottom, such as
entomologists use, and some common pins. When a delicate mould is
collected on a decayed Agaric, or any other matrix, after clearing
away with a penknife all unnecessary portions of the matrix, the
specimen may be pinned down to the cork in one of these boxes. Another
method, and one advisable also for the _Myxogastres_, is to carry two
or three pill-boxes, in which, after being wrapped in tissue paper,
the specimen may be placed.
A great difficulty is often experienced with microscopic fungi, such,
for instance, as the _Sphæriacei_, in the necessity, whenever a new
examination is required, to soak the specimen for some hours, and then
transfer the fruit to a slide, before it can be compared with any
newly-found specimen that has to be identified. To avoid this, mounted
specimens ready for the microscope are an acquisition, and may be
secured in the following manner. After the fungus has been soaked in
water, where that is necessary, and the hymenium extracted on the
point of a penknife, let it be transferred to the centre of a clean
glass slide. A drop of glycerine is let fall upon this nucleus, then
the covering glass placed over it. A slight pressure will flatten the
object and expel all the superfluous glycerine around the edges of the
covering glass. A spring clip holds the cover in position, whilst a
camel-hair pencil is used to remove the glycerine which may have been
expelled. This done, the edges of the cover may be fixed to the slide
by painting round with gum-dammar dissolved in benzole. In from twelve
to twenty-four hours the spring clip may be removed, and the mount
placed in the cabinet. Glycerine is, perhaps, the best medium for
mounting the majority of these objects, and when dammar and benzole
are used for fixing, there is no difficulty experienced, as is the
case with Canada balsam, if the superfluous glycerine is not wholly
washed away. Specimens of _Puccinia_ mounted in this way when fresh
gathered, and before any shrivelling had taken place, are as plump and
natural in our cabinet as they were when collected six or seven years
ago.
Moulds are always troublesome to preserve in a herbarium in a state
sufficiently perfect for reference after a few years. We have found it
an excellent method to provide some thin plates of mica, the thinner
the better, of a uniform size, say two inches square, or even less.
Between two of these plates of mica enclose a fragment of the mould,
taking care not to move one plate over the other after the mould is
placed. Fix the plates by a clip, whilst strips of paper are gummed or
pasted over the edges of the mica plates so as to hold them together.
When dry, the clip may be removed, and the name written on the paper.
These mounts may be put each in a small envelope, and fastened down in
the herbarium. Whenever an examination is required, the object, being
already dry-mounted, may at once be placed under the microscope. In
this manner the mode of attachment of the spores can be seen, but if
mounted in fluid they are at once detached; and if the moulds are only
preserved in boxes, in the course of a short time nearly every spore
will have fallen from its support.
Two or three accessories to a good herbarium may be named. For fleshy
fungi, especially Agarics, faithfully coloured drawings, side by side
with the dried specimens, will compensate for loss or change of colour
which most species undergo in the process of drying. For minute
species, camera lucida drawings of the spores, together with their
measurements, will add greatly to the practical value of a collection.
In mounting specimens, whether on leaves, bark, or wood, it will be of
advantage to have one specimen glued down to the paper so as to be
seen at once, and a duplicate loose in a small envelope beside it, so
that the latter may at any time be removed and examined under the
microscope.
In arranging specimens for the herbarium, a diversity of taste and
opinion exists as to the best size for the herbarium paper. It is
generally admitted that a small size is preferable to the large one
usually employed for phanerogamous plants. Probably the size of
foolscap is the most convenient, each sheet being confined to a single
species. In public herbaria, the advantage of a uniform size for all
plants supersedes all other advantages, but in a private herbarium,
consisting entirely of fungi, the smaller size is better.
The microscopic examination of minute species is an absolute necessity
to ensure accurate identification. Little special remark is called for
here, since the methods adopted for other objects will be available.
Specimens which have become dry may be placed in water previous to
examination, a process which will be found essential in such genera as
_Peziza_, _Sphæria_, etc. For moulds, which must be examined as opaque
objects, if all their beauties and peculiarities are to be made out, a
half-inch objective is recommended, with the nozzle bevelled as much
to a point as possible, so that no light be obstructed.[B]
In examining the sporidia of minute _Pezizæ_ and some others, the aid
of some reagent will be found necessary. When the sporidia are very
delicate and hyaline, the septa cannot readily be seen if present; to
aid in the examination, a drop of tincture of iodine will be of
considerable advantage. In many cases sporidia, which are very
indistinct in glycerine, are much more distinct when the fluid is
water.
The following hints to travellers, as regards the collection of fungi,
drawn up some years since by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, have been widely
circulated, and may be usefully inserted here, though at the risk of
repetition:--
"It is frequently complained that in collections of exotic plants, no
tribe is so much neglected as that of fungi; this arises partly from
the supposed difficulty of preserving good specimens, partly from
their being less generally studied than other vegetable productions.
As, however, in no department of botany, there is a greater
probability of meeting with new forms, and the difficulties, though
confessedly great in one or two genera, are far less than is often
imagined, the following hints are respectfully submitted to such
collectors as may desire to neglect no part of the vegetable kingdom.
"The greater proportion, especially of tropical fungi, are dried,
simply by light pressure, with as much ease as phoenogamous plants;
indeed, a single change of the paper in which they are placed is
generally sufficient, and many, if wrapped up in soft paper when
gathered, and submitted to light pressure, require no further
attention. Such as are of a tough leathery nature, if the paper be
changed a few hours after the specimens have been laid in, preserve
all their characters admirably; and if in the course of a few weeks
there is an opportunity of washing them with a solution of turpentine
and corrosive sublimate, submitting them again to pressure for a few
hours merely to prevent their shrinking, there will be no fear of
their suffering from the attacks of insects.
"Many of the mushroom tribe are so soft and watery that it is very
difficult to make good specimens without a degree of labour which is
quite out of the question with travellers. By changing, however, the
papers in which they are dried two or three times the first day, if
practicable, useful specimens may be prepared, especially if a few
notes be made as to colour, etc. The more important notes are as to
the colour of the stem and pileus, together with any peculiarities of
the surface, _e.g._, whether it be dry, viscid, downy, scaly, etc.,
and whether the flesh of the pileus be thin or otherwise; as to the
stem, whether hollow or solid; as to the gills, whether they are
attached to the stem or free; and especially what is their colour and
that of the spores. It is not in general expedient to preserve
specimens in spirits, except others are dried by pressure, or copious
notes be made; except, indeed, in some fungi of a gelatinous nature,
which can scarcely be dried at all by pressure.
"The large woody fungi, the puff-balls, and a great number of those
which grow on wood, etc., are best preserved, after ascertaining that
they are dry and free from larvæ, by simply wrapping them in paper or
placing them in chip-boxes, taking care that they are so closely
packed as not to rub. As in other tribes of plants, it is very
requisite to have specimens in different stages of growth, and notes
as to precise habitats are always interesting.
"The attention of the traveller can scarcely be directed to any more
interesting branch, or one more likely to produce novelty, than the
puff-ball tribe; and he is particularly requested to collect these in
every stage of growth, especially in the earliest, and, if possible,
to preserve some of the younger specimens in spirits. One or two
species are produced on ant-hills, the knowledge of the early state of
which is very desirable.
"The fungi which grow on leaves in tropical climates are scarcely less
abundant than in our own country, though belonging to a different
type. Many of these must constantly come under the eye of the
collector of phoenogams, and would be most acceptable to the
mycologist. But the attention of the collector should also be directed
to the lichen-like fungi, which are so abundant in some countries on
fallen sticks. Hundreds of species of the utmost interest would reward
active research, and they are amongst the easiest to dry; indeed, in
tropical countries, the greater proportion of the species are easy to
preserve, but they will not strike the eye which is not on the watch
for them. The number of fleshy species is but few, and far less
likely to furnish novelty."
* * * * *
In conclusion, we may urge upon all those who have followed us thus
far to adopt this branch of botany as their speciality. Hitherto
it has been very much neglected, and a wide field is open for
investigation and research. The life-history of the majority of
species has still to be read, and the prospects of new discoveries
for the industrious and persevering student are great. All who have as
yet devoted themselves with assiduity have been in this manner
rewarded. The objects are easily obtainable, and there is a constantly
increasing infatuation in the study. Where so much is unknown, not a
few difficulties have to be encountered, and here the race is not to
the swift so much as to the untiring. May our efforts to supply this
introduction to the study receive their most welcome reward in an
accession to the number of the students and investigators of the
nature, uses, and influences of fungi.
[A] The genus _Chionyphe_ occurs on granaries under snow, as well as
in that formidable disease, the Madura fungus-foot. (_See_
Carter's "Mycetoma.")
[B] Bubbles of air are often very tiresome in the examination of
moulds. A little alcohol will remove them.
INDEX.
_Æcidiacci_, structure of, 41.
_Æcidium_ and _Puccinia_, 199.
germination, 141.
_Agaricini_, habitats of, 233.
structure of, 17.
Agaric of the olive, 108.
Agarics, growth of, 138.
Algo-lichen hypothesis, 10.
Alveolate spores, 130.
Amadou, 103.
American floras, 281.
fungi, 281.
Antheridia, presumed, 171.
Appearance of new forms, 248.
Arrangement of families, 80.
Asci and sporidia, 131.
in Agarics (?), 23.
their dehiscence, 59.
_Ascobolei_, structure of, 56.
_Ascomycetes_, classification of, 75.
distribution of, 277.
habitats of, 241.
structure of, 55.
_Aspergillus glaucus_, 187.
Atmosphere, spores in, 214.
Barberry cluster-cups, 201.
Barren cysts of _Lecythea_, 37.
Basidiospores, 120.
Beech morels, 101.
Beefsteak fungus, 96.
Berberry and mildew, 199.
_Boletus_, esculent species, 95.
Books on structure, 63.
_Bulgaria_, its dualism, 198.
Bunt and smut, 225.
spores, germination of, 150.
_Cæomacei_, structure of, 36.
Camp measles and fever, 213.
Caudate sporidia, 134.
Champignon, fairy-ring, 94.
Change of colour, 114.
Chantarelle, the, 93.
Cholera fungi, 213.
Ciliated stylospores, 124-6.
Classification of _Ascomycetes_, 75.
_Coniomycetes_, 69.
fungi, 64.
_Gasteromycetes_, 66.
_Hymenomycetes_, 65.
_Hyphomycetes_, 73.
_Physomycetes_, 74.
tabular view, 80.
Collecting fungi, 287.
Colour and its variation, 117.
Conditions of growth, 269.
Conidia of _Erysiphei_, 62.
_Mucor_, 53.
_Peziza_, 46.
_Sphæriæ_, 192.
_Coniomycetes_, classification of, 69.
_Coniomycetes_, habitats of, 38.
Conjugating cells, 165.
Conjugation in _Peronospora_, 171.
_Peziza_, 175.
Copulation in _Discomycetes_, 173.
fungi, 163.
Corn, mildew, and rust, 224.
_Cortinarius_, species of, 91.
Cotton plant diseases, 228.
Cultivation of fungi, 253.
_Sclerotia_, 261.
truffles, 258.
Currant twig fungus, 193.
Cystidia, 21.
_Dacrymyces_, germination of, 140.
De Bary, on conditions of study, 183.
Decay rapid, 9.
Dehiscence of asci, 58.
Dimorphism in moulds, 187.
of _Mucor_, 53.
Disappearance of species, 268.
_Discomycetes_, 56.
Dissemination of spores, 119.
Distribution, geographical, 266.
Dried fungi, esculent, 87, 94.
Drying of fungi, 289.
Dry rot, 223.
Dualism in _Melanconis_, 197.
_Podisoma_, 203.
_Polyactes_, 45.
_Uredines_, 185.
Edible fungi in America, 88.
Ergotized grass, 217.
_Erysiphe_, conjugation, 176.
_Erysiphei_, polymorphism, 191.
Esculent fungi, 82.
European floras, 279.
Examination of fungi, 289.
Exotic floras, 280-5.
False truffles, 98.
Fairy-ring champignon, 94.
Families and orders, table of, 80.
Fenestrate sporidia, 135.
Fetid fungi, 116.
_Fistulina hepatica_, 96.
Floras of Europe, &c., 279.
Fly Agaric, 210.
Food, fungi as, 81.
Forestry and its foes, 229.
Fungi collecting abroad, 292.
in disease, 215.
mines, 111.
of America, 281.
Asia, 284.
parasitic on animals, 246.
each other, 244.
true plants, 5.
Garden pests, 230.
_Gasteromycetes_, classification of, 66.
Geographical distribution, 266.
Germinating pseudospores, 144.
Germination of fungi, 137.
_Mucor_, 157, 164.
_Podisoma_, 147.
Gonosphere, in _Peronospora_, 171.
Growth of Agarics, 138.
Habitats of fungi, 233.
Helicoid spores, 129.
Herbarium for fungi, 291.
Hints for travellers, 292.
Hollyhock disease, 230.
House-fly fungus, 219.
_Hydnum gelatinosum_, 24.
Hymenium of fungi, 18.
_Hymenomycetes_, classification of, 65.
_Hyphomycetes_, classification of, 73.
habitats of, 240.
structure of, 42.
_Hypogæi_, structure of, 29.
Influences of fungi, 209.
Influence on lower animals, 217.
man, 209.
Influence on vegetation, 222.
of woods, 271.
Injurious moulds, 230, 240.
Insect, parasites on, 7, 218.
fungi, 7, 218, 246.
_Isaria_ and _Torrubia_, 205.
Ketchup, or catchup, 89.
Lactescent fungi, 115.
Lichen-gonidia question, 10.
Lichens and fungi, 9.
Little man's bread, 102.
Luminous Agarics, 105.
wood, 113.
Meadow mushroom, 83.
Medicinal fungi, 102.
_Melanconiei_, structure of, 35.
Microscopical mounting, 290.
Mildew in corn, 199.
Milky fungi, 92.
juice, 115.
Morels, 99, 159.
germination of, 159.
Mould cultivation, 263.
Moulds, and dimorphism, 187.
structure of, 43.
to preserve, 290.
_Mucedines_, habitats of, 240.
structure of, 44.
_Mucor_, dualism of, 205.
growth of, 157.
structure of, 50.
Mushroom, analysis of, 19.
caves of Paris, 255.
cultivation, 254.
spawn, 256.
the edible, 83.
_Myxogastres_, habitats of, 237.
structure of, 31.
Nature of fungi, 1.
New forms, appearance of, 248.
_Nidulariacei_, structure of, 34.
Oak truffles, 260.
Odours of fungi, 116.
_Oidium_ and _Erysiphe_, 191.
Oocysts in _Erysiphe_, 176.
Oogonia, 136, 169.
of _Saprolegniæ_, 169.
Orders and families, table of, 80.
Oyster mushroom, 86.
Paper moulds, 248.
Paraphyses and asci, 49.
Parasites on plants, 238.
_Perisporiacei_, structure of, 62.
_Peronospora_, growth of, 152.
Pests of forest trees, 229.
the garden, 230.
_Peziza_, conidia of, 46.
_Fuckeliana_, 48.
_Pezizæ_, their habitats, 242.
_Phalloidei_, structure of, 28.
Phenomena of fungi, 105.
Phosphorescence, 105.
_Physomycetes_, classification of, 74.
habitats of, 241.
structure of, 50.
_Podaxinei_, structure of, 29.
_Podisoma_, and its allies, 40, 72.
and _Roestelia_, 203.
germination of, 147.
Poisonous fungi, 209.
Polymorphism, 182.
Polymorphy in _Erysiphe_, 191.
Polyporei, structure of, 23.
_Polyporus_, edible species, 96.
Potato disease, 225.
mould, germination, 155.
Preservation of fungi, 288.
Pseudospores, 126.
_Puccinia_ and _Æcidium_, 199.
_Puccinia_, germination of, 145.
_Pucciniæi_, structure of, 38.
Puff-balls, edible, 98.
Puff-balls, structure of, 29.
spores, 123.
Pycnidia, 62, 180.
and spermatia, 62.
_Roestelia_ and _Podisoma_, 203.
Red rust and cattle food, 217.
Reproduction, sexual, 163.
_Rhizomorphæ_, 111.
_Russula_, edible species of, 93.
St. George's mushroom, 85.
_Saprolegnei_, conjugation of, 168.
_Sclerotia_, 47, 261.
cultivation, 261.
Scolecite in _Peziza_, &c., 173.
Septate stylospores, 124.
Sexual reproduction, 163.
Silkworm disease, 220.
Skin diseases and fungi, 212.
Slides for the microscope, 290.
Spawn of fungi, 256.
Special cultivation, 264.
Species determinate, 5.
Spermatia, 128, 179.
of _Roestelia_, 42.
in _Tremella_, 26.
Spermogonia, 178.
_Sphæria_, sporidia of, 133.
_Sphæriacei_, structure of, 61.
_Sphæriæ_, polymorphy, 192.
_Sphæronemei_, structure of, 35.
Spiral threads, 32.
Spontaneous generation, 3.
Sporangia, 51, 129.
of _Mucor_, 51.
Spores in chaplets, 143.
of _Agaricini_, 121.
_Gasteromycetes_, 122.
truffles, 130.
stellate and crested, 36.
their dissemination, 119.
Sporidia, germination of, 160.
of _Ascomycetes_, 130.
_Sporidiifera_, structure of, 50
_Sporifera_ and _Sporidiifera_, 64.
Star-spored fungus, 125.
Structure of fungi, 17.
_Agaricini_, 17.
books written upon, 63.
of _Æcidiacei_, 41.
_Ascomycetes_, 55.
_Cæomacei_, 36.
_Hyphomycetes_, 42.
_Hypogæi_, 29.
_Melanconiei_, 35.
_Mucedines_, 44.
_Mucor_, 50.
_Myxogastres_, 31.
_Nidulariacei_, 34.
_Perisporiacei_, 62.
_Phalloidei_, 28.
_Physomycetes_, 50.
_Podaxinei_, 29.
_Polyporei_, 23.
_Pucciniæi_, 38.
_Sphæriacei_, 61.
_Sphæronemei_, 35.
_Torulacei_, 36.
_Tremellini_, 25.
_Trichogastres_, 29.
truffles, 55.
_Ustilaginei_, 40.
Study of development, 183.
Stylospores, 123.
Subterranean puff-balls, 29.
Summer and winter spores, 37.
Supposed animal nature, 2.
Table of classification, 80.
Thecaspores, 13
_Torrubia_ and _Isaria_, 205.
_Torulacei_, structure of, 36.
Travellers, hints for, 292.
_Tremella_, germination of, 139.
_Tremellini_, structure of, 24.
_Trichogastres_, habitats of, 237.
structure of, 29.
Trichospores, 128.
Tropical fungi, 272.
Truffle cultivation, 258.
Truffles, 55, 101, 258.
structure of, 55.
_Tuberacei_, structure of, 55.
_Tubercularia_ and _Nectria_, 194.
_Uredines_, germination of, 143.
polymorphy of, 186.
structure of, 37.
Uses of fungi, 82.
_Ustilaginei_, structure of, 40.
germination of, 149.
"Vegetable wasp," 218.
Vegetative and reproductive system, 7.
Viennese fungi, 84.
Vine and hop disease, 227.
White rust germination, 151.
Winter and summer spores, 37.
Zones of distribution, 270.
Zoospores of _Cystopus_, 38.
white rust, 151.
Zygospores of _Mucor_, 158, 164.
_International Scientific Series._
D. APPLETON & CO. have the pleasure of announcing that they have made
arrangements for publishing, and have recently commenced the issue of,
a SERIES OF POPULAR MONOGRAPHS, or small works, under the above title,
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The character and scope of this series will be best indicated by a
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from which it will be seen that the coöperation of the most
distinguished professors in England, Germany, France, and the
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The works will be issued in New York, London, Paris, Leipsic, Milan,
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The INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES is entirely an American project,
and was originated and organized by Dr. E. L. Youmans, who spent the
greater part of a year in Europe, arranging with authors and
publishers. The forthcoming volumes are as follows:
Prof. LOMMEL (University of Erlangen), _Optics._ (In press.)
Rev. M. J. BERKELEY, M.A., F.L.S., and M. COOKE, M.A., LL. D.,
_Fungi; their Nature, Influences, and Uses._ (In press.)
Prof. W. KINGDON CLIFFORD, M.A., _The First Principles of the Exact
Sciences explained to the non-mathematical._
Prof. T. H. HUXLEY, LL. D., F.R.S., _Bodily Motion and Consciousness._
Dr. W. B. CARPENTER, LL. D., F.R.S., _The Physical Geography of the
Sea._
Prof. WILLIAM ODLONG, F.R.S., _The Old Chemistry viewed from the New
Standpoint._
W. LAUDER LINDSAY, M.D., F.R.S.E., _Mind in the Lower Animals._
Sir JOHN LUBBOCK, Bart, F.R.S., _The Antiquity of Man._
Prof. W. T. THISELTON DYER, B.A., B. Sc., _Form and Habit in
Flowering Plants._
Mr. J. N. LOCKYER, F.R.S., _Spectrum Analysis._
Prof. MICHAEL FOSTER, M.D., _Protoplasm and the Cell Theory._
Prof. W. STANLEY JEVONS, _Money: and the Mechanism of Exchange._