cosmopolitan, and all seem to be less influenced by climatic
conditions than the more fleshy fungi. The _Sepedoniei_ are
represented by at least one species wherever _Boletus_ is found. The
_Mucedines_ occur everywhere in temperate and tropical regions,
_Penicillium_ and _Aspergillus_ flourishing as much in the latter as
in the former. _Botrytis_ and _Peronospora_ are almost as widely
diffused and as destructive in warmer as in temperate countries, and
although from difficulty in preservation the moulds are seldom
represented to any extent in collections, yet indications of their
presence constantly occur in connection with other forms, to such an
extent as to warrant the conclusion that they are far from uncommon.
The _Dematiei_ are probably equally as widely diffused. Species of
_Helminthosporium_, _Cladosporium_, and _Macrosporium_ seem to be as
common in tropical as temperate climes. The distribution of these
fungi is imperfectly known, except in Europe and North America, but
their occurrence in Ceylon, Cuba, India, and Australasia indicated a
cosmopolitan range. _Cladosporium herbarum_ would seem to occur
everywhere. The _Stilbacei_ and _Isariacei_ are not less widely
diffused, although as yet apparently limited in species. _Isaria_
occurs on insects in Brazil as in North America, and species of
_Stilbum_ and _Isaria_ are by no means rare in Ceylon.
The _Physomycetes_ have representatives in the tropics, species of
_Mucor_ occurring in Cuba, Brazil, and the southern states of North
America, with the same and allied genera in Ceylon. _Antennaria_ and
_Pisomyxa_ seem to reach their highest development in hot countries.
The _Ascomycetes_ are represented everywhere, and although certain
groups are more tropical than others, they are represented in all
collections. The fleshy forms are most prolific in temperate
countries, and only a few species of _Peziza_ affect the tropics, yet
in elevated districts of hot countries, such as the Himalayas of
India, _Peziza_, _Morchella_, and _Geoglossum_ are found. Two or three
species of _Morchella_ are found in Kashmir, and at least one or two
in Java, where they are used as food. The genus _Cyttaria_ is confined
to the southern parts of South America and Tasmania. The United States
equal if they do not exceed European states in the number of species
of the _Discomycetes_. The _Phacidiacei_ are not confined to temperate
regions, but are more rare elsewhere. _Cordierites_ and _Acroseyphus_
(?) are tropical genera, the former extending upwards far into the
temperate zone, as _Hysterium_ and _Rhytisma_ descend into the
tropics. Amongst the _Sphæriacei_, _Xylaria_ and _Hypoxylon_ are well
represented in the tropics, such species as _Xylaria hypoxylon_ and
_Xylaria corniformis_ being widely diffused. In West Africa an
American species of _Hypoxylon_ is amongst the very few specimens that
have ever reached us from the Congo, whilst _H. concentricum_ and
_Ustulina vulgaris_ seem to be almost cosmopolitan. _Torrubia_ and
_Nectria_ extend into the tropics, but are more plentiful in temperate
and sub-tropical countries. _Dothidea_ is well represented in the
tropics, whilst of the species of _Sphæria_ proper, only the more
prominent have probably been secured by collectors; hence the
_Superficiales_ section is better represented than the _Obtectæ_, and
the tropical representatives of foliicolous species are but few.
_Asterina_, _Micropeltis_, and _Pemphidium_ are more sub-tropical than
temperate forms. The _Perisporiacei_ are represented almost
everywhere; although species of _Erysiphe_ are confined to temperate
regions, the genus _Meliola_ occupies its place in warmer climes.
Finally, the _Tuberacei_, which are subterranean in their habits, are
limited in distribution, being confined to the temperate zone, never
extending far into the cold, and but poorly represented out of Europe.
One species of _Mylitta_ occurs in Australia, another in China, and
another in the Neilgherries of India; the genus _Paurocotylis_ is
found in New Zealand and Ceylon. It is said that a species of _Tuber_
is found in Himalayan regions, but in the United States, as well as in
Northern Europe, the _Tuberacei_ are rare.
The imperfect condition of our information concerning very many
countries, even of those partially explored, must render any estimate
or comparison of the floras of those countries most fragmentary and
imperfect. Recently, the mycology of our own islands has been more
closely investigated, and the result of many years' application on the
part of a few individuals has appeared in a record of some 2,809
species,[F] to which subsequent additions have been made, to an extent
of probably not much less than 200 species,[G] which would bring the
total to about 3,000 species. The result is that no material
difference exists between our flora and that of Northern France,
Belgium, and Scandinavia, except that in the latter there are a larger
number of Hymenomycetal forms. The latest estimates of the flora of
Scandinavia are contained in the works of the illustrious Fries,[H]
but these are not sufficiently recent, except so far as regards the
_Hymenomycetes_, for comparison of numbers with British species.
The flora of Belgium has its most recent exponent in the posthumous
work of Jean Kickx; but the 1,370 species enumerated by him can hardly
be supposed to represent the whole of the fungi of Belgium, for in
such case it would be less than half the number found in the British
Islands, although the majority of genera and species are the same.[I]
For the North of France no one could have furnished a more complete
list, especially of the microscopic forms, than M. Desmazières, but we
are left to rely solely upon his papers in "Annales des Sc. Nat." and
his published specimens, which, though by no means representative of
the fleshy fungi, are doubtless tolerably exhaustive of the minute
species. From what we know of French _Hymenomycetes_, their number and
variety appear to be much below those of Great Britain.[J]
The mycologic flora of Switzerland has been very well investigated,
although requiring revision. Less attention having been given to the
minute forms, and more to the _Hymenomycetes_ than in France and
Belgium, may in part account for the larger proportion of the latter
in the Swiss flora.[K]
In Spain and Portugal scarce anything has been done; the small
collection made by Welwitsch can in no way be supposed to represent
the Peninsula.
The fungi of Italy[L] include some species peculiar to the Peninsula.
The _Tuberacei_ are well represented, and although the _Hymenomycetes_
do not equal in number those of Britain or Scandinavia, a good
proportion is maintained.
Bavaria and Austria (including Hungary, and the Tyrol) are being more
thoroughly investigated than hitherto, but the works of Schæffer,
Tratinnick, Corda, and Krombholz have made us acquainted with the
general features of their mycology,[M] to which more recent lists and
catalogues have contributed.[N] The publication of dried specimens has
of late years greatly facilitated acquaintance with the fungi of
different countries in Europe, and those issued by Baron Thümen from
Austria do not differ materially from those of Northern Germany,
although Dr. Rehm has made us acquainted with some new and interesting
forms from Bavaria.[O]
Russia is to a large extent unknown, except in its northern
borders.[P] Karsten has investigated the fungi of Finland,[Q] and
added considerably to the number of _Discomycetes_, for which the
climate seems to be favourable; but, as a whole, it may be concluded
that Western and Northern Europe are much better explored than the
Eastern and South-Eastern, to which we might add the South, if Italy
be excepted.
We have only to add, for Europe, that different portions of the German
empire have been well worked, from the period of Wallroth to the
present.[R] Recently, the valley of the Rhine has been exhaustively
examined by Fuckel;[S] but both Germany and France suffered checks
during the late war which made their mark on the records of science
not so speedily to be effaced. Denmark, with its splendid Flora Danica
still in progress, more than a century after its commencement,[T] has
a mycologic flora very like to that of Scandinavia, which is as well
known.
If we pass from Europe to North America, we find there a mycologic
flora greatly resembling that of Europe, and although Canada and the
extreme North is little known, some parts of the United States have
been investigated. Schweinitz[U] first made known to any extent the
riches of this country, especially Carolina, and in this state the
late Dr. Curtis and H. W. Ravenel continued their labours. With the
exception of Lea's collections in Cincinnati, Wright's in Texas, and
some contributions from Ohio, Alabama, Massachusetts, and New York, a
great portion of this vast country is mycologically unknown. It is
remarkably rich in fleshy fungi, not only in _Agaricini_, but also in
_Discomycetes_, containing a large number of European forms, mostly
European genera, with many species at present peculiar to itself.
Tropical forms extend upwards into the Southern States.
The islands of the West Indies have been more or less examined, but
none so thoroughly as Cuba, at first by Ramon de la Sagra, and
afterwards by Wright.[V] The three principal genera of _Hymenomycetes_
represented are _Agaricus_, _Marasmius_, and _Polyporus_, represented
severally by 82, 51, and 120 species, amounting to more than half the
entire number. Of the 490 species, about 57 per cent. are peculiar to
the island; 13 per cent. are widely dispersed species; 12 per cent.
are common to the island and Central America, together with the warmer
parts of South America and Mexico; 3 per cent. are common to it with
the United States, especially the Southern; while 13 per cent. are
European species, including, however, 13 which may be considered as
cosmopolitan. Some common tropical species do not occur, and, on the
whole, the general character seems sub-tropical rather than tropical.
Many of the species are decidedly those of temperate regions, or at
least nearly allied. Perhaps the most interesting species are those
which occur in the genera _Craterellus_ and _Laschia_, the latter
genus, especially, yielding several new forms. The fact that the
climate is, on the whole, more temperate than that of some other
islands in the same latitudes, would lead us to expect the presence of
a comparatively large number of European species, or those which are
found in the more northern United States, or British North America,
and may account for the fact that so small a proportion of species
should be identical with those from neighbouring islands.
In Central America only a few small collections have been made, which
indicate a sub-tropical region.
From the northern parts of South America, M. Leprieur collected in
French Guiana.[W] Southwards of this, Spruce collected in the
countries bordering on the River Amazon, and Gardner in Brazil,[X]
Gaudichaud in Chili and Peru,[Y] Gay in Chili,[Z] Blanchet in
Bahia,[a] Weddell in Brazil,[b] and Auguste de Saint Hiliare[c] in
the same country. Small collections have also been made in the
extreme south. All these collections contain coriaceous species of
_Polyporus_, _Favolus_, and allied genera, with _Auricularini_,
together with such _Ascomycetes_ as _Xylaria_, and such forms of
_Peziza_ as _P. tricholoma_, _P. Hindsii_, and _P. macrotis_. As
yet we cannot form an estimate of the extent or variety of the
South American flora, which has furnished the interesting genus
_Cyttaria_, and may yet supply forms unrecognized elsewhere.
The island of Juan Fernandez furnished to M. Bertero a good
representative collection,[d] which is remarkable as containing more
than one-half its number of European species, and the rest possessing
rather the character of those of a temperate than a sub-tropical
region.
Australasia has been partly explored, and the results embodied in the
Floras of Dr. Hooker and subsequent communications. In a note to an
enumeration of 235 species in 1872, the writer observes that "many of
them are either identical with European species, or so nearly allied
that with dried specimens only, unaccompanied by notes or drawings, it
is impossible to separate them; others are species which are almost
universally found in tropical or sub-tropical countries, while a few
only are peculiar to Australia, or are undescribed species, mostly of
a tropical type. The collections on the whole can scarcely be said to
be of any great interest, except so far as geographical distribution
is concerned, as the aberrant forms are few."[e]
The fungi collected by the Antarctic Expedition in Auckland and
Campbell's Islands, and in Fuegia and the Falklands,[f] were few and
of but little interest, including such cosmopolitan forms as _Sphæria
herbarum_ and _Cladosporium herbarum_, _Hirneola auricula-judæ_,
_Polyporus versicolor_, _Eurotium herbariorum_, etc.
In New Zealand a large proportion have been found, and these may be
taken to represent the general character of the fungi of the islands,
which is of the type usually found in temperate regions.[g]
The fungi of Asia are so little known that no satisfactory conclusions
can be drawn from our present incomplete knowledge. In India, the
collections made by Dr. Hooker in his progress to the Sikkim
Himalayas,[h] a few species obtained by M. Perottet in Pondicherry,
and small collections from the Neilgherries,[i] are almost all that
have been recorded. From these it may be concluded that elevations
such as approximate a temperate climate are the most productive, and
here European and North American genera, with closely allied species,
have the preponderance. The number of _Agaricini_, for instance, is
large, and amongst the twenty-eight subgenera into which the genus
_Agaricus_ is divided, eight only are unrepresented. Casual specimens
received from other parts of India afford evidence that here is a vast
field unexplored, the forests and mountain slopes of which would
doubtless afford an immense number of new and interesting forms.
Of the Indian Archipelago, Java has been most explored, both by
Junghuhn[j] and Zollinger.[k] The former records 117 species in 40
genera, Nees von Esenbeck and Blume 11 species in 3 genera, and
Zollinger and Moritzi 31 species in 20 genera, making a total of 159
species, of which 47 belong to _Polyporus_. Léveillé added 87
species, making a total of 246 species. The fungi of Sumatra, Borneo,
and other islands are partly the same and partly allied, but of a
similar tropical character.
The fungi of the island of Ceylon, collected by Gardner, Thwaites, and
König, were numerous. The Agarics comprise 302 species, closely
resembling those of our own country.[l] It is singular that every one
of the subgenera of Fries is represented, though the number of species
in one or two is greatly predominant. _Lepiota_ and _Psalliota_ alone
comprise one-third of the species, while _Pholiota_ offers only a
single obscure species. The enumeration recently published of the
succeeding families contains many species of interest.
In Africa, the best explored country is Algeria, although unfortunately
the flora was never completed.[m] The correspondence between the
fungi of Algeria and European countries is very striking, and the
impression is not removed by the presence of a few sub-tropical forms.
It is probable that were the fungi of Spain known the resemblance would
be more complete.
From the Cape of Good Hope and Natal collections have been made by
Zeyher,[n] Drége, and others, and from these we are enabled to form a
tolerable estimate of the mycologic flora. Of the _Hymenomycetes_, the
greater part belong to _Agaricus_: there are but four or five
_Polypori_ in Zeyher's collection, one of which is protean. The
_Gasteromycetes_ are interesting, belonging to many genera, and
presenting two, _Scoleciocarpus_ and _Phellorinia_, which were founded
upon specimens in this collection. _Batarrea_, _Tulostoma_, and
_Mycenastrum_ are represented by European species. There are also two
species of _Lycoperdon_, and one of _Podaxon_. Besides these, there is
the curious _Secotium Gueinzii_. The genus _Geaster_ does not appear
in the collection, nor _Scleroderma_. Altogether the Cape flora is a
peculiar one, and can scarcely be compared with any other.
At the most, only scattered and isolated specimens have been recorded
from Senegal, from Egypt, or from other parts of Africa, so that, with
the above exceptions, the continent may be regarded as unknown.
From this imperfect summary it will be seen that no general scheme of
geographical distribution of fungi can as yet be attempted, and the
most we can hope to do is to compare collection with collection, and
what we know of one country with what we know of another, and note
differences and agreements, so as to estimate the probable character
of the fungi of other countries of which we are still in ignorance. It
is well sometimes that we should attempt a task like the present,
since we then learn how much there is to be known, and how much good
work lies waiting to be done by the capable and willing hands that may
hereafter undertake it.
[A] Mr. E. P. Fries, in "Ann. des Sci. Nat." 1861, xv. p. 10.
[B] Berkeley and Broome, "Enumeration of the Fungi of Ceylon," in
"Journ. Linn. Soc." xiv. Nos. 73, 74, 1873.
[C] Fries, "On the Geographical Distribution of Fungi," in "Ann. and
Mag. Nat. Hist." ser. iii. vol. ix. p. 279.
[D] The _Hypogæi_ are evidently intended here by Fries.
[E] Fries, "On the Geographical Distribution of Fungi" in "Ann. and
Mag. Nat. Hist." ser. 3, vol. ix. p. 285.
[F] Cooke's "Handbook of British Fungi," 2 vols. 1871.
[G] "Grevillea," vols. i. and ii. London, 1872-1874.
[H] Fries, "Summa Vegetabilium Scandinaviæ" (1846), and "Monographia
Hymenomycetum Sueciæ" (1863); "Epicrisis Hymenomycetum Europ."
(1874).
[I] "Flore cryptogamique des Flanders" (1867).
[J] "Ainé Plantes Cryptogames-cellulaires du Départment de Saone et
Loire" (1863); Bulliard, "Hist. des Champignons de la France"
(1791); De Candolle, "Flore Française" (1815); Duby, "Botanicon
Gallicum" (1828-1830); Paulet, "Iconographie des Champignons"
(1855); Godron, "Catalogue des Plantes Cellulaires du
Départment de la Meurthe" (1845); Crouan, "Florule du
Finistëre" (1867); De Seynes, "Essai d'une Flore Mycologique de
la Région de Montpellier et du Gard" (1863).
[K] Secretan, "Mycographie Suisse" (1833); Trog, "Verzeichniss
Schweizerischer Schwämme" (1844).
[L] Passerini, "Funghi Parmensi," in "Giorn. Bot. Italiano"
(1872-73); Venturi, "Miceti dell' Agro Bresciano" (1845);
Viviani, "Funghi d'Italia" (1834); Vittadini, "Funghi
Mangerecci d'Italia" (1835).
[M] Schæffer, "Fungorum qui in Bavaria," &c. (1762-1774); Tratinnick,
"Fungi Austriaci" (1804-1806 and 1809-30); Corda, "Icones
Fungorum" (Prague, 1837-1842); Krombholz, "Abbildungen der
Schwämme" (1831-1849).
[N] Reichardt, "Flora von Iglau;" Niessl, "Cryptogamenflora
Nieder-Oesterreichs" (1857, 1859); Schulzer, "Schwämme Ungarns,
Slavoniens," &c.
[O] Rehm, "Ascomyceten," fasc. i.-iv.
[P] Weinmann, "Hymeno-et Gasteromycetes," in "Imp. Ross" (1836);
Weinmann, "Enumeratio Stirpium, in Agro Petropolitano" (1837).
[Q] Karsten, "Fungi in insulis Spetsbergen collectio" (1872);
Karsten, "Monographia Pezizarum fennicarum" (1869); Karsten,
"Symbolæ ad Mycologiam fennicam" (1870).
[R] Rabenhorst, "Deutschlands Kryptogamen Flora" (1844); Wallroth,
"Flora Germanica" (1833); Sturm, "Deutschlands Flora, iii. die
Pilze" (1837, &c.).
[S] Fuckel, "Symbolæ mycologicæ" (1869).
[T] "Flora Danica" (1766-1873); Holmskjold, "Beata ruris otia Fungis
Danicis impensa" (1799); Schumacher, "Enumeratio plantarum
Sellandiæ" (1801).
[U] Schweinitz, "Synopsis Fungorum," in "America Boreali," &c.
(1834). Lea, "Catalogue of Plants of Cincinnati" (1849);
Curtis, "Catalogue of the Plants of North Carolina" (1867);
Berkeley, "North American Fungi," in "Grevillea," vols.
i.-iii.; Peck, in "Reports of New York Museum Nat. Hist."
[V] Berkeley and Curtis, "Fungi Cubensis," in "Journ. Linn. Soc."
(1868); Ramon de la Sagra, "Hist. Phys. de l'Isle de Cuba,
Cryptogames, par Montagne" (1841); Montagne, in "Ann. des Sci.
Nat." February, 1842.
[W] Montagne, "Cryptogamia Guyanensis," "Ann. Sci. Nat." 4^me sér.
iii.
[X] Berkeley, in "Hooker's Journal of Botany" for 1843, &c.
[Y] Montagne, in "Ann. des Sci. Nat." 2^me sér. vol. ii. p. 73
(1834).
[Z] Gay, "Hist. fisica y politica de Chile" (1845).
[a] Berkeley and Montagne, "Ann. des Sci. Nat." xi. (April, 1849).
[b] Montagne, in "Ann. des Sci. Nat." 4^me sér. v. No. 6.
[c] Montagne, in "Ann. des Sci. Nat." (July, 1839).
[d] Montagne, "Prodromus Floræ Fernandesianæ," in "Ann. des Sci.
Nat." (June, 1835).
[e] Berkeley, "On Australian Fungi," in "Journ. Linn. Society," vol.
xiii. (May, 1872).
[f] Hooker's "Cryptogamia Antarctica," pp. 57 and 141.
[g] Hooker's "New Zealand Flora."
[h] Berkeley, "Sikkim Himalayan Fungi," in Hooker's "Journal of
Botany" (1850), p. 42, &c.
[i] Montagne, "Cryptogamæ Neilgherrensis," in "Ann. des Sci. Nat."
2^me sér. xviii. p. 21 (1842).
[j] Junghuhn, "Premissa in Floram Crypt. Javæ."
[k] Zollinger, "Fungi Archipalegi Malaijo Neerlandici novi."
[l] Berkeley and Broome, "Fungi of Ceylon," in "Journ. Linn. Soc."
for May, 1871.
[m] "Flore d'Algerie, Cryptogames" (1846, &c.).
[n] Berkeley, in Hooker's "Journal of Botany," vol. ii. (1843), p.
408.
XIV.
COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION.
The multitudinous forms which fungi assume, the differences of
substance, and variability in size, render a somewhat detailed account
of the modes adopted for their collection and preservation necessary.
The habitats of the various groups have already been indicated, so
that there need be no difficulty in selecting the most suitable spots,
and as to the period of the year, this will be determined by the class
of objects sought. Although it may be said that no time, except when
the ground is covered with snow, is entirely barren of fungi, yet
there are periods more prolific than others.[A] Fleshy fungi, such as
the _Hymenomycetes_, are most common from September until the frosts
set in, whereas many microscopic species may be found in early spring,
and increase in number until the autumn.