ergot, which is the sclerotioid condition of a species of _Claviceps_.
It occurs not only on rye but on wheat, and many of the wild grasses.
On account of its active principle, this fungus still holds its place
in the Materia Medica. Others which formerly had a reputation are now
discarded, as, for instance, the species of _Elaphomyces_; and
_Polyporus officinalis_, Fr., which has been partly superseded as a
styptic by other substances, was formerly employed as a purgative. The
ripe spongy capillitium of the great puff-ball _Lycoperdon giganteum_,
Fr., has been used for similar purposes, and also recommended as an
anodyne; indeed formidable surgical operations have been performed
under its influence, and it is frequently used as a narcotic in the
taking of honey. Langsdorf gives a curious account of its employment
as a narcotic; and in a recent work on Kamtschatka it is said to
obtain a very high price in that country. Dr. Porter Smith writes of
its employment medicinally by the Chinese, but from his own specimens
it is clearly a species of _Polysaccum_, which he has mistaken for
_Lycoperdon_. In China several species are supposed to possess great
virtue, notably the _Torrubia sinensis_, Tul.,[AO] which is developed
on dead caterpillars; as it is, however, recommended to administer it
as a stuffing to roast duck, we may be sceptical as to its own
sanitary qualities. _Geaster hygrometricus_, Fr., we have also
detected amongst Chinese drugs, as also a species of _Polysaccum_, and
the small hard _Mylitta lapidescens_, Horn. In India, a large but
imperfect fungus, named provisionally _Sclerotium stipitatum_, Curr.,
found in nests of the white ant, is supposed to possess great
medicinal virtues.[AP] A species of _Polyporus_ (_P. anthelminticus_,
B.), which grows at the root of old bamboos, is employed in Burmah as
an anthelmintic.[AQ] In former times the Jew's ear (_Hirneola auricula
Judæ_, Fr.) was supposed to possess great virtues, which are now
discredited. Yeast is still included amongst pharmaceutical
substances, but could doubtless be very well dispensed with. Truffles
are no longer regarded as aphrodisiacs.
For other uses, we can only allude to amadou, or German tinder, which
is prepared in Northern Europe from _Polyporus fomentarius_, Fr., cut
in slices, dried, and beaten until it is soft. This substance, besides
being used as tinder, is made into warm caps, chest protectors, and
other articles. This same, or an allied species of _Polyporus_,
probably _P. igniarius_, Fr., is dried and pounded as an ingredient in
snuff by the Ostyacks on the Obi. In Bohemia some of the large
Polyporei, such as _P. igniarius_ and _P. fomentarius_, have the pores
and part of the inner substance removed, and then the pileus is
fastened in an inverted position to the wall, by the part where
originally it adhered to the wood. The cavity is then filled with
mould, and the fungus is used, with good effect, instead of
flower-pots, for the cultivation of such creeping plants as require
but little moisture.[AR]
The barren mycelioid condition of _Penicillium crustaceum_, Fr., is
employed in country districts for the domestic manufacture of vinegar
from saccharine liquor, under the name of the "vinegar plant." It is
stated that _Polysaccum crassipes_, D. C.,[AS] is employed in the
South of Europe to produce a yellow dye; whilst recently _Polyporus
sulfureus_, Fr., has been recommended for a similar purpose. _Agaricus
muscarius_, Fr., the fly-agaric, known to be an active poison, is used
in decoction in some parts of Europe for the destruction of flies and
bugs. Probably _Helotium æruginosum_, Fr.,[AT] deserves mention here,
because it stains the wood on which it grows, by means of its diffuse
mycelium, of a beautiful green tint, and the wood thus stained is
employed for its colour in the manufacture of Tonbridge ware.
This completes the list, certainly of the most important, of the fungi
which are of any direct use to humanity as food, medicine, or in the
arts. As compared with lichens, the advantage is certainly in favour
of fungi; and even when compared with algæ, the balance appears in
their favour. In fact, it may be questioned whether, after all, fungi
do not present a larger proportion of really useful species than any
other of the cryptogams; and without any desire to disparage the
elegance of ferns, the delicacy of mosses, the brilliancy of some
algæ, or the interest which attaches to lichens, it may be claimed for
fungi that in real utility (not uncombined with injuries as real) they
stand at the head of the cryptogams, and in closest alliance with the
flowering plants.
[A] Badham, Dr. C. D., "A Treatise on the Esculent Funguses of
England," 1st edition (1847), p. 81, pl. 4; 2nd edition, edited
by F. Currey, M.A. (1863), p. 94, pl. 4; Cooke, M. C., "A Plain
and Easy Account of British Fungi," 1st edition (1862), p. 44.
[B] Mr. Worthington Smith has published, on two sheets, coloured
figures of the most common esculent and poisonous fungi
(London, Hardwicke), which will be found more useful than mere
description in the discrimination of the species.
[C] Roques, J., "Hist. des Champignons Comestibles et Vénéneux,"
Paris (1832), p. 130.
[D] Lenz, Dr. H. 0., "Die Nützlichen und Schädlichen Schwämme," Gotha
(1831), p. 32, pl. 2.
[E] Bull, H. G., in "Transactions of Woolhope Club" (1869). Fries
admits them as distinct species in the new edition of his
"Epicrisis."
[F] Hussey's "Illustrations of Mycology," ser. i. pl. 79.
[G] Sowerby's "British Fungi," pl. 244.
[H] Favre-Guillarmod, "Les Champignons Comestibles du Canton de
Neuchatel" (1861), p. 27.
[I] Sowerby, "English Fungi," pl. 122; Smith, in "Seemann's Journ.
Bot." (1866), t. 46, f. 45.
[J] Klotsch, "Flora Borussica," t. 374; Smith, in "Seem. Journ. Bot."
(1869), t. 95, f. 1-4.
[K] Krombholz, "Abbildungen der Schwämme," pl. 41, f. 1-7.
[L] Tratinnick, L., "Fungi Austriaci," p. 47, pl. 4, f. 8.
[M] Vittadini, "Fungi Mangerecci," pl. 23.
[N] Cooke, in "Journal of Botany," vol. viii. p. 352.
[O] Cooke, M. C., "A Plain and Easy Guide," &c., p. 38, pl. 6, fig.
1.
[P] Krombholz, "Schwämme," t. 8. Vittadini, "Mang." t. 1.
[Q] Vittadini, "Mangerecci," t. 9.
[R] Berkeley, "Outlines," pl. 3, fig. 5.
[S] Saunders and Smith, "Mycological Illustr." pl. 23.
[T] Cooke, M. C., "Handbook of British Fungi," vol. i. pl. 1, fig.
2.
[U] "Gardener's Chronicle" (1869), p. 1066.
[V] Berkeley, "Outlines of British Fungology," p. 64.
[W] Cooke, "Easy Guide to British Fungi," pl. 11.
[X] Ibid., pl. 12.
[Y] Hussey, "Mycol. Illust." pl. 12.
[Z] Bulliard, "Champ." t. 268.
[a] Cooke, "Easy Guide," pl. 4, fig. 1; Hussey, "Illust." vol. ii.
pl. 40.
[b] Greville, "Scot. Crypt. Flora," t. 166.
[c] Ibid., t. 91.
[d] Sowerby, "Fungi," pl. 56; Schæffer, "Icones Bav." t. 72.
[e] Trattinnick, L., "Die Essbaren Schwämme" (1809), p. 82, pl. M;
Barla, J. B., "Champignons de la Nice" (1859), p. 34, pl. 19.
[f] Smith, "Edible Mushrooms," fig. 26.
[g] Barla, "Champ. Nice," t. 20, f. 4-10.
[h] Vittadini, C., "Funghi Mangerecci" (1835), p. 209; Barla, "Champ.
Nice," pl. i.
[i] Vittadini, C., "Funghi Mangerecci," p. 245; Roques, "Champ.
Comest." p. 86.
[j] Badham, Dr., "Esculent Funguses of Britain," 2nd ed. p. 110;
Hussey, "Illust. Brit. Mycol." 1st ser. pl. 4; Barla, "Champ."
pl. 28, f. 7-15.
[k] Trattinnick, L., "Essbaren Schwämme," p. 98.
[l] Lenz, "Die Nützlichen und Schädlichen Schwämme," p. 49.
[m] Badham, "Esculent Funguses of Great Britain," 2 ed. p. 91.
[n] Hussey, "Myc. Illus." ii. pl. 25; Paulet, "Champ." t. 170.
[o] Barla, J. B., "Champ. de la Nice," p. 71, pl. 35, f. 1-5.
[p] Hussey, "Illustr." ii. t. 17; Barla, "Champ. Nice," t. 32, f.
11-15.
[q] Hussey, "Illustr." i. t. 5; Krombholz, "Schwämme," t. 76.
[r] Badham's "Esculent Funguses," 1st ed. pp. 116 and 120.
[s] Catalogue of Plants of Carolina, U.S.
[t] Badham, Dr., "Esculent Funguses," 2nd ed. p. 128; Hussey,
"Illustrations," 1st ser. pl. 65; Berkeley, in "Gard. Chron."
(1861), p. 121; Bull, in "Trans. Woolhope Club" (1869).
[u] Barla, "Champ. Nice," p. 79, pl. 38, f. 5, 6.
[v] Roques, I. c. p. 48.
[w] Lenz, p. 93; Roques, I. c. p. 47, pl. 2, fig. 5.
[x] Lenz, H. O., "Die Nützlichen und Schädlichen Schwämme," p. 93.
[y] Berkeley, M. J., in "Intellectual Observer," No. 25, pl. 1.
[z] Berkeley, M. J., "Outlines of British Fungology," p. 293.
[AA] Berkeley, M. J., "Introduction to Crypt. Bot." p. 347.
[AB] Cooke, M. C., "A Plain and Easy Guide," &c., p. 96.
[AC] Cooke, M. C., "On Kashmir Morels," in "Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin."
vol. x. p. 439, with figs.
[AD] Smith, "Journ. Bot." vol. ix. p. 214.
[AE] Cooke, "Handbook," fig. 322.
[AF] Cooke, "Handbook," fig. 324.
[AG] Vittadini, C., "Funghi Mangerecci," p. 117.
[AH] Greville, "Sc. Crypt. Fl." pl. 156.
[AI] Berkeley, in "Linn Trans." xix. p. 37; Cooke, in "Technologist"
(1864), p. 387.
[AJ] Berkeley, M. J., in "Linn. Trans." xix. p. 37.
[AK] Berkeley, M. J., in "Hooker, Flora Antarctica," p. 147; in
"Hooker's Journ. Bot." (1848), 576, t. 20, 21.
[AL] Vittadini, C., "Monographia Tuberacearum" (1831), pp. 36, &c.
[AM] "Proceedings Agri. Hort. Soc. India" (Dec. 1871), p. lxxix.
[AN] _Ibid._ (June, 1872), p. xxiii.
[AO] Lindley, "Vegetable Kingdom," fig. xxiv.
[AP] Currey, F., in "Linn. Trans." vol. xxiii. p. 93.
[AQ] "Pharmacopoeia of India," p. 258.
[AR] "Gard. Chron." (1862), p. 21.
[AS] Barla, "Champ. de la Nice," p. 126, pl. 47, fig. 11.
[AT] Greville, "Scott. Crypt. Flora," pl. 241.
V.
NOTABLE PHENOMENA.
There are no phenomena associated with fungi that are of greater
interest than those which relate to luminosity. The fact that fungi
under some conditions are luminous has long been known, since
schoolboys in our juvenile days were in the habit of secreting
fragments of rotten wood penetrated by mycelium, in order to exhibit
their luminous properties in the dark, and thus astonish their more
ignorant or incredulous fellows Rumphius noted its appearance in
Amboyna, and Fries, in his Observations, gives the name of _Thelephora
phosphorea_ to a species of _Corticium_ now known as _Corticium
cæruleum_, on account of its phosphorescence under certain conditions.
The same species is the _Auricularia phosphorea_ of Sowerby, but he
makes no note of its phosphorescence. Luminosity in fungi "has been
observed in various parts of the world, and where the species has been
fully developed it has been generally a species of _Agaricus_ which
has yielded the phenomenon."[A] One of the best-known species is the
_Agaricus olearius_ of the South of Europe, which was examined by
Tulasne with especial view to its luminosity.[B] In his introductory
remarks, he says that four species only of Agaricus that are luminous
appear at present to be known. One of them, _A. olearius_, D. C., is
indigenous to Central Europe; another, _A. igneus_, Rumph., comes from
Amboyna; the third, _A. noctileucus_, Lév., has been discovered at
Manilla by Gaudichaud, in 1836; the last, _A. Gardneri_, Berk., is
produced in the Brazilian province of Goyaz, upon dead leaves. As to
the _Dematium violaceum_, Pers., the _Himantia candida_, Pers., cited
once by Link, and the _Thelephora cærulea_, D. C. _(Corticium
cæruleum_, Fr.), Tulasne is of opinion that their phosphorescent
properties are still problematical; at least no recent observation
confirms them.
The phosphorescence of _A. olearius_, D. C., appears to have been
first made known by De Candolle, but it seems that he was in error in
stating that these phosphorescent properties manifest themselves only
at the time of its decomposition. Fries, describing the _Cladosporium
umbrinum_, which lives upon the Agaric of the olive-tree, expressed
the opinion that the Agaric only owes its phosphorescence to the
presence of the mould. This, however, Tulasne denies, for he writes,
"I have had the opportunity of observing that the Agaric of the olive
is really phosphorescent of itself, and that it is not indebted to any
foreign production for the light it emits." Like Delile, he considers
that the fungus is only phosphorescent up to the time when it ceases
to grow; thus the light which it projects, one might say, is a
manifestation of its vegetation.
"It is an important fact," writes Tulasne, "which I can confirm, and
which it is important to insist upon, that the phosphorescence is not
exclusively confined to the hymenial surface. Numerous observations
made by me prove that the whole of the substance of the fungus
participates very frequently, if not always, in the faculty of shining
in the dark. Among the first Agarics which I examined, I found many,
the stipe of which shed here and there a light as brilliant as the
hymenium, and led me to think that it was due to the spores which had
fallen on the surface of the stipe. Therefore, being in the dark, I
scraped with my scalpel the luminous parts of the stipe, but it did
not sensibly diminish their brightness; then I split the stipe,
bruised it, divided it into small fragments, and I found that the
whole of this mass, even in its deepest parts, enjoyed, in a similar
degree to its superficies, the property of light. I found, besides, a
phosphorescence quite as brilliant in all the cap, for, having split
it vertically in the form of plates, I found that the trama, when
bruised, threw out a light equal to that of their fructiferous
surfaces, and there is really only the superior surface of the pileus,
or its cuticle, which I have never seen luminous.
"As I have said, the Agaric of the olive-tree, which is itself
very yellow, reflects a strong brilliant light, and remains
endowed with this remarkable faculty whilst it grows, or, at
least, while it appears to preserve an active life, and remains fresh.
The phosphorescence is at first, and more ordinarily, recognizable
at the surface of the hymenium. I have seen a great number of young
fungi which were very phosphorescent in the gills, but not in any
other part. In another case, and amongst more aged fungi, the
hymenium of which had ceased to give light, the stipe, on the
contrary, threw out a brilliant glare. Habitually, the phosphorescence
is distributed in an unequal manner upon the stipe, and the same
upon the gills. Although the stipe is luminous at its surface, it is
not always necessarily so in its interior substance, if one bruises
it, but this substance frequently becomes phosphorescent after
contact with the air. Thus, I had irregularly split and slit a large
stipe in its length, and I found the whole flesh obscure, whilst
on the exterior were some luminous places. I roughly joined the
lacerated parts, and the following evening, on observing them
anew, I found them all flashing a bright light. At another time, I
had with a scalpel split vertically many fungi in order to hasten
their dessication; the evening of the same day, the surface of all
these cuts was phosphorescent, but in many of these pieces of fungi
the luminosity was limited to the cut surface which remained
exposed to the air; the flesh beneath was unchanged.
"I have seen a stipe opened and lacerated irregularly, the whole of
the flesh of which remained phosphorescent during three consecutive
evenings, but the brightness diminished in intensity from the exterior
to the interior, so that on the third day it did not issue from the
inner part of the stipe. The phosphorescence of the gills is in no way
modified at first by immersing the fungus in water; when they have
been immersed they are as bright as in the air, but the fungi which I
left immersed until the next evening lost all their phosphorescence,
and communicated to the water an already sensible yellow tint; alcohol
put upon the phosphorescent gills did not at once completely
obliterate the light, but visibly enfeebled it. As to the spores,
which are white, I have found many times very dense coats of them
thrown down on porcelain plates, but I have never seen them
phosphorescent.
"As to the observation made by Delile that the Agaric of the olive
does not shine during the day when placed in total darkness, I think
that it could not have been repeated. From what I have said of the
phosphorescence of _A. olearius_, one naturally concludes that there
does not exist any necessary relation between this phenomenon and the
fructification of the fungus; the luminous brightness of the hymenium
shows, says Delile, 'the greater activity of the reproductive organs,'
but it is not in consequence of its reproductive functions, which may
be judged only as an accessory phenomenon, the cause of which is
independent of, and more general than these functions, since all the
parts of the fungus, its entire substance, throws forth at one time,
or at successive times, light. From these experiments Tulasne infers
that the same agents, oxygen, water, and warmth, are perfectly
necessary to the production of phosphorescence as much in living
organized beings as in those which have ceased to live. In either
case, the luminous phenomena accompany a chemical reaction which
consists principally in a combination of the organized matter with the
oxygen of the air; that is to say, in its combustion, and in the
discharge of carbonic acid which thus shows itself."
We have quoted at considerable length from these observations of
Tulasne on the Agaric of the olive, as they serve very much to
illustrate similar manifestations in other species, which doubtless
resemble each other in their main features.
Mr. Gardner has graphically described his first acquaintance in Brazil
with the phosphorescent species which now bears his name. It was
encountered on a dark night of December, while passing through the
streets of Villa de Natividate. Some boys were amusing themselves
with some luminous object, which at first he supposed to be a kind of
large fire-fly, but on making inquiry he found it to be a beautiful
phosphorescent Agaric, which he was told grew abundantly in the
neighbourhood on the decaying fronds of a dwarf palm. The whole plant
gives out at night a bright light somewhat similar to that emitted by
the larger fire-flies, having a pale greenish hue. From this
circumstance, and from growing on a palm, it was called by the
inhabitants "flor de coco."[C]
The number of recognized phosphorescent species of _Agaricus_ is not
large, although two or three others may be enumerated in addition to
those cited by Tulasne. Of these, _Agaricus lampas_, and some others,
are found in Australia.[D] In addition to the _Agaricus noctileucus_,
discovered by Gaudichaud, and the _Agaricus igneus_ of Rumphius, found
in Amboyna, Dr. Hooker speaks of the phenomenon as common in Sikkim,
but he seems never to have been able to ascertain with what species it
was associated.
Dr. Cuthbert Collingwood has communicated some further information
relative to the luminosity of a species of _Agaricus_ in Borneo
(supposed to be _A. Gardneri_), in which he says, "The night being
dark, the fungi could be very distinctly seen, though not at any great
distance, shining with a soft pale greenish light. Here and there
spots of much more intense light were visible, and these proved to be
very young and minute specimens. The older specimens may more properly
be described as possessing a greenish luminous glow, like the glow of
the electric discharge, which, however, was quite sufficient to define
its shape, and, when closely examined, the chief details of its form
and appearance. The luminosity did not impart itself to the hand, and
did not appear to be affected by the separation from the root on which
it grew, at least not for some hours. I think it probable that the
mycelium of this fungus is also luminous, for, upon turning up the
ground in search of small luminous worms, minute spots of light were
observed, which could not be referred to any particular object or body
when brought to the light and examined, and were probably due to some
minute portions of its mycelium."[E] The same writer also adds, "Mr.
Hugh Low has assured me that he saw the jungle all in a blaze of light
(by which he could see to read) as, some years ago, he was riding
across the island by the jungle road; and that this luminosity was
produced by an Agaric."
Similar experiences were detailed by Mr. James Drummond in a letter
from Swan River, in which two species of Agaric are concerned. They
grew on the stumps of trees, and had nothing remarkable in their
appearance by day, but by night emitted a most curious light, such as
the writer never saw described in any book. One species was found
growing on the stump of a _Banksia_ in Western Australia. The stump
was at the time surrounded by water. It was on a dark night, when
passing, that the curious light was first observed. When the fungus
was laid on a newspaper, it emitted by night a phosphorescent light,
enabling persons to read the words around it, and it continued to do
so for several nights with gradually decreasing intensity as the plant
dried up. In the other instance, which occurred some years after, the
author, during one of his botanical trips, was struck by the
appearance of a large Agaric, measuring sixteen inches in diameter,
and weighing about five pounds. This specimen was hung up to dry in
the sitting-room, and on passing through the apartment in the dark it
was observed to give out the same remarkable light. The luminous
property continued, though gradually diminishing, for four or five
nights, when it ceased on the plant becoming dry. "We called some of
the natives," he adds, "and showed them this fungus when emitting
light, and the poor creatures cried out 'chinga,' their name for a
spirit, and seemed much afraid of it."[F]
Although the examples already cited are those of species of Agaric,
luminosity is not by any means wholly confined to that genus. Mr.
Worthington Smith has recorded his experiences of some specimens of
the common _Polyporus annosus_ which were found on some timbers in the
Cardiff coal mines. He remarks that the colliers are well acquainted
with phosphorescent fungi, and the men state that sufficient light is
given "to see their hands by." The specimens of _Polyporus_ were so
luminous that they could be seen in the dark at a distance of twenty
yards. He observes further, that he has met with specimens of
_Polyporus sulfureus_ which were phosphorescent. Some of the fungi
found in mines, which emit light familiar to the miners, belong to the
incomplete genus _Rhizomorpha_, of which Humboldt amongst others gives
a glowing account. Tulasne has also investigated this phenomenon in
connection with the common _Rhizomorpha subterranea_, Pers. This
species extends underneath the soil in long strings, in the
neighbourhood of old tree stumps, those of the oak especially, which
are becoming rotten, and upon these it is fixed by one of its
branches. These are cylindrical, very flexible, branching, and clothed
with a hard bark, encrusting and fragile, at first smooth and brown,
becoming later very rough and black. The interior tissue, at first
whitish, afterwards of a more or less deep brown colour, is formed of
extremely long parallel filaments from .0035 to .015 _mm._ in
diameter.