the perithecia is variable, being between fleshy and waxy in
_Nectriei_, and tough, horny, sometimes brittle, in _Hypoxylon_. A
perithecium, or cell excavated in the stroma which fulfils the
functions of a perithecium, is always present. The hymenium lines the
inner walls of the perithecium, and forms a gelatinous nucleus,
consisting of asci and paraphyses. When fully mature, the asci are
ruptured and the sporidia escape by a pore which occupies the apex of
the perithecium. Sometimes the perithecia are solitary or scattered,
and sometimes gregarious, whilst in other instances they are closely
aggregated and immersed in a stroma of variable size and form.
Conidia, spermatia, pycnidia, &c., have been traced to and associated
with some species, but the history of others is still obscure. Many of
the coniomycetous forms grouped under the _Sphæronemei_ are probably
conditions of the _Sphæriacei_, as are also the _Melanconiei_, and
some of the _Hyphomycetes_. A very common fungus, for instance, which
is abundant on sticks and twigs, forming rosy or reddish pustules the
size of a millet seed, formerly named _Tubercularia vulgaris_, is
known to be the conidia-bearing stroma of the sphæriaceous fungus,
_Nectria cinnabarina_;[T] and so with many others. The following are
the technical characters of the family:--
_Fruit consisting of sporidia, mostly definite, contained in asci,
springing from a naked or enclosed stratum of fructifying cells and
forming a hymenium or nucleus_ = ASCOMYCETES.
If the characters of the different families are borne in mind, there
will be but little difficulty in assigning any fungus to the order to
which it belongs by means of the foregoing remarks. For more minute
information, and for analytical tables of the families, orders, and
genera, we must refer the student to some special systematic work,
which will present fewer difficulties, if he keeps in mind the
distinctive features of the families.[U]
To assist in this we have given on the following page an analytical
arrangement of the families and orders, according to the system
recognized and adopted in the present volume. It is, in all essential
particulars, the method adopted in our "Handbook," based on that of
Berkeley's "Introduction" and "Outlines."
[A] Rev. M. J. Berkeley, "Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany" (1857),
London, pp. 235 to 372.
[B] De Bary, in "Streinz Nomenclator Fungorum," p. 722.
[C] Tulasne, L. and C. R., "Observations sur l'Organisation des
Trémellinées," "Ann. des Sci. Nat." 1853, xix. p. 193.
[D] Berkeley, M. J., "On the Fructification of _Lycoperdon_,
_Phallus_, and their Allied Genera," in "Ann. of Nat. Hist."
(1840), vol. iv. p. 155; "Ann. des Sci. Nat." (1839), xii. p.
163. Tulasne, L. R. and C., "De la Fructification des
_Scléroderma_ comparée à celle des _Lycoperdon_ et des
_Bovista_," in "Ann. des Sci. Nat." 2^me sér. xvii. p. 5.
[E] Tulasne, L. R. and C., "Fungi Hypogæi," Paris, 1851;
"Observations sur le Genre Elaphomyces," in "Ann. des Sci.
Nat." 1841, xvi. 5.
[F] _Stapeliæ_ in this respect approach most closely to the
_Phalloidei_.
[G] Berkeley, in "Ann. Nat. Hist." vol. iv. p. 155.
[H] Tulasne, L. R. and C., "Recherches sur l'Organisation et le Mode
de Fructification des Nidulariées," "Ann. des Sci. Nat."
(1844), i. p. 41.
[I] De Bary, A., "Des Myxomycètes," in "Ann. des Sci. Nat." 4^me sér.
xi. p. 153; "Bot. Zeit." xvi. p. 357.
[J] Corda, "Icones Fungorum," vol. iii. fig. 45.
[K] Tulasne, "Mémoire sur les Ustilaginées," "Ann. des Sci. Nat."
(1847), vii. 12-73.
[L] Tulasne, "Mémoire sur les Urédinées," "Ann. des Sci. Nat."
(1854), ii. 78.
[M] Tulasne, "Sur les Urédinées," "Ann. des Sci. Nat." 1854, ii. pl.
9.
[N] Cooke, M. C., "Notes on _Podisoma_," in "Journ. Quek. Micr.
Club," No. 17 (1871), p. 255.
[O] Tulasne, L. R. and C., "Selecta Fungorum Carpologia," vol. iii.
pp. 4-19.
[P] De Bary, A., "Recherches sur les Champignons Parasites," in "Ann.
des Sci. Nat." 4^me sér. xx. p. 5; "Grevillea," vol. i. p.
150.
[Q] A. de Bary, translated in "Grevillea," vol. i. p. 167; Tulasne,
"Ann. des Sci. Nat." 5^me sér. (1866), p. 211.
[R] Léveillé, J. H., "Organisation, &c., de l'Érysiphé," in "Ann. des
Sci. Nat." (1851), xv. p. 109.
[S] Tulasne, L. R. and C., "Fungi Hypogæi," Paris; Vittadini, C.,
"Monographia Tuberacearum," Milan, 1831.
[T] "A Currant Twig and Something on it," in "Gardener's Chronicle"
for January 28, 1871.
[U] Berkeley, M. J., "Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany," London,
1857; Cooke, M. C., "Handbook of British Fungi," London, 1871 ;
Corda, A. C. J., "Anleitung zum Studium der Mycologie," Prag,
1842; Kickx, J., "Flore Cryptogamique des Flanders," Gand,
1867; Fries, E., "Systema Mycologicum," Lund, 1830; Fries, E.,
"Summa Vegetabilium Scandinaviæ," 1846; Secretan, L.,
"Mycographie Suisse," Geneva, 1833; Berkeley, M. J., "Outlines
of British Fungology," London, 1860.
TABULAR ARRANGEMENT OF FAMILIES AND ORDERS.
DIVISION I. SPORIFERA. _Spores naked._
I. Hymenium free, mostly naked, or soon exposed HYMENOMYCETES.
Hymenium normally inferior--
Fruit-bearing surface lamellose _Agaricini._
Fruit-bearing surface porous or tubular _Polyporei._
Fruit-bearing surface clothed with prickles _Hydnei._
Fruit-bearing surface even or rugose _Auricularini._
Hymenium superior or encircling--
Clavate, or branched, rarely lobed _Clavariei._
Lobed, convolute, or disc-like, gelatinous _Tremellini._
II. Hymenium enclosed in a peridium, ruptured when
mature GASTEROMYCETES.
Hymenomycetous--
Subterranean, naked or enclosed _Hypogæi._
Terrestrial, hymenium deliquescent _Phalloidei._
Peridium enclosing sporangia, containing spores _Nidulariacei._
Coniospermous--
Stipitate, hymenium convolute, drying into a
dusty mass, enclosed in a volva _Podaxinei._
Cellular at first, hymenium drying up into a
dusty mass of threads and spores _Trichogastres._
Gelatinous at first, peridium containing at length
a dusty mass of threads and spores _Myxogastres._
III. Spores naked, mostly terminal, on inconspicuous
threads, free or enclosed in a perithecium CONIOMYCETES.
Growing on dead or dying plants--
Subcutaneous--
Perithecium more or less distinct _Sphæronemei._
Perithecium obsolete or wanting _Melanconiei._
Superficial--
Fructifying surface naked.
Spores compound or tomiparous _Torulacei._
Parasitic on living plants--
Peridium distinctly cellular _Æcidiacei._
Peridium none--
Spores sub-globose, simple or deciduous _Cæomacei._
Spores mostly oblong, usually septate _Pucciniæi._
IV. Spores naked, on conspicuous threads, rarely
compacted, small HYPHOMYCETES.
Fertile threads compacted, sometimes cellular--
Stem or stroma compound--
Spores dry, volatile _Isariacei._
Mass of spores moist, diffluent _Stilbacei._
Fertile threads, free or anastomosing--
Fertile threads dark, carbonized--
Spores mostly compound _Dematiei._
Fertile threads not carbonized--
Very distinct--
Spores mostly simple _Mucedines._
Scarcely distinct from mycelium--
Spores profuse _Sepedoniei._
DIVISION II. SPORIDIIFERA. _Sporidia in Asci._
V. Fertile cells seated on threads, not compacted into
a hymenium PHYSOMYCETES.
Threads felted, moniliform--
Sporangia irregular _Antennariei._
Threads free--
Sporangia terminal or lateral _Mucorini._
Aquatic _Saprolegniei._
VI. Asci formed from the fertile cells of a hymenium ASCOMYCETES.
Asci often evanescent--
Receptacle clavæform--
Asci springing from threads _Onygenei._
Perithecia free--
Asci springing from the base _Perisporiacei._
Asci persistent--
Perithecia opening by a distinct ostiolum _Sphæriacei._
Hard or coriaceous, hymenium at length exposed _Phacidiacei._
Hypogæous; hymenium complicated _Tuberacei._
Fleshy, waxy, or tremelloid; hymenium mostly
exposed _Elvellacei._
IV.
USES.
The rigid utilitarian will hardly be satisfied with the short
catalogue which can be furnished of the uses of fungi. Excepting those
which are employed more or less for human food, very few are of any
practical value in arts or medicine. It is true that imperfect
conditions of fungi exert a very important influence on fermentation,
and thus become useful; but, unfortunately, fungi have the reputation
of being more destructive and offensive than valuable or useful.
Notwithstanding that a large number of species have from time to time
been enumerated as edible, yet those commonly employed and recognized
are very few in number, prejudice in many cases, and fear in others,
militating strongly against additions to the number. In Great Britain
this is especially the case, and however advisable it may be to
exercise great care and caution in experimenting on untried or
doubtful species, it can only be regarded as prejudice which prevents
good, in fact, excellent, esculent species being more extensively
used, instead of allowing them to rot by thousands on the spots where
they have grown. Poisonous species are also plentiful, and no golden
rule can be established by means of which any one may detect at a
glance good from bad, without that kind of knowledge which is applied
to the discrimination of species. Yet, after all, the characters of
half a dozen good esculent fungi are acquired as easily as the
distinctions between half a dozen birds such as any ploughboy can
discriminate.
The common mushroom (_Agaricus campestris_) is the best known
esculent, whether in its uncultivated or in a cultivated state. In
Britain many thousands of people, notably the lower classes, will not
recognize any other as fit for food, whilst in Italy the same classes
have a strong prejudice against this very species.[A] In Vienna, we
found by personal experience that, although many others are eaten, it
is this which has the most universal preference, yet it appears but
sparingly in the markets as compared with others. In Hungary it does
not enjoy by any means so good a reputation. In France and in Germany
it is a common article of consumption. The different varieties found,
as the results of cultivation, present some variation in colour,
scaliness of pileus, and other minor features, whilst remaining true
to the constituent characters of the species. Although it is not our
intention to enumerate here the botanical distinctions of the species
to which we may call attention, yet, as mistakes (sometimes fatal) are
often being recorded, in which other fungi are confounded with this,
we may be permitted a hint or two which should be remembered. The
spores are purple, the gills are at first delicate pink, afterwards
purple; there is a permanent ring or collar round the stem, and it
must _not_ be sought in woods. Many accidents might have been spared
had these facts been remembered.
The meadow mushroom (_Agaricus arvensis_) is common in meadows and
lowland pastures, and is usually of a larger size than the preceding,
with which it agrees in many particulars, and is sent in enormous
quantities to Covent Garden, where it frequently predominates over
_Agaricus campestris_. Some persons prefer this, which has a stronger
flavour, to the ordinary mushroom, and it is the species most commonly
sold in the autumn in the streets of London and provincial towns.
According to Persoon, it is preferred in France; and, in Hungary, it
is considered as a special gift from St. George. It has acquired in
England the name of horse mushroom, from the enormous size it
sometimes attains. Withering mentions a specimen that weighed fourteen
pounds.[B]
One of the commonest (in our experience the _most_ common) of all
edible fungi in the public markets of Vienna is the Hallimasche
(_Agaricus melleus_), which in England enjoys no good reputation for
flavour or quality; indeed, Dr. Badham calls it "nauseous and
disagreeable," and adds that "not to be poisonous is its only
recommendation." In Vienna it is employed chiefly for making sauce;
but we must confess that even in this way, and with a prejudice in
favour of Viennese cookery, our experience of it was not satisfactory.
It is at best a sorry substitute for the mushroom. In the summer and
autumn this is a very common species in large tufts on old stumps. In
similar localities, and also in tufts, but neither so large, nor so
common, _Agaricus fusipes_ is found. It is preferable to the foregoing
as an esculent, and is easily recognized by the spindle-shaped stem.
_Agaricus rubescens_, P., belongs to a very suspicious group of
fungi, in which the cap or pileus is commonly studded or sprinkled
with paler warts, the remains of an investing volva. To this group
the poisonous but splendid fly-agaric (_Agaricus muscarius_)
belongs. Notwithstanding its bad company, this agaric has a good
reputation, especially for making ketchup; and Cordier reports it
as one of the most delicate mushrooms of the Lorraine.[C] Its name
is derived from its tendency to become red when bruised.
The white variety of an allied species (_Agaricus vaginatus_) has been
commended, and Dr. Badham says that it will be found inferior to but
few agarics in flavour.
A scaly-capped fungus (_Agaricus procerus_), with a slender stem,
called sometimes the parasol mushroom, from its habit, is an esteemed
esculent. In Italy and France it is in high request, and is included
in the majority of continental works on the edible fungi.[D] In
Austria, Germany, and Spain, it has special "vulgar" names, and is
eaten in all these countries. It is much more collected in England
than formerly, but deserves to be still better known. When once seen
it can scarcely be confounded with any other British species, save one
of its nearest allies, which partakes of its own good qualities
(_Agaricus rachodes_), though not quite so good.
_Agaricus prunulus_, Scop., and _Agaricus orcella_, Badh., if they be
not forms of the same species (which Dr. Bull contends that they are
not[E]), have also a good reputation as esculents. They are both neat,
white agarics, with a mealy odour, growing respectively in woods and
open glades. _Agaricus nebularis_, Batsch, is a much larger species,
found in woods, often in large gregarious patches amongst dead leaves,
with a smoky mouse-coloured pileus, and profuse white spores. It is
sometimes as much as five or six inches in diameter, with rather a
faint odour and mild taste. On the continent, as well as in Britain,
this is included amongst edible fungi. Still larger and more imposing
is the magnificent white species, _Agaricus maximus_, Fr.,[F] which is
figured by Sowerby,[G] under the name of _Agaricus giganteus_. It will
attain a diameter of fourteen inches, with a stem, two inches thick,
and rather a strong odour.
A spring fungus, the true St. George's mushroom, _Agaricus gambosus_,
Fr., makes its appearance in pastures, usually growing in rings, in
May and June, and is welcome to mycophagists from its early growth,
when esculent species are rare. It is highly esteemed in France and
Italy, so that when dried it will realize as much as from twelve to
fifteen shillings per pound. Guillarmod includes it amongst Swiss
esculents.[H] Professor Buckman says that it is one of the earliest
and best of English mushrooms, and others have endorsed his opinions,
and Dr. Badham in writing of it observes, that small baskets of them,
when they first appear in the spring in Italy, are sent as "presents
to lawyers and fees to medical men."
The closely allied species, _Agaricus albellus_,[I] D.C., has also the
reputation of being edible, but it is so rare in England that this
quality cannot be put to the test. The curious short-stemmed _Agaricus
brevipes_, Bull,[J] has a similar reputation.
Two singularly fragrant species are also included amongst the
esculent. These are _Agaricus fragrans_, Sow., and _Agaricus odorus_,
Bull. Both have a sweet anise-like odour, which is persistent for a
long time. The former is pale tawny-coloured, nearly white, the latter
of a dirty pale green. Both are white-spored, and although somewhat
local, sufficient specimens of _Ag. odorus_ may be collected in the
autumn for domestic use. We have the assurance of one who has often
proved them that they constitute an exquisite dish.
A clear ivory-white fungus, _Agaricus dealbatus_, of which a crisped
variety is occasionally found in great numbers, springing up on old
mushroom beds in dense clusters, is very good eating, but rather
deficient in the delicate aroma of some other species. The typical
form is not uncommon on the ground in fir plantations. A more robust
and larger species, _Agaricus geotrupes_, Bull, found on the borders
of woods, often forming rings, both in this country and in the United
States, as well as on the continent of Europe, is recognized as
esculent.
We may add to these three or four other species, in which the stem is
lateral, and sometimes nearly obsolete. The largest and most common is
the oyster mushroom (_Agaricus ostreatus_, Jacq.[K]), so universally
eaten, that it is included in almost every list and book on edible
fungi; it is the most common species in Transylvania, tons of it
sometimes appearing in the markets. It does not possess that delicate
flavour which is found in many species, and although extolled by some
beyond its merits, it is nevertheless perfectly wholesome, and, when
young and carefully cooked, not to be despised. It must not be
confounded with a very similar species (_Agaricus euosmus_, B.), with
rosy spores, which is unpleasant. _Agaricus tessellatus_, Bull,
_Agaricus pometi_, Fr., _Agaricus glandulosus_, Bull, are all allies
of the foregoing, and recorded as edible in the United States,
although not one of the three has hitherto been recorded as occurring
in Great Britain. To these may also be added the following:--_Agaricus
salignus_,[L] Fr., which is rare in England, but not uncommon abroad
and in the United States. In Austria it is commonly eaten. _Agaricus
ulmarius_,[M] Bull, is common on elm trunks, not only in Britain but
also in North America, and is by some preferred to the oyster
mushroom. An allied species, _Agaricus fossulatus_, Cooke,[N] is found
on the Cabul Hills, where it is collected, dried, and forms an article
of commerce with the plains. Another, but smaller species, is dried in
the air on strings passed through a hole in the short stem (_Agaricus
subocreatus_, Cooke), and sent, it is believed, from China to
Singapore.
The smallest species with which we have any acquaintance, that is
edible, is the "nail fungus" (_Agaricus esculentus_,[O] Jacq.),
scarcely exceeding one inch in diameter of the pileus, with a thin
rooting stem. The taste in British specimens when raw is bitter and
unpleasant, but it is clearly eaten in Austria, as its name testifies,
and elsewhere in Europe. It is found in fir plantations in the spring,
at which season it is collected from the fir woods around and sent to
Vienna, where it is only used for flavouring sauces under the name of
"Nagelschwämme."
Before quitting the group of true agarics, to which all hitherto
enumerated belong, we must mention a few others of less importance,
but which are included amongst those good for food. Foremost of these
is a really splendid orange species (_Agaricus cæsarius_, Scop.[P]),
which belongs to the same subgenus as the very deleterious fly-agaric,
and the scarcely less fatal _Agaricus vernus_, Bull. It is universally
eaten on the continent, but has hitherto never been found in Great
Britain. In the same subgenus, _Agaricus strobiliformis_,[Q] Fr.,
which is rare in this country, and probably also _Agaricus Ceciliæ_,
B. & Br.[R] Besides these, _Agaricus excoriatus_, Schæff., _Agaricus
mastoideus_, Fr., _Agaricus gracilentus_, Kromb., and _Agaricus
holosericeus_, Fr.,[S] all belonging to the same subgenus as the
parasol mushroom, more or less uncommon in England.
Although the larger number of esculent agarics are white-spored, some
few, worthy of note, will be found in the other sections, and notably
amongst these the common mushroom and its congener the meadow, or
horse mushroom. In addition to those already enumerated, might be
included also the _Agaricus pudicus_, Bull, which is certainly
wholesome, as well as its ally, _Agaricus leochromus_, Cooke,[T] both
of which have rusty spores.
The late Dr. Curtis,[U] in a letter to the Rev. M. J. Berkeley,
enumerates several of the fungi which are edible amongst those found
in the United States. Of these, he says, _Agaricus amygdalinus_,
Curt., can scarcely be distinguished when cooked from the common
mushroom. _Agaricus frumentaceus_, Bull, and three allied new species,
peculiar to the United States, are commended. _Agaricus cæspitosus_,
Curt., he says, is found in enormous quantities, a single cluster
containing from fifty to one hundred stems, and might well be deemed a
valuable species in times of scarcity. It would not be highly esteemed
where other and better species can be had, but it is generally
preferred to _Agaricus melleus_, Fr. It is suitable for drying for
winter use. In the same communication, he observes that the imperial
(_Agaricus cæsarius_, Scop.), grows in great quantities in oak
forests, and may be obtained by the cart-load in its season; but to
his taste, and that of his family, it is the most unpalatable of
fungi, nor could he find any of the most passionate mycophagists who
would avow that they liked it. There is a disagreeable saline flavour
that they could not remove nor overlay. In addition to these, the same
authority enumerates _Agaricus russula_, Schæff., _Agaricus
hypopithyus_, Curt., and _Agaricus consociatus_, Curt., the latter two
being confined to the United States; _Agaricus columbetta_, Fr., found
in Britain, but not eaten, as well as _Agaricus radicatus_, Bull.
_Agaricus bombycinus_, Schæff., and _Agaricus speciosus_, Fr., are
found in Britain, but by no means common; _Agaricus squarrosus_,
Mull., has always been regarded with great suspicion in this country,
where it is by no means uncommon; _Agaricus cretaceus_, Fr., and
_Agaricus sylvaticus_, Schæff., are close allies of the common
mushroom.
Dr. Curtis says that hill and plain, mountain and valley, woods,
fields, and pastures, swarm with a profusion of good nutritious fungi,
which are allowed to decay where they spring up, because people do not
know how, or are afraid, to use them. By those of us who know their
use, their value was appreciated, as never before, during the late
war, when other food, especially meat, was scarce and dear. Then such
persons as I have heard express a preference for mushrooms over meat
had generally no need to lack grateful food, as it was easily had for
the gathering, and within easy distance of their homes if living in
the country. Such was not always the case, however. I remember once,
during the gloomy period when there had been a protracted drought, and
fleshy fungi were to be found only in damp shaded woods, and but few
even there, I was unable to find enough of any one species for a meal,
so, gathering of every kind, I brought home thirteen different kinds,
had them all cooked together in one grand _pot pourri_, and made an
excellent supper.