will be given hereafter, and will apply equally to all the Mammalia;
always bearing in mind that the difference in structure of every
animal, although making it inferior to Man, does not do away with any
of the essential qualities, which constitute it one of the members of
the highest group; for, although immensely inferior to Man, yet the
Mammalia are for the most part greatly superior to all the classes
below it, the capability of being educated, being in itself a vast step
beyond mere instinct, wonderful though this may be, and developed to an
extraordinary degree, as in some of the insects; yet, in these, there
is no possibility of improving it, while in some of the Mammalia, as
the Dog, Horse, Elephant, and Monkey, there is an evident tendency to
progressive improvement when aided by the example and tuition of Man.
* * * * *
[Illustration: FIG. 59. 1, KANGAROO (Macropas major);
2, OPOSSUM. (Didelphus Virginiana).]
1. The MARSUPIATA include the Kangaroos and Opossums (fig.
59). They are characterised by the possession of a pouch at the lower
part of the abdomen, into which the young enter as soon as born, for
they are born in a very imperfect state, and when in the pouch they
adhere to the teat of the mother, where they remain till more fully
developed. In these animals the hind legs are greatly developed, and
the fore legs but little. They progress by enormous leaps, resting on
the hinder legs and tail, both of which are very strong. They belong
exclusively to Australia, which appears to produce many forms having
peculiarities not met with elsewhere, and among the lowest of their
type; this and the next order appear somewhat to partake of the form of
the Bird, the undeveloped state of the young in the Marsupiata, being
an approach to the egg of the Oviparous animals.
* * * * *
[Illustration: FIG. 60.--PLATYPUS, OR DUCK-BILL (Ornithorynchus).]
2. The MONOTREMATA includes the Duckbill, called also
"Platypus," and "Ornithorynchus paradoxus," (fig. 60), a most singular
combination of the forms of the mammal and the bird. It has a mouth
resembling the bill of a Duck, and several other peculiarities, which
lead to the consideration of it as one of the connecting links between
the forms of the Mammalia and Birds.
* * * * *
[Illustration: FIG. 61.--BEAVERS (Castor fiber).]
3. The RODENTIA comprise the Rat, Beaver, Rabbit, Hare,
Mouse, &c. They live upon almost any kind of vegetable matter; the
Rat and Mouse will eat anything they can get. Their incisor teeth are
two in front of each jaw, and are chisel shaped and very sharp; they
are so constructed that they shall be kept sharp by being used, which
is effected by the hardest part or enamel being in front in a thin
layer, so that it is not so easily worn away as the bony part. If these
animals be fed on soft food, their teeth continue to grow nevertheless,
and protrude from their mouths in a most singular way. The Beaver (fig.
61) is almost aquatic in its habits, it gnaws through the stems of
trees, and uses them to dam up the water of the stream they inhabit,
so as to secure a constant supply. They build houses or huts of wood,
mud, and stones, which they unite in constructing. These houses have
their entrances beneath the water, so that the Beavers dive to enter
them; they have two divisions or rooms in them, and are sufficiently
large to lodge several families. The Rat is too well-known to need
much description. The brown or Norway Rat has only been an inhabitant
of this country about forty years, the black Rat being before that
time the usual house Rat, but it is now almost exterminated, specimens
being very rare. There are several other species of Rats; the best
known is the Water Rat, who burrows in brooks and ditches, and partly
lives in the water. Of the Mouse there are also several species.
Besides the usual house Mouse, there is the wood Mouse, which forms
a magazine of grain and nuts underground for winter store; and the
harvest Mouse, which builds a little round nest between the stalks of
corn. The Squirrel is also of this order. This pretty little creature
lives in the trees, chiefly feeding upon nuts; can leap well, and run
up the branches of trees with surprising agility. The Flying Squirrel
has a broad expansion of skin between the fore and hind legs on each
side, so that when stretched out, they form a sort of parachute; this
enables the creature to leap to a great distance from tree to tree, and
supports it in the air as it goes. The Porcupine (Hystrix cristata), so
celebrated for its quills, which supply a sort of defensive armour, is
of this order.
* * * * *
[Illustration: FIG. 62. ANTEATER (Myrmecophaga jubata).]
4. The EDENTATA, or Anteaters, have no teeth, but a peculiarly
shaped tongue, which is covered with viscid mucus, and which they
project and retract with great rapidity, causing the Ants and Termites,
on which they feed, to adhere to it, and be carried into their
mouths. The Great Anteater (Myrmecophaga jubata, fig. 62) is a very
extraordinary animal in appearance; it has an enormously prolonged
nose, and the back is covered with a sort of mane; the tail, also, is
of prodigious size, and very bushy; when this curious animal lies down
to sleep, the long snout is thrust under it, and the tail laid across
the back, the end of the snout projecting behind. In this position, it
would lead anyone to suppose that the head was where the tail really
is, and that when looking at the creature's hinder part, they were
looking at its head; and the sudden reversal of the position of these
parts, when it gets up quickly, is certainly extremely ridiculous.
* * * * *
5. The RUMINANTIA.--The Ruminating animals (fig. 63) are
those which chew the cud. There are a great many species, and their
members are also very numerous. The Ox, and its varieties, the Buffalo,
Bison, Yak, &c.; the Deer, Antelopes, Gazelles, &c.; the Sheep, Goat,
Giraffe, and Camel, all belong to the Ruminants. These all have hoofs,
cloven into two parts; have no incisor (or front) teeth in the upper
jaw; and are essentially grazing animals. They have stomachs made up
of four compartments; into the first of these (the Rumen) the crude
grass enters, and is afterwards returned to the mouth, and again chewed
at leisure; the molar teeth, or grinders, are flat, and roughened,
so as to effect this purpose; and, that they may not become smooth
by wear, the enamel (or hard part) of the teeth is so disposed in
various layers, that it is always projecting above the bony part, which
wears down first. The Ruminants are gregarious, associating in herds
of enormous numbers. Cumming, describes the herds of Springboks, in
South Africa, as being in countless thousands, continuing to pass for
hours together; and covering the plain as far as the eye could reach.
Cattlin, also, describes the American Bison of the Prairies as being
congregated in the most surprising numbers. Some of the members of this
order are very large and heavy animals. The Cape Buffalo is of enormous
strength, and very fierce when attacked.
Dr. Livingstone, in his Travels in South Africa, speaking of the Lion,
says:--"He seldom attacks full-grown Buffalos; but frequently, when
a Buffalo-calf is caught by him, the cow rushes to the rescue, and a
toss from her often kills him. One we found was killed thus, and on
the Leambye, another, which died near Sesheke, had all the appearance
of having received his death-blow from a Buffalo. It is questionable
if a single Lion ever attacks a full-grown Buffalo; the amount of
roaring heard at night, on occasions when a Buffalo is killed, seems to
indicate there are always more than one Lion engaged in the onslaught."
[Illustration: FIG. 63--GROUP OF RUMINANTS.
1, Ox (Bos taurus); 2, Sheep (Ovis aries); 3, Red Deer (Cervus
elaphus); 4, Camel (Camelus Arabicus); 5, Llama (Pacos).]
The Ruminants are the only members of the Mammalia furnished with
horns, and some of these are of enormous size; the Elk, Buffalo, and
Steinbok, are instances. In the Deer tribe they are shed yearly, and
increase in size and in the number of their branches at each fresh
growth. The flesh of the Ruminants forms the chief animal food of Man,
and some tribes of the American aborigines live exclusively on it.
The Camel, next to the Horse, is the most useful beast of burthen. The
Arabs greatly prize these creatures, and from their power of carrying
a supply of water in their stomach, they are very useful in crossing
the desert; their hoofs are also spread out so as to enable them better
to walk on the soft and yielding sand; there are two kinds of Camel,
the Bactrian, with two humps, and the Arabian Camel with but one. The
Dromedary is a small agile breed of the Arabian Camel, celebrated for
its swiftness.
* * * * *
6. The PACHYDERMATA or thick-skinned animals (fig.64) include
the Elephant, Rhinoceros, Horse, Ass, and its varieties; Hog, Tapir,
Hippopotamus, &c.; these have many of them a single solid hoof on each
foot, as in the Horse and Ass tribe, others have separate toes clothed
with a hoof, as in the Elephant. In nearly all the Pachydermata there
is a prolongation of the nose or upper lip, the Horse even has some
power of prehension in this part; the Rhinoceros is able to bring the
upper lip into so fine a point as to pick up a crumb, and in the Tapir
there is a considerable prolongation of the nose, while the Elephant
has this part developed into a complete prehensile organ.
The Elephant, Rhinoceros, and Hog are fond of wallowing in the mud,
with which they completely besmear themselves, and seem to derive great
satisfaction therefrom. There are two kinds of Elephants, the Asiatic,
or Indian, and the African, the chief distinction between them is the
size of the ear, that of the African Elephant being of very great size;
there is a very young specimen of this kind in the British Museum, but
a full-grown African Elephant has never been brought to England. The
Elephant is furnished with a pair of enormous tusks proceeding from the
upper jaw, these are composed of solid ivory, and often weigh nearly
a hundred pounds each; with the trunk, the Elephant is able to gather
food in the form of grass and herbage, and put it into its mouth, it
can also draw up a considerable quantity of water, and this being
poured down its throat from the trunk, constitutes its usual mode of
eating and drinking, as the neck is too short for the animal to reach
the ground except by the trunk. The Indian Elephant is much used as a
beast of burthen, and for various other purposes; they are very docile
and sagacious.
[Illustration: FIG. 64.--PACHYDERMATA.
1, Elephant (Elephas Indicus); 2, Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis); 3,
Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius); 4, Wild Boar (Sus scrofa).]
The Horse has been subjected to the service of Man from the earliest
records, indeed it is not known when this beautiful animal was first
trained to be his useful servant and companion; he is mentioned, in
the Scriptures, as being subjected to the Bit, and in the sculptures
brought from the ruins of Nineveh by Layard; the Horse is constantly
sculptured, decked in the most gorgeous trappings and driven by reins
and a bit, almost in the same manner as in the present day, and these
sculptures are among the earliest records of Man's hands. There are
several breeds of Horses; the chief are the Arabian (from which stock
proceed our race horses), the Flanders or Cart-horse, and the Sheltie
or Shetland horse. The Horse is nowhere found in a state of nature, yet
many wild Horses graze on the plains of America, but it is known that
these are not native, but proceed from those placed there to graze, and
which have bred and run wild. The Ass is distinguished from the horse
by the tail having short hair on it, except at the extremity, and the
mane being short and upright.
7. The CETACEA, or Whale kind, inhabit chiefly the colder
latitudes, they are entirely aquatic, but breathe air; the Whale,
Narwal, Dolphins, and Porpoises are the chief members.
[Illustration: FIG. 65.--WHALE (Balena mysticetus),]
In Whales (fig. 65) the anterior extremities are so developed as to
form a sort of fin called a "flipper," but in which all the usual
bones of an extremity exist; the posterior extremities are modified so
as to completely resemble the tail of a fish; they have smooth skins
devoid of hair. All these tribes have a considerable thickness of fat
or blubber (as it is called) beneath their skin; this protects them
from the cold, for most of these creatures live in the very coldest
climates, the oily matters acting as a non-conductor; it is for the
oil yielded by this blubber that they are chiefly caught. The Cachelot
or Sperm-whale (Phyceter macrocephalus) also yields spermaceti, which
crystallizes from the oily matter contained in its head, and the
Greenland-whale yields baleen or whale-bone, which is a substance
forming a sort of sieve in the mouth, through which they draw the sea
water and catch all it may contain for food, this consists of all small
fish, but principally a small mollusc called the "Clio Borealis," which
inhabits the northern seas in great numbers; a whole shoal of these is
taken in by the Whale at a draught. The Whale often measures 60 or 70
feet in length, and the Razor-back Whale sometimes 100; a large Whale
will yield 20 tuns of oil. The Narwal or Sea Unicorn is from 20 to 30
feet long; it has but one tooth, which is developed to a prodigious
length, and projects in front in a straight line like a sort of horn,
there are however sometimes two of these, one being always much larger
than the other; this horn is 8 or 10 feet long, perfectly straight
and twisted, it is used by the animal to break the ice so that it may
breathe, and also to spear and capture fish, on which the Narwal lives.
This horn produces beautiful ivory.
8. The CARNIVORA, or Flesh-eaters (fig. 67), include the
Feline tribe, as the Lion, Tiger, Jaguar (fig. 68), Leopard, &c.; the
Canine, as the Hyena, Wolf, Jackal, Dog, Fox, &c., the Ursine, which
includes the Bears, and the Phocine, including the Seal kind. The
Feline tribe are formed to spring upon, hold, and rend other animals
which they kill for food, and have teeth and claws suitable to this
purpose, and great activity and strength to enable them to contend
with, and overcome their prey. They are, for the most part, nocturnal
in their habits, seldom seeking their prey but in the night, and then
mostly frequenting the drinking-places where other animals come for
water. They attack by gradually stalking after the animal, getting
nearer and nearer, till at last a well-directed spring brings them
on to it at once. That these animals may better surprise their prey,
they have eyes so extremely sensitive to light that they can see well
when it would appear to Man to be quite dark, hence the saying, "cats
can see in the dark." The Iris (or coloured part of the eyes) in this
tribe is made so as to close up into a slit (1, fig. 66), and thus
exclude the light of the day to a great extent, which would otherwise
be too powerful, and injure the extreme sensibility of their vision.
Their claws (2, fig. 66) are made to retract by a tendon, so as to keep
their points from being worn by walking. This accounts for the silent,
stealthy tread of the domestic cat; it enables them to creep quietly
upon their prey, and at the moment they are about to seize them, the
claws are extended. The pointed or flesh-teeth of the Carnivora are
greatly developed, and are very sharp. Their molars (3, fig. 66) are
pointed, and suitable to the food they are intended to masticate. The
tongue of the feline tribe is very rough, and is used to rasp off the
flesh from bones. When closely examined, the surface of their tongues
present a series of horny hooks, all bending in one direction, and
forming a sort of rasp.
[Illustration: FIG. 66.--1, EYE OF LION. 2, CLAW. 3, TEETH.]
The Lion is usually placed at the head of this race, but it is
questionable whether he is so powerful as the Bengal Tiger, and combats
between the two, generally give the mastery to the Tiger.
[Illustration: FIG. 67.--CARNIVORA.
1, Lion (Leo Barberus); 2, Tiger (Tigris regalis).]
Dr. Livingstone, in his description of the Lion, takes off a good deal
of the poetical nobility and imaginary superiority with which the Lion
has been commonly invested. The following selections will show what
are Dr. Livingstone's impressions from personal experience:--"When a
Lion is met in the day-time, a circumstance by no means unfrequent
to travellers in these parts, if preconceived notions do not lead
them to expect something very 'noble' or 'majestic,' they will see
merely an animal somewhat larger than the biggest Dog they ever saw,
and partaking very strongly of the canine features. When encountered
in the day-time the Lion stands a second or two gazing, then turns
slowly round and walks as slowly away for a dozen paces, looking over
his shoulder, then begins to trot, and when he thinks himself out of
sight bounds off like a greyhound. By day, as a rule, there is not the
smallest danger of Lions which are not molested attacking Man, nor even
on a clear, moonlight night, except at the breeding-time.
"So general, however, is the sense of security on moonlight nights
that we seldom tied up our Oxen, but let them lie loose by the wagons;
while, on a dark, rainy night, if a Lion is in the neighbourhood, he is
almost sure to venture to kill an Ox. His approach is always stealthy,
and the least appearance of a trap is enough to cause him to refrain
from making the last spring.
"Lions never go near any Elephants, except the calves, which, when
young, are sometimes torn by them. Every living thing retires before
the lordly Elephant, yet a full-grown one would fall an easier prey
than the Rhinoceros. The Lion rushes off at the mere sight of the
latter beast."
[Illustration: FIG. 68.--JAGUAR (Leopardus onca).]
The Bengal or Royal Tiger is the largest of the Feline tribe, being
generally 8 feet long and 4 high. It is, however, often found much
larger. It would appear from the most correct accounts that the Lion
is hardly a match for this formidable creature. The Tiger is as
beautiful as dreadful; its colour is of a bright orange-buff, with
white face and under parts, the back and legs being beautifully striped
with black. The Tiger has no mane, but is of a sleek, graceful make,
though terribly powerful. It inhabits India chiefly, and will prowl
for hundreds of miles by the sides of rivers, secreting itself in the
jungle and sleeping by day. Sometimes traces of a Tiger will be seen
in the locality of villages or towns, and stray Sheep or Bullocks
disappear from time to time, but it will destroy any human being who
unluckily approaches its haunts, and having once tasted human blood,
appears afterwards to prefer this kind of food to all others, and will
pick out a cow-herd in preference to the cattle he is driving; in all
probability this preference is really owing to the ease with which
the capture can be made; and the small resistance Man is capable of
offering; be this as it may, the Tiger having once destroyed a man is
called a "man-eater," and a reward is offered for his head; when this
occurs near any of the stations of the East India Company, the officers
generally make it a point to sally forth and endeavour to capture this
terrific beast; this they do on foot, as it is impossible to depend
on any Horse, their natural fear of the Tiger being so great that all
Horses either shy, or at once retreat. The officers, armed with guns,
take with them a number of natives, who with long canes beat the
jungle and generally start out the monster, at whom there are a few
deadly rifles pointed, which invariably bring him at once to the ground.
The largest of this tribe inhabiting the New World, is the Puma or
Cougar, which is much inferior to the Lion both in size and strength,
although very fierce and dangerous, it is of a pale drab colour
inclining to grey; it climbs trees and stretches itself along their
branches, waiting for some unlucky animal to pass, when it drops
quietly upon its shoulders and quickly destroys it. The Leopard tribe
includes several varieties, as the Jaguar, Panther, Ounce, Ocelot,
&c., they are all more or less spotted with black, and possess all the
ferocity and much of the strength of the nobler species of their tribe,
the smallest of them being more than a match for a man without weapons.
The Canine tribe of the Carnivora includes Dogs, Wolves, Jackalls, and
Foxes. The Dogs are greatly altered from their wild nature by being
domesticated, resembling in their wild state a small Wolf; the Dog in
its domesticated state is too well known to need any description here.
The Jackals and Wolves generally hunt in packs, and devour all kinds
of offal, flesh and bones, which their strong jaws and teeth appear to
crush and break up without difficulty.
The Bears form the next tribe, these are often very large animals; the
Grisly Bear of the Rocky Mountains (Damis ferox) is the largest of
the Brown Bears, it often measures eight feet long and is extremely
powerful, the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) is smaller, but still a
powerful animal, the Polar Bear (Thalarctos maratimus) is white and is
the largest of all the Bears, measuring eight or nine feet long, it is
coated with long shaggy hair, and even its feet are clothed with hair
underneath, that it may not slip on the ice, and to defend it from the
cold; this Bear is found in the Arctic Regions among the ice, and feeds
upon Fish and other marine animals. Bears in general are carnivorous,
but eat many other kinds of food; they are very fond of honey, and
are never contented if they smell it, until they get at it, for this
purpose they will often gnaw a hole in a tree and thrust in their
head. Advantage is taken of this predilection to entrap the animal, the
natives of the Rocky Mountains often baiting Bear traps with honey.
The Seals and Walrus (fig. 69) form the next, or Phocine tribe; they
are amphibious, and feed chiefly on Fish, inhabiting the colder regions
of the North; their hinder extremities are but little developed, and
serve the purposes of a tail. They are covered with a close fur,
and the canine teeth of the Walrus are so largely developed in the
upper jaw as to form tusks, by means of which they hook on and attach
themselves to the blocks of ice.
[Illustration: FIG. 69.--WALRUS (Trichicus rosmarus);
SEAL (Phoca vitulina).]
9. The INSECTIVORA, such as the Mole, Hedgehog, and
Shrew-mouse, (fig. 70), live entirely on insects, the Mole burrows for
them in the earth, and the fore paws are so made as to dig out and
throw the earth behind it, and it burrows in this way with the greatest
rapidity. As it is nearly always beneath the surface of the earth, and
consequently in the dark, so a sense of vision is not required, it is
therefore blind, but the senses of touch and smell, being very acute
enable it to find its food. The Hedgehog and Shrew-mouse are furnished
with pointed noses, with which they dig up the earth in search of
insects, and when found they devour them with amazing rapidity. The
Hedgehog has the power of rolling itself up into a ball and defying the
attacks of almost anything, for its bristles are so stiff and sharp
that they prick like thorns, and make a capital defensive armour; the
Hedgehog is eaten by many, especially by the Gipsies, who esteem it a
dainty.
[Illustration: FIG. 70.--INSECTIVORA.
1, Hedgehog (Erinaceus Europæus); 2, Mole (Talpa Europæus); 3,
Shrew-mouse (Sorex araneus).]
10. The CHEIROPTERA (Bat tribe, fig. 71), have fore feet so
modified as to serve as wings, with which they fly with tolerable
swiftness, producing a peculiar flapping sound. These wings are formed
by a membrane which is stretched out between the fingers, which are
exceedingly elongated, and which reaches from the fore feet to the
hind feet. The Bat tribe all feed upon insects, especially moths;
they rest in the day time head downwards, clinging to rough places by
means of the claws of their hind feet, coming out at night to seek
their food; their sight, which is very quick, enabling them to see
their prey when almost dark. Some of the larger species of this tribe,
inhabiting America, are called Vampire Bats, they live by sucking the
blood of various animals, such as cattle and horses, thereby inflicting
dangerous wounds.
[Illustration: FIG. 71.--BATS (Plecotus auritus).]
[Illustration: FIG. 72.--QUADRUMANA.