fig. 42). The following is Dr. Baird's description of these curious
little creatures:--
"Most of these species are straight, but others of the family contract
after death, so as to form a grotesque resemblance to a horse in
miniature. These form the genus Hippocampus, and from their shape are
generally called Sea-horses. Hippocampus brevirostris (the short-nosed
Sea-horse) is occasionally met with on the British coast. It is
from six to ten inches long, the body much compressed, short and
deep; the whole length of the body and tail divided by longitudinal
and transverse ridges, with tubercular points at the angles of the
intersection. The snout is slender, and the tail long, quadrangular,
and terminated in a naked or finless tip. When swimming about, the
Hippocampus maintains a vertical position, but the tail is ready to
grasp whatever meets it in the water; it quickly entwines in any
direction round weeds or other objects, and darts at its prey with
great dexterity."
6. PLECTOGNATHI (Plaited jaw).
[Illustration: FIG. 43.--THE SUN-FISH (Orthagoriscus).]
The Sea Porcupine (Diodon hystrix) belongs to this order. These
Fish are of a peculiar thick rounded form, and occasionally inflate
their stomachs with air, which makes them almost spherical, in which
state they float with the belly upwards, and being covered with
spines, present rather a formidable object to attack; the flesh is
unwholesome, and, it is said, the liver is violently poisonous;
some of the species of this fish are phosphorescent, and from this
appearance they derive the name of Sunfish, as they shine very
brightly in the dark. The short Sunfish (fig. 43) turns round as it
swims; it is very large, sometimes weighing from three to four hundred
pounds. They yield a considerable quantity of oil, for which they are
caught. Their jaws are not divided into teeth, but consist each of a
single piece; they live upon seaweeds and various crustaceans.
The Cartilaginous Fishes are divided into three orders.
1. STURIONES (Sturgeons).
[Illustration: FIG. 44.--THE STURGEON (Accipenser sturio).]
Sturgeons (fig. 44) are inhabitants of the northern seas, but are
occasionally found in our rivers. They have rows of bony plates
imbedded in the skin; they sometimes attain the length of twenty feet,
but are usually from six to eight feet long. Isinglass is made of the
swimming bladder of the Sturgeon, and the roe (dried and salted) forms
the "Caviare."
2. PLAGIOSTOMI (Wide-mouthed).
[Illustration: FIG. 45.--THE SHARK (Carcharias vulgaris).]
The Plagiostomi comprise the Sharks (fig. 45) and Dog-fishes, a
most voracious tribe; the White Shark often attains the length of
twenty feet. They are terribly famous for their dreadful powers of
destruction, swallowing all that comes before them; they are able to
bite in two, with one snap of their formidable jaws, the body of any
one unfortunate enough to fall in their way; their mouths are armed
with several rows of short spear-shaped teeth; the mouth is placed
a considerable distance under the head, so that when biting they
turn on one side or quite over; they have no gills, but the water
passes through five oblong openings on each side. Sailors hold this
terrible inhabitant of the deep in great detestation, as well they
may, for there are few who have spent many years at sea but can tell
of a friend or messmate who has been mutilated or devoured by the
Sharks. When sailors catch one, it is hauled on deck and killed with
great gusto; the stomach is opened and its contents examined, and it
generally contains some terrible mementoes in the form of buttons,
buckles, &c., the only relics of its victims.
3. CYCLOSTOMI (Round-mouthed).
[Illustration: FIG. 46.--THE LAMPREY (Petromyzon fluviatilis)
(_b_, the sucker).]
The Lamprey or Lampern (fig. 46) inhabits both rivers and lakes, and
some species, the sea; it has a round mouth, by which it affixes
itself to rocks, &c., and also to other fish, it is furnished with
teeth on the outer edge, it has no scales, but is covered with a
glutinous skin; in form it much resembles an Eel, and is from twelve
to eighteen inches long. The Lamprey was once very plentiful in the
Thames, and considered a dainty.
[Illustration: FIG. 47.--1, FROG (Rana temporaria).
2, TOAD (Bufo vulgaris). 3, TADPOLES.]
REPTILES.
These constitute the second class of the Vertebrate animals. They are
divided into four orders.
1. AMPHIBIA (double-lived).
By some naturalists a separate class is made out of the Amphibia,
including the Frog kind, Toads, and Newts (fig. 47), which they call
"Batrachia," and which takes a place between Reptiles and Fishes, as
the young of this class have a totally different form from the adult
animal, and much resemble a fish, breathing by gills and having no
legs, but as they become mature the gills are replaced by lungs, and
the legs make their appearance.
The Amphibia have soft skins, which appear to serve as lungs or
gills when they are under the water, extracting the air from it,
and enabling them to remain a long time there without coming up to
breathe; they are partly aquatic, and feed upon insects and other
small creatures, which they capture by darting out the tongue, which
is covered with a glutinous secretion, and drawing it in again
instantly with the insect adhering to it, which they swallow whole.
The Frogs are furnished with webbed feet and swim well; they progress
on land by leaps, their powerful hind legs carrying them to a great
distance. The young of the Amphibia are brought forth as eggs, which
float on the water, and when they first come to life form the curious
little creatures called Tadpoles, having long tails and no feet, and,
as before stated, more resembling Fish than Reptiles. The Toads are
for the most part nocturnal in their habits, living in the daytime in
gardens and holes; they feed upon insects, as do Frogs, and lay their
eggs in the water. The stories of Toads being found alive in rock and
the heart of trees, arise from the following circumstances: Toads
when small will often creep into holes in rocks and hollows in trees,
and in these situations they find abundance of food; being slothful
in their habits, and capable of existing upon but little food, and
abstaining from it a long time, they are apt to remain in their snug
quarters and content themselves with what insects may come to them. In
this way they grow too large to get out of the hole, and live for a
great time in it; when chance discovers them, by the rock being broken
open or the wood of the tree cleft, the opening into which they had
crept is overlooked. The Water Newt (Triton cristatus) inhabits pools
and ditches, and (like the others of this order) is first formed as
a Tadpole; it is of a brown and bright yellow colour, with a crest
down its back and tail, and has the most extraordinary powers of
reproducing any part cut off or removed, such as a leg or the tail.
2. OPHIDIA (Snake-like order).
[Illustration: FIG. 48.--1, ROCK SNAKE (Python molurus);
2, SPECTACLED SNAKE (Cobra de Capello); 3, BOA CONSTRICTOR.]
This includes the Serpents, Boas, and Pythons. These creatures are
peculiar from their long and flexible form, and the absence of legs.
They move by a sinuous winding action, and when about to seize their
prey, make a sudden dart with great rapidity. They are covered with
regular scales, and mottled with different colours; some, as the
Adder and Rattle-snake, are very venomous, the poison is contained
in small glands connected with the poison-fangs, which are two long
pointed teeth, having a groove or small canal leading from the side of
the tooth to the poison-bag, upon which, when they bite, they press,
and inject the poison into the wound while the tooth is in the flesh.
These poison-fangs lie flat down when the creature is not excited, but
are drawn up by muscles, when they are about to spring on anything.
It is a common mistake to think that Serpents have a "sting," arising
from their having a thin, long forked tongue, which they protrude and
retract with great rapidity, and which has been mistaken for a sting;
the greater number of Snakes are not at all venomous. Serpents have no
teeth fit for eating with, but they are used to hold their prey, while
they swallow it, and they serve admirably for this purpose, as each
tooth turns backwards. These creatures have mouths and throats capable
of enormous distension (the lower jaw not being fixed to the upper
one), so that they can swallow their food whole, which they always
do; a Frog or Toad is often swallowed by the common Snake, which is
quite disfigured by it when in its stomach. The Pythons and Boas (fig.
48) are the largest of this class, they kill their prey by coiling
round it, and gradually tightening their folds till it is suffocated
and almost crushed, when it is swallowed; these great creatures will
grow to the length of 30 or 40 feet, and are capable of swallowing
considerable quadrupeds, as Hares, Goats, Deer, &c.; after having
their food, they lie torpid for several days. All Serpents lay eggs,
and the Pythons coil themselves round upon their eggs to protect them;
the Boa-constrictors are inhabitants of America, the Pythons of the
Old World.
3. SAURIA (Lizards).
The Sauria include the Crocodiles, Alligators, Skinks, Geckos,
Iguanas, and Lizards; they are carnivorous, the smaller ones feeding
on insects, and the larger members on whatever they can catch. They
have four legs, and are covered with hard rough scales running in
ridges on their backs, they have large strong tails, and their jaws
are furnished with sharp teeth. The Alligator is found in great
numbers in the Mississippi, and is a most formidable creature,
attacking any who may venture into the water. In winter they bury
themselves in the mud and remain there in a torpid state, they are
from 15 to 20 feet long. The Crocodile is a native of Africa and the
West Indies, there are many found in the Nile, it is larger than the
Alligator, reaching often to 30 feet. Dr Baird gives the following
account of the Alligators and Crocodiles:--
[Illustration: FIG. 49.--1, CROCODILE (Crocodilus vulgaris);
2, ALLIGATOR (Alligator lucius); 3, LIZARDS.]
"The Alligator (Alligator lucius, fig. 49), a native of
North America and abundant in the Mississippi, is a formidable and
ferocious creature, prodigiously strong, and sometimes reaching the
length of 18 feet. It is provided with numerous sharp teeth, long
tenacious claws, and a powerful tail, a single blow of which is
capable of overturning a canoe. It chiefly preys by night, assembling
in large numbers, besetting the mouth of some retired creek, into
which they have previously driven the fish, and bellowing so loud that
they may be heard at the distance of a mile. It is said to attack men
and quadrupeds whilst bathing or crossing the rivers, and to be more
fierce and voracious then the other species of this sub-family. In
Winter it buries itself in the mud at the bottom of the swamps and
marshes which it inhabits, and continues in a torpid state till Spring.
"The true Crocodiles are natives of Africa, the West Indies, and
America; and the best known species is the Nilotic Crocodile
(Crocodilus vulgaris, fig. 49). This animal is a native of the Senegal
river, of the Niger, and other rivers of Africa, but more particularly
of the Nile in Egypt, where it attains the length of about 30 feet.
The Crocodile was held in great veneration by the ancient Egyptians,
by whom it was known under the name of 'Champsa.' The Crocodiles are
exclusively carnivorous, and are ferocious animals. Their numbers
are, however, kept down by the enemies which surround them. For the
adults, few animals could be their match, but the little Ichneumon
or 'Mongooz' devours their eggs in great numbers while hatching in
the sand; and birds of prey pounce upon their young on quitting their
shell, and before they are able to reach the shore."
4. TESTUDINATA (having a shield).
The Testudinata include the Tortoise, and Turtle kind. They are
remarkable for their horny covering (carapace) which forms a sort of
shell, out of openings in which, their head, tail, and legs protrude;
they have short feet, covered with scales, and no teeth, but the edges
of the maxillary bones are sharp, like the edge of a knife, and they
bite out pieces from vegetable substances with ease. Some of this
class (the Turtles) are residents of the water, and grow to a great
size, weighing fourteen or fifteen hundred pounds, and measuring seven
or eight feet long. Others are much esteemed as food, especially the
green Turtle. Dr. Baird, in his Cyclopædia of the Natural Sciences,
under the article "Chelonia," gives a good description of these
creatures, from which the following is extracted:--
[Illustration: FIG. 50.--TURTLE (Chelonia viridis).]
"The Green Turtle (Chelonia viridis, or midas, fig. 50) is five or
six feet long, and weighs from seven to eight hundred pounds. It is
principally found in the Atlantic Ocean, and is often met with seven
or eight hundred leagues from land. They are easily caught when asleep
on the surface of the water, to which they come to breathe. In the
West Indies, the Bahama Islands, and the Island of Ascension, the
capture of Turtles gives employment to many people, and affords food
for thousands.
"The Hawk's-bill Turtle (Caretha imbricata) is a smaller species,
scarcely ever exceeding two hundred pounds' weight, and is a native of
the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The flesh is not good, but the shells,
which are formed of a considerable number of scales overlapping each
other at their extremities, in the manner of tiles on the roof of a
building, are of great importance as an article of commerce, and are
much superior to that of any other species. It is extensively used in
the manufacture of combs, snuff-boxes, &c., also for inlaying, and
other ornamental work.
[Illustration: FIG. 51.--TORTOISE (Testudo sulcata).]
"In the family of land Tortoises (fig. 51), the feet are
club-shaped, and their habits are terrestrial. The shell is very
solid, thick, ovate, and (in the adult state) covered with horny
concentrically-grooved shields, marked with a permanent areola. They
have a short thick tail, are very slow in their motion, and live upon
vegetables and roots. Most of the species are natives of the warm
regions of the globe, but those that live in colder regions burrow
and sleep during the winter. They are quiet, inoffensive animals,
extremely tenacious of life, and remarkable for longevity. Individuals
are stated upon good authority to have lived upwards of two hundred
years.
"The common Tortoise, or Taragua (Testudo Græca), is a native of
the south of Europe, and almost all the countries bordering on the
Mediterranean; it is found in the islands of the Archipelago, Corsica,
Sardinia, and in Africa, but is thought to be more common in Greece
than elsewhere. It is from six to eight inches long, and weighs about
forty-eight ounces. This species is often brought to this country
and kept in gardens. One was brought to the Archiepiscopal garden at
Lambeth, in the time of Laud, in 1633, where it lived till 1753, owing
its death then, more to neglect than the effects of age."
[Illustration: FIG. 52.--1, CONDOR (Sarcoramphus
gryphus); 2, OSTRICH (Struthio camelus); 3, KIWI-KIWI
(Apteryx).]
BIRDS.
The third class of the Vertebrata, comprises the "Birds," or those
whose young are not born alive, but in the form of eggs; who have
warm blood, and breathe by lungs, the air-cells of which communicate
with the hollow shafts of the bones, (these are full of air instead
of marrow), this gives them lightness, and serves as a reservoir of
air while flying; they have two anterior extremities so modified as
to form wings, and a heart with four cavities; most of them have the
power of flying through the air, and some to a very great height, as
the "Condor" (fig. 52), while in others the wings are rudimentary and
only assist them in running, as in the Ostrich (fig. 52) Cassowary,
Penguin, &c., while in the "Apteryx" (fig. 52) they are quite absent.
Birds are covered with a peculiar modification of hair known as
feathers; these consist of a central shaft with closely-set diverging
branches, some of which have others branching from them with a serrated
surface, giving them that peculiar metallic brilliancy so well shown
in the feathers of the Humming Bird. Birds are furnished with beaks of
almost every form, to suit their method of feeding, &c., and likewise
feet, sometimes furnished with sharp and powerful talons, at others,
feet suitable to climb with, and again in some they are webbed between
the toes, so as to enable them to swim with great rapidity.
Birds are divided into five orders, as follows:--
1. RAPTORES (Preying) Eagle, Owl, &c.
2. INSESSORES (Perching), divided into 4 tribes, viz:--
1. Dentirostres (Tooth bill) Thrush, Butcher-bird.
2. Conirostres (Cone bill) Raven, Crow, Finch.
3. Scansores (Climbing) Parrot, Wood-pecker.
4. Fissirostres (Split bill) King Fisher, Goat-sucker.
3. RASORES (Scraping) Poultry, Pheasants, &c.
4. GRALLATORES (Wading) Heron, Crane, &c.
5. NATATORES (Swimming) Goose, Duck, &c.
1. The RAPTORES, as the Eagles and Falcons, are furnished with
hooked beaks and strong sharp talons (fig. 53), they prey upon all
small animals, as birds of less strength, rabbits, &c., and some of
them upon fish, as the Osprey, others feed upon dead flesh and offal,
as the Vultures, and are very useful creatures in hot countries, where
they are generally respected, they hover about the towns, feeding
upon almost everything capable of being swallowed; it is not certain
whether these birds detect the presence of food by smell or sight
(both of these senses are possessed by them in perfection), but it is
certain that in the desert, when any animal dies, these birds soon
make their appearance, although a few minutes before not one could be
seen for miles around. The Owls are nocturnal, their plumage is downy,
and their eyes placed so that both shall look forwards, the pupils
close, similarly to a cat's eye, and their vision, like the cats (their
companions among the Mammalia) is extremely sensitive, so that the
expression "as blind as an Owl," has no more sense in it than "as blind
as a Cat" would have; they feed upon rats, mice, insects, &c.
[Illustration: FIG. 53.--BEAK AND TALONS OF EAGLE.]
2. The INESSORES include some that live by catching insects in
the air while they fly, as the Swallows (fig. 54); these are furnished
with great powers of flight and rapidity of movement; others (the
Scansores) which climb and hold by the branches of trees, feeding upon
nuts and fruit, as the Parrot; others live upon insects, but seek
them in the crevices of old trees and other similar places, as the
Woodpeckers (fig. 54). Some live entirely upon fish (King-fishers),
which they catch from the streams on the banks of which they live. This
order includes all the singing birds, and by far the greater number
of birds of passage; this propensity to migrate is one of the most
wonderful of all the instincts of Birds, the Swallow leaves England
in the Autumn to take up its abode for the Winter in Africa, or the
Islands of the Archipelago, and returns again in the Spring, year after
year, to the same nest; these journeys are accomplished at the rate
of 40 or 50 miles an hour. Pigeons also have the wonderful faculty of
returning home from almost any distance, appearing to know by instinct
the right direction; as, after a turn or two, they take a straight
course to their destination.
[Illustration: FIG. 54.--1, SWALLOW (Hirundo
rustica); 2, WOODPECKER (Picus viridis).]
[Illustration: FIG. 55.--1, DORKING FOWLS (Gallus
Domesticus); 2, PHEASANTS (Phasianus colchicus).]
3. The RASORES include the common Fowl (fig. 55), Pheasant
(fig. 55), Partridge, Turkey, &c.; they feed principally on grain,
but occasionally on insects and worms, which they scrape up with
their feet; they live chiefly upon the ground, on which they build
their nests, but generally roost on trees. Most of this order supply
excellent food, the Turkey is famous as a Christmas dish, and is often
of a great size; this bird is very plentiful in Central and South
America in a wild state, and often attains a large size, weighing 30
or 40 pounds; the natives have a simple and curious method of catching
these birds, which are extremely shy, never allowing any one to
approach near to them. A sort of cage is built of twigs, large enough
to contain many, and having holes close to the ground all round, of
a size just sufficient to admit a Turkey when its head is bent down;
leading to each of these holes a train of corn is placed, but none
within, the birds coming to pick the corn, follow up the line of corn
with their heads down, till they are within the inclosure, when finding
no more, they raise up their heads and cannot get out, for they have
not the sense to stoop their heads, so as to allow of their exit.
[Illustration: FIG. 56.--1, HERON (Ardea cinerea); 2,
CRANE (Megalornis cinerea).]
4. The GRALLATORES include the Herons and Cranes (fig. 56),
which wade into streams and catch fish; these are furnished with long
legs, neck, and beak, and when they have gone into the water as far as
their long legs permit, they stand still and wait with the head resting
on the shoulders and the eyes fixed on the stream, till an unlucky fish
approaches near enough, when with a quick stroke they dart at it, and
catch it; they are very picturesque objects, standing on one leg (as
they commonly do) in some lonely pool or stream.
5. The NATATORES, a very large class of Birds, live almost
entirely in the water, they are web-footed and swim beautifully, as
the Swans, Geese, Ducks, &c. (fig 57); these feed in general upon the
vegetation growing in, and on the margin of the water, also on worms,
larvæ, &c.; they have a beautiful mode of rising and flying in a line,
when disturbed from their haunts, and this line is maintained for a
long distance, and is sometimes double like the letter V, one bird
leading and the others following in single file.
[Illustration: FIG. 57. 1, SWAN (Cygnus mansuetus);
2, GEESE (Anser ferus); 3 and 4, DUCK and WILD
DUCKS (Anas Boschas).]
[Illustration: FIG. 58. GROUP OF MAMMALIA.
1, Leopard (Leopardus varius); 2, Bear (Ursus arctos); 3, Goat (Hircus
aegagrus); 4, Boar (Sus scrofa); 5, Beaver (Castor fiber); 6, Armadillo
(Dasypus); 7. Monkeys (Semnopitheci); 8, Seal (Phoca vitulina); 9, Bat
(Plecotus auritus).]
THE MAMMALIA.
This class is divided into twelve orders:--
1. MARSUPIATA (Pouched) Kangaroo.
2. MONOTREMATA (Having but one vent) Platypus.
3. RODENTIA (Gnawing) Beaver, Rabbit.
4. EDENTATA (Toothless) Anteater.
5. RUMINANTIA (Chewing) Ox, Deer, Sheep.
6. PACHYDERMATA (Thick skinned) Horse, Elephant.
7. CETACEA (Whale-like) Whale, Porpoise.
8. CARNIVORA (Flesh-eating) Lion, Tiger.
9. INSECTIVORA (Insect-eating) Mole, Hedgehog.
10. CHEIROPTERA (Hand-winged) Bat.
11. QUADRUMANA (Four-handed) Monkey, Ape.
12. BIMANA (Two-handed) Man.
These twelve orders of the class "Mammalia," of the division
"Vertebrata," (as their names imply), have their peculiarities, such as
fit them to their modes of life, as, the medium in which they live, the
climate, the food they eat, and the manner of obtaining it. They have
all the five special senses, sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch,
but very differently developed in respect to power. Yet, as a whole,
they maintain a similitude. They have all internal skeletons, and each
part of this skeleton exists in all, but modified to suit different
purposes. They have all the peculiar attributes of the "Mammalia," such
as suckling their young, being born alive, having four extremities,
warm blood, respiration by lungs, and a heart with two auricles and two
ventricles.