direction of emancipating the Spanish people from the thraldom of
the _gremios_ is contained in the royal _cedula_ of May 17th, 1790,
abolishing several of the noxious prerogatives which had hitherto
been enjoyed by the families of master-craftsmen. A further crown
decree, dated the same month and year, empowered the Audiencias and
Chancillerías to authorize persons to pursue a craft (provided they
were reasonably competent) without the necessity of approval from
the _gremios_ and their _veedores_. Three years later, the same
monarch (Charles the Fourth) suppressed the _gremios_ and
_colegios_ of the silk-twisters, and declared this craft to be open
to all such persons, of either sex, as wished to practise it. In
1797 it was permitted to all foreigners who should be competent in
any art or industry (except Jews) to establish themselves in Spain
or her dominions, nor were they to be molested in their religious
theories if they should happen not to be Roman Catholics.
At a later time the Cortes annulled, or very nearly so, the
_ordenanzas_ of the _gremios_, and allowed the exercise of any
lawful trade or craft to everybody, Spaniards and foreigners alike,
without the requisite of special license or examination, or
approval by the officers of the guilds (decree of June 8th, 1813).
This measure was revoked in 1815, but again became law in 1836, and
two years before this latter date was issued the decree of Queen
María Cristina prohibiting associations which, under the semblance
of a _gremio_, should aim at converting any craft or office into a
monopoly.
The Spanish _gremios_ still exist, but all their sting has
departed. To-day they may be said to spring from the natural and
beneficial interdependence of persons working together in the same
groove, and seeking mutual support by means of peaceable
association. Thus the abuses which rendered them so terrible and
evil in the olden time are fortunately now no more.
"Every fraternity is governed by a mayor and court of aldermen, who make
laws, sit in judgment on offenders, and claim in many cases exemption
from the common tribunals of the country. None but the members of these
communities may exercise mechanic arts, or be concerned in trade; and to
be admitted as a member is both attended with a heavy fine, and entails
upon each individual a constant annual expense.
"This, however, is not the greatest evil, for the mayor and officers,
during their year of service, not only neglect their own affairs, but
from vanity and ostentation run into expenses, such as either ruin their
families, or at least straiten them exceedingly in trade.
"These corporations, being established in the cities, banish, by their
oppressive laws, all the mechanic arts from towns and villages. In the
cities likewise they tend only to monopoly, by limiting the numbers in
every branch of business, and fixing within unreasonable bounds the
residence of those who are concerned in trade. This they do either by
assigning the distance between shop and shop, under pretence that two
shops vending the same commodities must not be so near together as to
interfere, or by assembling all the mechanics of the same profession,
such as silversmiths, and confining them to one street or quarter of the
city, under the plausible pretext that thus the proper magistrate may
with ease pay attention to their work, and see that the due standard be
observed.[82]
[82] This custom was borrowed from the East, and explains why, in many
of the older Spanish cities, a number of their streets have taken
their title from the trades that formerly were plied in them, or
(in some instances) that still are so. Especially was this the case
at Valencia and Toledo. In the latter capital there are, or used to
be, the streets, _plazas_, or _barrios_, of the silversmiths,
armourers, bakers, old-clothes vendors, potters, esparto-weavers,
dyers, chairmakers, and many more. Martín Gamero, in his excellent
_History of Toledo_ (Introduction, p. 60), says that in the centre
of the city were located the quiet crafts, such as those of the
jewellers, silversmiths, chandlers, and clog-makers, as well as
the shops of the silk, brocade, and tissue-vendors. Noisy trades,
such as the swordsmiths', tinsmiths', boiler-makers', chairmakers',
and turners', were practised on the outskirts of the town.
"In many cases the various _gremios_ bear hard upon each other. Thus,
for instance, the carpenter must not employ his industry on mahogany, or
any other wood but deal, nor must he invade the province of the turner.
The turner must confine his ingenuity and labour to soft wood, and must
not presume to touch either ivory or metals, even though he should be
reduced to poverty for want of work. The wheeler, in similar distress,
must not, however qualified, extend his operations beyond the appointed
bounds, so as to encroach on the business of the coach-maker, who is
equally restrained from either making or mending either cart or waggon
wheels. The barber may shave, draw teeth, and bleed, but he must not
fill up his leisure time with making wigs.[83] As mechanics are obliged
to keep exactly each to his several line, so must shopkeepers confine
themselves to their proper articles in trade, and under no pretence must
the manufacturer presume to open magazines, that he may sell by retail.
[83] Colmeiro has published _memoriales_ presented by the hatters of
Zaragoza, in which they pray to be allowed to line, by their own
hands, or by those of their wives, the hats which they had
manufactured, instead of being required to give up this finishing
and accessorial process to the makers of silk cord.--_Historia de
la Economía Política en España_, and _Biblioteca de los economistas
españoles de los siglos XVI., XVII., y XVIII_.
"But neither are these abuses the only evils which call for reformation.
Many corporations have been impertinently meddling, and have absurdly
bound the hands of the manufacturer by regulations with respect to the
conduct of his business and the productions of his art, such as, being
too rigidly observed, would preclude all improvements, and would be
destructive to his trade, by giving to foreigners a manifest advantage
in favour of their merchandise.[84]
[84] This meddlesomeness almost exceeds belief. It was at its worst,
perhaps, in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, who decreed that
the wicks of candles were to be made of the same kind of tow, and
horse-shoes and nails to be of the same weight in every part of
their dominions. It was required that machines, which might have
been to great advantage moved by mules or horses, should only be
worked by the hand of man, however lengthy and exhausting this
might prove. The Count of Torreánaz, who quotes these ridiculous
dispositions from the _Libro de bulas y pragmáticas_ of Juan
Ramírez, further recalls that, as late as the middle of the
eighteenth century, costly woven stuffs of Seville and Valencia
used to be confiscated because, although the ground of the fabric
was of a colour which the law allowed, the flowers or other devices
which formed the decoration were of a forbidden shade. On one
occasion the chief lady-in-waiting of the queen was prohibited from
wearing a dress which she had ordered from a weaver of Valencia,
because the flowered pattern was contrary to the _ordenanzas_.
"The incorporated fraternities in the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon are
25,581, and their corporate expenses amount to 11,687,861 reals. Their
revenue is not altogether consumed in feasting, nor in salaries to
officers, nor in pensions to their widows, nor yet in lawsuits, which
are said to be both numerous and expensive; but considerable sums are
expended for religious purposes, in procuring masses to be said, either
for departed spirits and the souls in Purgatory, or for the benefit of
the fraternity in which each individual has a proportionable interest.
For this reason, these communities enjoy the protection of the
ecclesiastical courts, to which, in cases of necessity, they frequently
appeal.
"The chartered corporations claim their exclusive privileges by royal
grant, and on this plea they resist a formation, not considering, as
Count Campomanes with propriety remarks, the essential condition of
these grants, _Sin perjuicio de tercero_, or that nothing therein
contained shall be to the _prejudice of others_, or injurious to the
citizens at large."
APPENDIX I
CLASSES OF POTTERY MADE AT ALCORA
(From RIAÑO's _Industrial Arts in Spain_)
Towards the middle of the eighteenth century:--
Vases of different shapes.
Small pots (Chinese fashion).
Teapots and covers (Chinese fashion).
Cruets, complete sets (Chinese style).
Entrée dishes.
Salt-cellars (Chinese style).
_Escudillas_ (bowls), of Constantinople.
_Barquillos_ (sauce bowls), Chinese style.
Bottles (in the Chinese manner).
Cups, plates, and saucers of different kinds, with good painted borders
in imitation of lace-work (_puntilla_). Some were designed in the
Chinese manner, and especial care was taken with fruit-stands,
salad-bowls, and dishes.
Trays and refrigerators.
A document, discovered by Riaño, and dated 1777, says that in that year
the following kinds of pottery were manufactured at Alcora:--
_Figures of Demi-Porcelain._
Figures of tritons.
" of soldiers (two sizes).
" of soldiers, one-third of a _palmo_ high.
" of the four seasons (two sizes).
" of dancers.
" of tritons in the form of children.
" with brackets.
" of different animals.
" of gardener and female companion in the Dresden style.
Dancing figures in the German style.
Figures of Neptune.
" of shepherd and shepherdess.
" of the Moorish king, Armenius.
" of the four parts of the world (two sizes).
" of peasant and his wife.
Small figures holding musical instruments.
Figures representing different monarchies.
" representing historical personages.
" representing the history of Alexander the Great (two sizes).
" representing Martius Curtius (two sizes).
" of elephants.
" of a man mounted on an elephant.
" representing Chinese figures.
" of Heliogabalus.
" of a general on horseback.
" of a grenadier supporting a candlestick.
Large figures representing Julius Cæsar.
Figures representing the different costumes worn in Spain, on brackets.
Groups of Chinese figures.
Snuff-boxes, sugar-basins, inkstands.
Rabbits, horns, and pug-dogs for holding scent.
Small scent-bottles.
Needle-cases.
Large vases with foot and cover.
Brackets.
Walking-stick handles.
Knife handles.
_Figures of white Biscuit China._
Figures representing Spanish costumes (two sizes).
Groups of two figures.
Large and small figures of the four parts of the world.
Figures of the four seasons (two sizes).
We find also, says Riaño, the following figures of painted and glazed
porcelain:--
Four seasons (two sizes).
Groups of two figures.
Figure of a Moorish king.
" of musicians and huntsmen.
" of peasants.
" of Chinese.
Small figures of a gardener and female companion.
Figures of soldiers in the German style.
From 1789 to 1797, continues Riaño, the following kinds of pottery were
made at Alcora:--
Hard paste porcelain (French).
Porcelain of three different kinds called Spanish.
Porcelain of pipeclay (English).
Blue pipeclay porcelain.
Marbled pipeclay porcelain.
_Bucaros_, painted and gilt.
Strasburg ware.
Porcelain painted _en froid_.
Marbled and gilt wares, hitherto unknown.
_Porcelain (Frita)._
Porcelain painted with gilt lines.
" painted without gold.
" (_frita_), canary colour.
Boxes in relief.
" plain.
Porcelain (_frita_), painted with marble wares.
Plain boxes of the same kind.
Porcelain (_frita_), of blue and brown ground.
Cups and saucers of a similar kind.
_Biscuit Porcelain._
Figures.
Vases.
Pedestals.
White porcelain (_frita_) cups of different kinds.
" porcelain, ornamented and plain.
Boxes with busts.
Boxes with ornamentations in relief.
Vases for holding flowers, plates, etc.
Large figures of the four seasons.
Flower vases with rams' heads.
Plain boxes.
Boxes with ornaments in relief.
_White Porcelain._
Plates, cups, etc.
Figures of different kinds.
_Painted Porcelain._
Cups, saucers, plates, etc.
Cream-pots.
Plain snuff-boxes, or in the shape of a dog.
Fruit-stands in relief.
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INDEX