[457] Colajanni, op. cit., pp. 177, 178; Braun, “Berliner

Wohnungsverhältnisse”, p. 22; Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 290–292;

Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, pp. 205–208 and 217; Vandervelde, “Die

ökonomischen Faktoren des Alkoholismus”, p. 747.

[458] P. 533.

[459] Zerboglio, op. cit., p. 125. See also Verhaeghe, “De

l’alcoolisation”, p. 212; Colajanni, op. cit., pp. 181, 182.

[460] See upon this subject Colajanni, op. cit., pp. 168, 169;

Verhaeghe, op. cit., pp. 222, 223; Holst, op. cit., p. 528.

[461] Pp. 75, 76. See also Colajanni, op. cit., pp. 169–173; Grotjahn,

op. cit., pp. 289–298; Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, pp. 225–227.

[462] Holst, op. cit., pp. 534, 535.

[463] Kautsky, “Der Alkoholismus und seine Bekämpfung” (“Neue Zeit”,

1890–91, II); Vandervelde, “Het alkoholisme en de arbeidsvoorwaarden in

België,” pp. 268, 271, 272; Holst, op. cit., pp. 528–536.

[464] See, among others, Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 296–298.

[465] “Condition of the Working Class”, pp. 102, 103 [in original pp.

105, 106]. See also: Ducpetiaux, “De la condition physique et morale

des jeunes ouvriers”, I, pp. 352 ff.; Battaglia, “La dinamica del

delitto”, pp. 415–417.

[466] “De la prostitution dans la ville de Paris”, I, p. 139.

[467] “Zur Kenntnis des grossstädtischen Bettel- und Vagabondentums.

Zweiter Beitrag: Prostituirte”, p. 119 (“Zeitsch. f. d. ges. Strw.”,

XXIII). See also: Logan, “The Great Social Evil”, pp. 55–56, 59;

Ladame, “De la prostitution dans ses rapports avec l’alcoolisme, le

crime et la folie”, pp. 7–14; Colajanni, op. cit., p. 179; Lombroso and

Ferrero, “La femme criminelle et la prostituée”, p. 538.

[468] Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, p. 211; see also Colajanni, op.

cit., p. 183; and Kautsky, op. cit., p. 50.

[469] Pp. 50, 51. See also Battaglia, op. cit., pp. 418–420, and

Zerboglio, op. cit., p. 125.

[470] “Ergebnisse einer Umfrage über den Alkoholgenuss der Schulkinder

in Nieder-Oesterreich”, p. 82. See also Ducpetiaux, op. cit., pp.

367–370.

[471] See Baer, op. cit., pp. 144, 145; Colajanni, op. cit., pp.

139–142; Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 178, 179; Verhaeghe, “De

l’alcoolisation”, pp. 209–211; Vandervelde, “Die ökonomischen Faktoren

des Alkoholismus”, pp. 741, 742.

[472] Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 300, 301.

[473] Holst, op. cit., p. 530.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further upon alcoholism among the

Jews, Dr. L. Cheinisse, “Die Rassenpathologie und der Alkoholismus bei

den Juden.”]

[474] Vandervelde, “Die ökonomischen Faktoren des Alkoholismus”, pp.

742, 743.

[475] See Zerboglio, op. cit., pp. 125–127; Grotjahn, op. cit., pp.

149–155; Verhaeghe, op. cit., pp. 187–189.

[476] This has actually happened, certain distilleries in the whisky

trust being closed to increase the profits.

[477] See Vandervelde, “Het alcoholisme en de arbeidsvoorwaarden in

België”, p. 268.

[478] See Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 219–221.

[479] See Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 5–12.

[480] Grotjahn, op. cit., p. 9. See also: Hirschfeld, “Die historische

Entwicklung des Alkoholmissbrauchs” (VIII Intern. Cong. gegen den

Alkoholismus).

[481] The assertion that the Germans were addicted to alcohol before

the invasion is erroneous. Agriculture was not sufficiently developed

among these peoples for a regular consumption of alcohol. See Kautsky,

op. cit., pp. 46, 47, and Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 13–15.

[482] See Kautsky, op. cit., p. 47, and Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 20 ff.

[483] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. upon the whole subject of this

chapter: J. Makarewicz, “Einführung in die Philosophie des

Strafrechts.”]

[484] [The author disregards the legal distinction between the words

crime and délit as being “without interest in a sociological work.” The

latter word will appear in this translation as “misdemeanor” or

“offense” according to the context.—Transl.]

[485] See upon this subject: Post, “Die Geschlechtsgenossenschaft der

Urzeit und die Entstehen der Ehe”, p. 156; Steinmetz, “Ethnologische

Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe”, I, pp. 365 ff.; Makarewicz,

“L’évolution de la peine”, p. 137 (“Archives d’Anthropologie

Criminelle”, XIII). Upon the vengeance of blood see especially Kohler,

“Shakespeare vor dem Forum der Jurisprudenz.”

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. also H. Berkusky, “Die Blutrache”

(“Zeitschr. f. Socialwissenschaft”, XII).]

[486] The so-called offenses of omission are so few and unimportant

that they may be left out of account.

[487] Albrecht, “Actes du Ier congrès d’anthr. crim.”, pp. 110 ff.;

Battaglia, “La dinamica del delitto”, pp. 201, 202; “Genesi e funzione

delle leggi penali”, pp. 211, 212; Manouvrier, “Genèse normale du

crime”, pp. 451, 452 (see also Part One of the present work, on

Manouvrier); Näcke, “Verbrechen und Wahnsinn beim Weibe”, p. 96.

[488] A. H. Post, “Bausteine für eine allgemeine Rechtswissenschaft”,

I, p. 224.

[489] Steinmetz, “L’ethnologie et l’anthropologie criminelle” (“Compte

rendu du Ve Cong. d’anthr. crim.”, p. 105).

[490] It is unnecessary to treat of the origin of punishment. For this

subject the works of Steinmetz and Makarewicz already cited may be

consulted, together with Westermarck’s “Der Ursprung der Strafe”

(“Zeitschrift für Socialwissenschaft”, 1900).

[491] [Note to the American Edition: Recent works of importance are: P.

Kropotkin, “Mutual Aid”; L. T. Hobhouse, “Morals in Evolution”; K.

Kautsky, “Ethik und Materialistische Geschichtsauffassung”; E.

Westermarck, “Ursprung und Entwicklung der Moralbegriffe.”]

[492] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. Ch. Vallon and G.

Genil-Perrin, “Crime et altruisme” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.” XXVIII).]

[493] See, among others, Spencer, “Principles of Sociology”, I, p. 79,

where he says “Sociality, strong in the civilized man, is less strong

in the savage man.”

[494] Chap. iv, pp. 97–99. See also Kautsky, “Die sozialen Triebe in

der Tierwelt” (“Neue Zeit”, 1883); Letourneau, “L’évolution de la

morale”, pp. 59–64; and Kropotkin, “Mutual Aid among Animals”

(“Nineteenth Century”, 1890).

[495] “Eskimo Life”, p. 101.

[496] Op. cit., p. 106.

[497] Op. cit., p. 158.

[498] Op. cit., p. 187.

[499] Op. cit., II, pp. 342, 343.

[500] “Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the

North American Indians”, pp. 9, 10.

[501] “Ancient Society”, pp. 85, 86.

[502] “Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines.” For the facts

with regard to the North American Indians east of the Rocky Mountains,

see Waitz, op. cit., III, pp. 160 ff.

[503] “The Malay Archipelago”, II, p. 283; see also Waitz, op. cit.,

III; Spencer, “Descriptive Sociology”, No. 6 (“American Races”), pp.

31, 32.

[504] Pp. 225, 226.

[505] “L’ethnologie et l’anthropologie criminelle”, pp. 100, 101.

[506] “Tableau des origines et de l’évolution de la famille et de la

propriété”, p. 56. See also Kautsky, “Die sozialen Triebe in der

Menschenwelt” (“Neue Zeit”, 1884); and Kropotkin, “Mutual Aid among

Savages” (“Nineteenth Century”, 1891), and “Mutual Aid among the

Barbarians” (ibid., 1892).

[507] See Morgan, “Ancient Society”, p. 505.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon the origin of slavery cf. H. J.

Nieboer: “Slavery as an Industrial System.”]

[508] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. Kautsky, op. cit., pp. 99,

100.]

[509] See Maine, op. cit., pp. 227, 228.

[510] P. 50.

[511] See Kautsky, “Die sozialen Triebe in der Menschenwelt”, and also

“Die Indianerfrage” (“Neue Zeit”, 1885) by the same author.

[512] See Steinmetz, “Classification des types sociaux et catalogue des

peuples” (“Année sociologique”, III).

[513] Upon the dualism of ethics see: Kulischer, “Der Dualismus der

Ethik bei den primitiven Völkern” (“Zeitschr. f. Ethnologie”, 1885);

Kropotkin, “Mutual Aid among Savages”, pp. 558, 559; Kovalewsky, “Les

origines du devoir”, pp. 85 ff. (“Revue internationale de sociologie”,

II).

[514] See Sutherland, op. cit., I, x, for example, and compare

Letourneau, “L’évolution de la morale”, p. 55.

[515] In the discussion which follows I have made large use of

Kautsky’s “Die sozialen Triebe in der Tierwelt.”

[516] See Galton, “Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development”,

pp. 68–82.

[517] See Darwin, “Descent of Man”, p. 102; Sutherland, op. cit., I, x;

Ammon, “Der Ursprung der sozialen Triebe” (“Zeitschr. f.

Socialwissenschaft” IV); H. Schultz, “Altersklassen und Männerbünde”,

I, 2.

[518] See the quotation from Darwin earlier in this section, in which

he speaks of cases of self-sacrifice among animals.

[519] I make great use here of Kautsky’s “Die sozialen Triebe in der

Menschenwelt.”

[520] See Darwin, “Descent of Man”, p. 105.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon the social origin of man see

Müller-Lyer, “Die Familie”, pp. 12 ff.]

[521] “Die sozialen Triebe in der Tierwelt”, p. 27.

[522] See Darwin, “Descent of Man”, pp. 95, 96, 106.

[523] See Maine, “Village Communities”, p. 68.

[524] Dargun, “Egoismus und Altruismus in der Nationalökonomie”, pp.

100, 101.

[525] See Dargun, op. cit., p. 34.

[526] See Letourneau, “L’évolution de la propriété”, pp. 72–75.

[527] See Kropotkin, “Mutual Aid among Savages”, pp. 552, 553; and

Sutherland, op. cit., I, vi.

[528] See Kropotkin, op. cit., pp. 553, 554.

[529] Pp. 335, 336.

[530] Compare Morgan, “Ancient Society”, p. 527.

[531] See Dargun, “Egoismus und Altruismus in der Nationalökonomie”,

pp. 36, 37; Jhering, “Der Zweck im Recht”, I, p. 117.

[532] Lassalle, “Die Feste, die Presse und der Frankfurter

Abgeordnetentag”, II, p. 646; Schäffle, “Bau und Leben des sozialen

Körpers”, I, pp. 461–466, and IV, pp. 68–70; Mandl, “Die Wiener

Presskorruption” (“Neue Zeit”, 1884); Stern, “Einfluss der sozialen

Zustände auf alle Zweige des Kulturlebens”, pp. 33–37.

[533] P. Moreau (of Tours), “L’homicide commis par les enfants”, p. 80;

Cuénoud, “La criminalité à Genève au XIXe siècle”, pp. 93–96; Aubry,

“La contagion du meurtre”, pp. 84–106; “De l’influence contagieuse de

la publicité des faits criminels” (“Archives d’anthropologie

criminelle”, VIII); Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 106, 107

and 282, 283; Lombroso, “Crime, its Causes and Remedies”, pp. 54, 55.

[Note to the American Edition: Besides the influence of the sensational

press, and harmful literature, we must now mention the cinematograph.

From the literature upon the whole subject we select the following: S.

Türkel, “Einfluss der Lektüre auf die Delikte phantastischer

jugendlicher Psychopathen” (“Archiv f. Krim. anthr. u. Krim.” XLII); S.

Sighele, “Littérature et criminalité”, chap. v; M. Homburger, “Der

Einfluss der Schundlitteratur auf jugendliche Verbrecher und

Selbstmörder” (“Monatschr. f. Krim. Psych. und Straf.”, VI); F. Fenton,

“The Influence of Newspaper Presentations upon the Growth of Crime and

Other Anti-social Activity”; A. Hellwig, “Die Beziehungen zwischen

Schundlitteratur, Schundfilms, und Verbrechen” (“Archiv f. Krim. anthr.

u. Krim.”, LI); Meyer, “Schundlitteratur und Schundfilm” (“Arch. f.

Krim. anthr. u. Krim.”, LIII).]

[534] P. 242.

[535] “Fürsorgeerziehung” (Woche V, No. 51).

[536] From “Crimineele Statistiek” for the years given, and “Uitkomsten

der achtste tienjaarlijksche volkstelling” and “Uitkomsten der

beroepstelling van 1899.”

[537] This number is below the reality; they have classed among persons

without trade those whose trade was unknown.

[538] [Note to the American Edition: For North America cf. Fehlinger,

“Erwerbsarbeit und Kriminalität von Kindern u. Frauen in den

Vereinigten Staaten.”]

[539] See “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1898”, I, pp. 52 ff., and

“Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni

1890–1895”, pp. xlix, l.

[540] [Note to the American Edition: For Germany the

“Kriminalstatistik” of 1891, 1901, and 1902 contain data upon this

point; see II, p. 32. For Austria, cf. Herz, “Verbrechen und

Verbrechertum in Oesterreich”, pp. 121 ff.]

[541] “Die berufliche und soziale Gliederung des Deutschen Volkes nach

der Berufszählung vom 14 Juni, 1895” (“Stat. des Deutschen Reichs. Neue

Folge”, Band 111).

[542] Op. cit., pp. 143 and 144.

[543] “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1896. Erläuterungen”, I, pp. 22,

23.

[544] [Note to the American Edition: Juvenile criminality in Germany

increased up to 1906, when a fairly regular decrease began. The law

upon the “Fürsorgeerziehung” dates from the beginning of the century.]

[545] Calculated from the work cited, I, pp. 18–21.

[546] “Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich”, 1896, p. 5.

[547] Morrison, “Juvenile Offenders”, p. 5.

[548] [Note to the American Edition: According to recent statistics

juvenile delinquency in England has decreased rather than increased.]

[549] “Judicial Statistics, England and Wales, Part I, Criminal

Statistics, 1899”, p. 64.

[550] The “Summary Jurisdiction Act” gives the English judges the right

not to convict, even though the proof may be sufficient, when they deem

the offense not grave enough. 20% of those so discharged are added to

the figures to allow for this.

[551] Op. cit., p. 65.

[552] P. L., “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate

vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899.”

[553] [Note to the American Edition: After the period cited juvenile

crime in Austria has increased further. Cf. Herz, op. cit., pp. 107 ff.

See also Hoegel, “Die Grenzen der Kriminalstatistik”, pp. 414 ff.]

[554] Op. cit., pp. l–li.

[555] Calculated from “Administration de la Justice criminelle et

civile de la Belgique, période de 1881–1885. Résumé statistique”, p.

81.

[Note to the American Edition: In Belgium no criminal statistics

appeared from 1886 to 1897. For the period after 1898 see Jacquart, “La

criminalité belge.” Here there appears rather a decrease than an

increase of juvenile delinquency for this period.]

[556] Figured from p. cix, Table No. 3 of the “Rapport sur

l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881 à 1900.” (Compte

général de l’administration de la justice criminelle pendant l’année

1900.)

[557] Figured from op. cit., p. cxvi, Table No. 8.

[558] See Grosmolard, “Criminalité juvénile” (“Archives d’anthr.

crim.”, XVIII), and Albanel, “Le crime dans la famille”, p. 194.

[559] [Note to the American Edition: Upon France cf. especially Dr. G.

Jacquetty, “Étude statistique de la criminalité juvénile en France.”

According to this study the crimes of minors under 16 years of age have

remained stationary as regards crimes against persons, and have

decreased as regards crimes against property; misdemeanors, however,

have increased. The crimes committed by minors between 16 and 20 have

remained the same in comparison with the criminality of adults; on the

other hand there has been a constant increase of misdemeanors. The

increase of crimes and misdemeanors of violence committed at this age

has been considerable. See also: G. L. Duprat, “La criminalité dans

l’adolescence.”]

[560] According to the “Compte Général de l’administration de la

justice criminelle pendant l’année 1900”, p. 32, Table XVI.

[561] According to op. cit., p. 54, Table XXIX.

[562] “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1899”, p. cxvii.

[563] “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli

anni 1890–1895”, p. xli. In the period from 1896–1900 juvenile

criminality increased further in a striking manner.

[564] Op. cit., p. xlvii.

[565] I have not been able to get data for the United States. The

American criminologist, A. Drähms, says that the criminality of the

young is increasing in the United States (“The Criminal”, p. 279), and

W. D. Morrison makes a similar statement (“Juvenile Offenders”, p. 17).

[566] From “De Gerechtelijke Statistiek van het Koninkrijk der

Nederlanden” for the years 1896 to 1899, and from “Bijdragen tot de

Statistiek van Nederland, Nieuwe volgreeks XVII, XXVII. Crimineele

statistiek over de jaren 1900 en 1901.”

[567] Taken from “Crimineele Statistiek over het jaar 1901.” In the

criminal statistics of the Netherlands the system was changed in 1901.

Before this year convictions were counted, and from that year on,

individuals convicted.

[568] See also Ducpetiaux, “De la condition physique et morale des

jeunes ouvriers”, Bk. I, ch. 2; Starke, “Verbrechen und Verbrecher in

Preussen”, pp. 210, 211; Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 144

ff., 177–185; “Entartete Mütter” and “Schlaue und glückliche

Verbrecher”, pp. 443, 444, 458–475; Agahd, “Die Erwerbsthätigkeit

schulpflichtiger Kinder im Deutschen Reiche” (“Archiv für soziale

Gesetzgebung und Statistik”, XII); Struntz, “Die erwerbsmässige

Kinderarbeit und die Schule” (“Neue Zeit”, 1898–1899, I); Dix, “Die

Jugendlichen in der Sozial- und Kriminalpolitik”; Albanel, “Le crime

dans la famille”, pp. 41–43; Aschaffenburg, “Das Verbrechen und seine

Bekämpfung”, pp. 119–123; Joly, “L’enfance coupable”, pp. 24, 25, 126.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. the following recent works:

Baernreither, op. cit., passim; P. Pollitz, “Die Psychologie des

Verbrechers”, pp. 112 ff.; Duprat, op. cit., pp. 125 ff.; M. Homburger,

“Ueber den Zusammenhang zwischen den Zahlen der in den Fabriken

beschäftigten Personen unter 18 Jahren und der Zahl der Verbrechen

solcher Personen”; H. W. Gruhle, “Die Ursachen der jugendlichen

Verwahrlosung und Kriminalität”, pp. 104 ff.]

[569] See also Engels, “The Condition of the Working Class in England,”

pp. 118, 119.

[570] See: Brace, “The Dangerous Classes of New York”, pp. 51 ff.; O.

S., “Die Verbrecherwelt von Berlin”, pp. 120 ff. (“Zeitschr. f. d.

gesammte Strafrechtswissenschaft”, V); Földes, “Einige Ergebnisse der

neueren Kriminalstatistik”, p. 548 (ibid., XI); Lux, “Sozialpolitisches

Handbuch”, pp. 58 ff.; Philippovich, “Wiener Wohnungsverhältnisse”, p.

264 (“Archiv für soziale Gesetzgebung und Statistik”, VI); Dix,

“Sozial-Moral”, pp. 15–18; Ferriani, “Schlaue und glückliche

Verbrecher”, pp. 444 ff.; Liszt, “Das Verbrechen als

sozial-pathologische Erscheinung”, p. 22; Th. Holmes, “Pictures and

Problems from London Police Courts”, pp. 70 ff.; Albanel, op. cit., pp.

11 ff.; Aschaffenburg, op. cit., p. 115.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Baernreither, op. cit., passim.]

[571] P. 10.

[572] P. 12.

[573] P. 12.

[574] See Laspeyres, pp. 86–91.

[575] Laspeyres, op. cit., pp. 19 and 21.

[576] See Engels, “Condition of the Working Class in England”, pp. 76

ff.

[577] “Condition of the Working Class in England”, p. 116.

[578] For the different opinions see Dr. L. DelBaere, “De invloed van

opvoeding en onderwijs op de criminaliteit”, pp. 23 ff., and Földes,

“Einige Ergebnisse der neueren Kriminalstatistik”, pp. 552–559

(“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.” XI).

[579] The figures for prisoners are from Drähms, “The Criminal”, p. 74;

those in the last column from “The Statesman’s Year-Book”, 1902, p.

1203.

[580] From “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate

vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. xlviii.

[581] Taken from the “Judicial Statistics of England and Wales”, Part

I, Criminal Statistics, 1894–1900. The last two columns are taken from

“The Statesman’s Year-Book”, 1892, p. 39.

[582] Figured from the table F. A II of the “Ergebnisse der

Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und

Ländern”, 1899. The number of illiterates in the total population 16

and over, was about 24%.

[583] Taken from Jacquart, op. cit., p. 104.

[584] “Statesman’s Year Book”, 1910, p. 31.

[585] The last two columns are taken from “l’Annuaire Statistique de la

France,” xvi ff.; the others from the “Statistique pénitentiaire,”

1882–1898.

[586] From 1886 to 1891 women and men are reported together under this

heading.

[587] After Table XXIV of the “Report of the Judicial Statistics of

Scotland for the Year 1910.”

[588] “Rapport sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881 à

1900.”

[589] “Judicial Statistics, Ireland”, 1905, I, “Criminal Statistics,”

p. 24.

[590] The last two columns are taken from the “Annuario Statistico

Italiano”, 1900, p. 214; the others from the “Statistica giudiziaria

penale”, 1881 to 1889.

[591] Men playing a larger part in crime than women, I have thought it

well to give the figures for illiterate men also.

[592] Figured from Table XXVIII of the “Statistica giudiziaria penale”,

1889.]

[593] From the “Year-Book of the New York State Reformatory”, for the

years in question. In “The Dangerous Classes of New York” (p. 32),

Brace mentions that in 1870 about 31% of the adult criminals in the

State of New York were illiterate, while of the adult non-criminals of

the population only 6.08% were illiterate.

[594] Taken from the “Jaarcijfers voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden.

Rijk in Europa”, 1901, p. 47.

[595] de Roos, op. cit., p. 108.

[596] Figured from Table II of the “Crimineele Statistiek”, 1900.

[597] Evert, “Zur Statistik rückfälliger Verbrecher in Preussen”

(“Zeitschr. des Kön. Preuss. Stat. Bureaus”, XXXIX), p. 197; the last

figure from “Stat. Jahrb. f. d. Deutsche Reich”, 1896, 1897, and 1898.

[598] “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der

Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 38 (“Schweizerische Statistik”, Pt. 125).

[599] Ibid.

[600] [Note to the American Edition: Upon the Balkan states see Wadler,

op. cit., pp. 176 ff.]

[601] Taken from “Statistica giudiziaria penale”, 1887, 1888, 1889.

[602] Figured from Table XXVIII of the “Statistica giudiziaria penale”,

1889.

[603] From “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate

vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. xlviii.

[604] Figured from Table F. a. II in “Die Ergebnisse der

Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate vertretenen Königreichen und

Ländern im Jahre 1899.”

[605] [“Fortune” here has not exactly the connotation of our English

word, but as “money” and “property” would be equally inexact it seems

better to keep the author’s term. Transl.]

[606] [Note to the American Edition: Upon Austria cf. Herz, op. cit.,

pp. 8 ff.]

[607] Figured from the table on p. 199 of Evert’s “Zur Statistik

rückfälliger Verbrecher in Preussen.”

[608] From “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik

während der Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 37.

[609] Concerning Hungary Prof. Földes says (without giving the year)

that 92% of the crimes are committed by persons without fortune, while

these represent only 85% of the population in general (“Einige

Ergebnisse der neueren Kriminalstatistik”, Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.,

XI, p. 545).

[Note to the American Edition: Upon the Balkan States cf. Wadler, op.

cit., pp. 164 ff.]

[610] Taken from Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität”

(Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw. XXII). The figures for criminality are

the average figures for the years 1894–1896. The figures for the

occupations are those of the census of occupations of June 14, 1895.

[611] Servants only.

[612] Taken from “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1896” (Erläuterungen)

II, pp. 38, 39.

[613] This category includes the unskilled workmen, as the author of

this table says himself, this heading is not very exact, since it

includes those who without following a fixed occupation call themselves

working-men.

[Note to the American Edition: The “Kriminalstatistik 1908” gives the

statistics of the criminality of the different occupations, figured

from the census of occupations of 1907.]

[614] Pp. 585, 586.

[615] Figured from the “Judicial Statistics, England and Wales, Pt. I

Criminal Statistics”, 1894–1900.

[Note to the American Edition: The English Criminal Statistics for 1905

contain a table upon the occupations of prisoners convicted during the

years 1896–1905.]

[616] From the “Rapport au Président de la république française sur

l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881 à 1900”, p. xxvi.

[617] From the “Statistique pénitentiaire”, 1890–1895.

[618] Furnishing trade only.

[619] Vagrants and prostitutes.

[620] “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli

anni 1890–1895”, p. lxi. As the calculations are based upon the census

of 1881 the accuracy of the table is not absolute.

[621] Op. cit., p. lxxxii.

[622] Op. cit., pp. lxxxiii–lxxxiv.

[623] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. the recent works upon the

relation between occupation and criminality: for Germany:

Aschaffenburg, op. cit., pp. 56 ff.; H. Lindenau, “Beruf und

Verbrechen”; Peterselie, op. cit., pp. 106 ff.; Wassermann, “Beruf,

Konfession, und Verbrechen”; Galle, op. cit., pp. 93 ff.; Stöwesand,

op. cit., pp. 99 ff.; for Austria: Hoegel, op. cit., pp. 449 ff.; and

pp. 134 ff.; for the Balkan States: Wadler, op. cit., pp. 137 ff.; for

the Netherlands: de Roos, op. cit., pp. 132 ff.; Verrijn Stuart, op.

cit. II, pp. 244 ff.; for France: G. Bertrin, “De la criminalité en

France dans les congrégations, le clergé et les principales

professions.”]

[624] “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate

vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. lxviii.

[625] Prinzing, “Der Einfluss der Ehe auf die Kriminalität des Mannes”,

p. 41; and “Die Erhöhung der Kriminalität des Weibes durch die Ehe”

(“Zeitschrift f. Sozialwissenschaft”, II), p. 437.

[626] “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli

anni 1890–1895”, p. lii.

[627] “Rapport au Président de la République française sur

l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881–1900”, p. xxiii.

[628] Figured from “Uitkomsten der achtste tienjaarlijksche

volkstelling”, and the “Gerechtelijke Statistiek over 1899.”

[629] “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der

Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 21.

[630] Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität”, pp. 556–557.

[631] “Der Einfluss der Ehe auf die Kriminalität des Mannes”, p. 42.

[632] Op. cit., p. 117. The figures for criminality are the average

figures for the years 1882–1893. They all give the number to 100,000

persons of each category.

[633] Op. cit., p. 117.

[634] Op. cit., p. 119.

[635] Op. cit., p. 111.

[636] Op. cit., p. 112.

[637] Op. cit., p. 109.

[638] Op. cit., p. 113.

[639] Op. cit., p. 114.

[640] Op. cit., p. 114.

[641] Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität”, p. 559.

[642] “Die Erhöhung der Kriminalität des Weibes durch die Ehe”, p. 437.

[643] This table and those which follow all belong to the period from

1882 to 1893, and are figured for 100,000 of each category. They are

taken from the work cited, pp. 438–444.

[644] [“Rebellion” has a wider significance in French than in English,

any violence to public officials being so designated. The word is

retained, however, for brevity.—Transl.]

[645] Cf. F. Prinzing, “Ueber frühzeitige Heiraten, deren Vorzüge und

Nachteile.” See also Durkheim, “Le suicide”, pp. 186 ff.

[646] P. 40.

[647] Note to the American Edition: Cf. the following recent works upon

the relation between marriage and criminality: for Germany:

Aschaffenburg, op. cit., pp. 139 ff.; Pollitz, op. cit., pp. 34 ff.;

for Austria: Hoegel, op. cit., pp. 16 ff.; Herz, op. cit., pp. 127 ff.;

for the Balkan States: Wadler, op. cit., pp. 128 ff.; for Belgium:

Jacquart, op. cit., pp. 80 ff.; for the Netherlands: de Roos, op. cit.,

pp. 122 ff. See further N. Muller, “Biografisch-aetiologisch onderzoek

over occidivie, etc.”

[648] “Kriminalstatistik f. d. Jahr 1896”, Erläuterungen, II, p. 33.

[649] [Note to the American Edition: The “Kriminalstatistik für das

Jahr 1903” contains very important data bearing upon the period

1882–1902, with regard to feminine criminality in Germany.]

[650] “Judicial Statistics, England and Wales, Pt. I, Criminal

Statistics, 1899”, p. 55, with separate calculations made for 1900.

[651] “The Statesman’s Yearbook, 1902”, p. 14.

[652] “Judicial Statistics, England and Wales, Criminal Statistics,

1894”, p. 19.

[653] “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate

vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. xlix.

[654] “Rapport au président de la république française sur

l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881–1900”, pp. xix, cxvi.

[655] Figured from “Compte général de l’administration de la justice

criminelle pendant l’année 1900”, pp. 30–31.

[656] Op. cit., pp. 54–62, Tab. XXIX.

[657] For the years 1884–1889 taken from the “Statistica giudiziaria

penale per l’anno 1889”, and for the years following from the “Notizie

complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli anni 1890–95.”

[658] The fact that a new penal code went into effect in 1890 makes a

noticeable change in the total figures.

[659] Op. cit., p. xxxvii.

[660] “Statesman’s Year Book”, 1910, p. 948.

[661] Taken from “de Gerechtelijke Statistiek van het Koninkrijk der

Nederlanden”, 1896–1899, and “de Crimineele Statistiek”, 1900. For more

detailed information upon the Netherlands see Loosjes, “Bijdrage tot de

studie van de criminaliteit der vrouw”, pp. 8–30.

[662] Figured from “Crimineele statistiek over het jaar 1901.”

[663] “Criminal Statistics, 1899”, p. 27. See in the same place the

reason for thinking that the figures quoted for the number of women

acquitted are too small. Morrison says that in England one woman in

four is acquitted, and one man in six. (“Juvenile Offenders”, p. 46.)

[664] “Rapport”, etc., p. xxxiv.

[665] Op. cit., p. lvi.

[666] See Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, II, p. 83; Földes, op.

cit., pp. 630, 631; and Morrison, op. cit., p. 46.

[667] “Criminal Statistics of England and Wales, 1899”, p. 54.

[668] Loosjes, op. cit., p. 50.

[669] Figured from Tables 23 and 24 of the “Rapport au président de la

république française”, etc.

[Note to the American Edition: Wadler tells us that in Servia the

percentage of feminine criminality is between 3.71 (1893) and 6.25

(1903); in Greece, about 2 (1899–1902); in Bulgaria, about 3.2

(1899–1906); in Bosnia and Herzegovina, between 5.07 (1899) and 6.69

(1902) (op. cit., pp. 94, 102–104). In Rumania, Minovici tells us, the

percentage is 2.42 (1874–1890).]

[670] “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1898”, II, p. 73.

[671] “Juvenile Offenders”, p. 47.

[672] “Die Straffälligkeit des Weibes”, p. 253 (Archiv f. Krim. Anthr.

u. Kriminalstatistik, V).

[673] Galicia, Western and Eastern separately.

[674] Tyrol and Vorarlberg separately.

[675] From “Kriminalstatistik”, 1888, 1894, 1896, 1898, and 1900.

[676] “Die Ergebnisse, etc.”, p. xlviii.

[677] [Note to the American Edition: Wadler points out that in the

Balkan States the percentage of feminine criminality is rapidly

increasing.]

[678] See Loosjes, op. cit., pp. 11, 12.

[679] See Loosjes, op. cit., p. 12, where he demonstrates that the

decrease in the percentage of female criminality is in great measure

due to the diminution of mendicity.

[Note to the American Edition: French and German statistics bearing

upon a long period show that the economic criminality of woman tends to

decrease, and that against persons to increase. The last fact

corresponds, therefore, with the thesis that the social situation of

woman explains her criminality. The first fact is explained perhaps by

the decrease of poverty resulting from the greater participation of

woman in the economic life.]

[680] For opinions of other authors see Loosjes, op. cit., pp. 75–108.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon feminine criminality in general see

further the following recent works: for Germany: Aschaffenburg, op.

cit., pp. 135 ff.; Wulffen, op. cit., I, pp. 402 ff., and II, pp. 258

ff.; O. Mönkemöller, “Korrektionsanstalt und Landarmenhaus”; Galle, op.

cit., pp. 68 ff.; Stöwesand, op. cit., pp. 23 ff.; Sauer, op. cit., pp.

57 ff. For Austria: Herr, “Die Kriminalität des Weibes nach den

Ergebnissen der neueren österreichischen Statistik” (“Archiv f. Krim.

anthr. u. Krim.”, XVIII), and op. cit., pp. 78 ff.; Hoegel, op. cit.,

pp. 410 ff. For the Balkan States: Wadler, op. cit., pp. 93 ff. For

Belgium: Jacquart, op. cit., pp. 67 ff. For France: C. Granier, “La

femme criminelle”; de Lanessan, op. cit., pp. 145 ff.; H. Lacaze, “De

la criminalité féminine en France”; H. Leale, “De la criminalité des

sexes” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.”, XXV). For the Netherlands: de Roos,

op. cit., pp. 76 ff.; Verrijn Stuart, op. cit., pp. 190 ff. For

Rumania: Minovici, op. cit. Upon female criminality in relation to

special occupations, see: R. de Rijcken, “La servante criminelle”.]

[681] Liszt, “Die gesellschaftlichen Ursachen des Verbrechens”. (See

discussion of this work in Pt. I of the present work.)

[682] P. 96, chap. IV.

[683] “Nos jeunes détenus”, pp. 24, 25.

[684] See what is said in criticism of Professor Ferri in Pt. I of this

work.

[685] “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, p. 34. See the whole section

“L’hypocrisie dans l’éducation” (pp. 29–49), where the author

criticises contemporary education severely.

[686] See Corre, “Crime et Suicide”, pp. 327, 328, and Ferriani,

“Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 284–295, 372, 373.

[687] There are other reasons for this, of course, besides better

education: the absence of poverty, pleasures within easy reach, etc.

[688] Taken from Morrison, “Juvenile Offenders”, p. 160.

[689] Morrison, op. cit., p. 159.

[690] Figured from “L’annuaire statistique de la France”, V–IX.

[691] Figured from the “Statistique pénitentiaire,” 1890–1895.

[692] Raux (“Nos jeunes détenus”) and Grosmolard (“Criminalité

juvénile”, p. 199) come to the same conclusion.

[693] “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 76 and 440.

[694] Plasz, “Fürsorgeerziehung” (Woche V, No. 51). According to the

statistics upon the “Fürsorgeerziehung” there were between 1901 and

1906 among the parents of the children on an average: 7.1% without

income, 71.5% with an income under 900 marks, 14.1% with an income

between 900 and 3000 marks, 0.1% between 3000 and 6000 marks, and 7.2%

with income unknown. See F. Frank, “Das Fürsorgeerziehungsgesetz in

Preussen” (“Neue Zeit”, XXVII, p. 460).

[695] L. Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, pp. 279–280.

[696] Op. cit., p. 320.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. W. Feld, “Die Kinder der in Fabriken

arbeitenden Frauen und ihre Verpflegung.”

[697] Braun, op. cit., p. 278.

[698] See Ducpetiaux, “De la condition physique et morale des jeunes

ouvriers”, pp. 199 ff., and Corre, “Crime et Suicide”, pp. 330–332.

[699] Op. cit., p. 9.

[700] In the following list I do not give the statistics for Germany as

a whole, as I have been able to procure them for certain states, only.

For Germany see: Näcke, “Verbrechen und Wahnsinn beim Weibe”, pp. 161,

162; von Liszt, “Das Verbrechen als sozial-pathologische Erscheinung”,

pp. 22, 23; W. Rein, “Jugendliches Verbrecherthum” (“Zeitschr. f.

Socialwissenschaft”, III); H. Wetzker, “Die Zunahme der Verbrechen”;

Aschaffenburg, op. cit., pp. 107–116; see also the section on Hirsch in

Pt. I of this work.

[Note to the American Edition: Besides the works of Neumann, Spann,

Pollitz, and Rühle, already cited, the following recent publications

must be named: Mönkemöller, “Zur Kriminalität des Kindesalters”

(“Archiv f. Krim. Anthrop. u. Kriminalstatistik”, XL); H. W. Gruhle,

“Die Ursachen der jugendlichen Verwahrlosung und Kriminalität”; A.

Hamburger, “Lebensschicksale geisteskranker Strafgefangener”.]

[701] “Statistisches Uebersicht der Verhältnisse der Oesterreichischen

strafanstalten und der Gerichtsgefängnisse”, 1883 and 1884, Table IV

and IVa.

[702] “Die Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate

vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern”, 1896 and 1899.

[703] Mayr, “Statistik und Gesellschaftslehre”, II, p. 197.

[704] Mayr, op. cit., p. 282. [Note to the American Edition: Upon

Austria, cf. Baernreither, op. cit.]

[705] J. S., “Zur Verwahrlosung der Kinder in der kapitalistischen

Gesellschaft” (“Neue Zeit”, 1893–94, II).

[706] Mayr, “Statistik und Gesellschaftslehre”, II, p. 197.

[707] Morrison, “Juvenile Offenders”, pp. 122–147.

[708] Tönnies, “Jugendliche Kriminalität und Verwahrlosung in

Gross-Britannien”, p. 904 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.”, XIII).

[709] Morrison, op. cit., pp. 148–151.

[710] W. H. Douglas, “The Criminal; Some Social and Economic Aspects”,

p. 106 (“Proceedings of the Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow”,

vol. XXXIII, 1901–1902).

[711] Lenz, “Die Zwangserziehung in England”, p. 38.

[712] With regard to England see also: L. Gordon Rylands, “Crime, its

Causes and Remedy”, pp. 18–19, 37–42.

[713] Figured from the “Statistique pénitentiaire”, 1890–1895.

[714] Mayr, op. cit., p. 197.

[715] Mayr, op. cit., p. 282.

[716] A. von Oettingen says that in 1864 there were in France, out of

8,006 young prisoners, 60% who were illegitimate children or orphans,

and 38.5% who were descended from criminals, vagrants, and prostitutes

(“Moralstatistik”, p. 335).

[717] P. 17.

[718] Op. cit., p. 48.

[719] Op. cit., p. 201.

[720] Joly, “L’enfance coupable”, p. 37. See the whole of chap. III.

[721] “Le crime dans la famille”, pp. 27, 38.

[722] Motet, “De l’éducation correctionnelle”, p. 186 (“Actes du IIe

Congrès d’anthropologie criminelle”).

[723] Raux, op. cit., p. 181.

[724] Raux, op. cit., p. 211. See also the following authors with

regard to France: Joly, “La France criminelle”, Ch. VI; Corre, “Crime

et Suicide”, pp. 485–490; Tomel and Rollet, “Les enfants en prison”;

and Aubry, “La Contagion du meurtre”, pp. 17–51.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: Duprat and de Lanessan, op.

cit.; E. Laurent, “La criminalité infantile”; L. Manouvrier, “Quelques

cas de criminalité juvénile et commençante” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.”

XXVII); E. Martin, “Études sur l’enfance coupable” (“Archives d’anthr.

crim.” XXVIII).]

[725] Lenz, op. cit., p. 70.

[726] From Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, II, p. 107, and the

“Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1889”, p. CXV.

[727] “Annuario statistico italiano 1900”, p. 95.

[728] Mayr, op. cit., p. 282.

[729] P. 164.

[730] P. 76.

[731] “I caratteri dei delinquenti”, pp. 237 and 250. For Italy see

also: Carrara, “Les petits criminels de Cagliari” (“Compte rendu du Ve

Congrès d’anthropologie criminelle”).

[732] Figured from “Gerechtelijke Statistiek van het Koningrijk der

Nederlanden”, 1896, 1897, 1898, and 1899, and “Crimineele Statistiek”,

1900 and 1901.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further the work of de Roos already

cited, pp. 117 ff. Dr. J. P. F. A. Noorduijn, “De Observatie, na de

invoering der Kinderwetten, etc.” (“Tijdschrift v. Strafrecht”, XXIII),

and J. Feith, “Misdadige Kinderen”.]

[733] Mayr, op. cit., p. 197.

[734] Mayr, op. cit., p. 282.

[735] P. 85.

[736] See Drähms, “The Criminal”, Ch. XI.

[737] “Beretning om Rigets Strafarbeidsanstalter for 1897–1898,

1898–1899”, and for 1899–1900 from Weinberg, “Der werdende Verbrecher”,

p. 16. (“Neue Zeit”, 1902–1903, II).

[738] Mayr, op. cit., p. 197.

[739] Mayr, op. cit., p. 282.

[740] Aschaffenburg, op. cit., p. 105.

[741] Mayr, op. cit., pp. 197 and 282.

[742] Based on Evert, “Zur Statistik rückfälliger Verbrecher in

Preussen.”

[743] “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der

Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 34.

[744] Mayr, op. cit., p. 282.

[745] “Die Ergebnisse etc.”, pp. 35, 37, 38.

[746] Weinberg, op. cit., p. 19.

[747] Mayr, op. cit., p. 283. The other data are taken from Sichart,

“Ueber individuelle Faktoren des Verbrechens.” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges.

Strafrw.” X.)

[748] P. 298.

[749] P. 10.

[750] Richelot, “La Prostitution en Angleterre”, p. 571.

[751] Mayr, “Statistik der gerichtlichen Polizei im Königreiche Bayern

und in einigen anderen Ländern”, Table CXVIII.

[752] Parent-Duchatelet, “De la prostitution dans la ville de Paris”,

II, p. 612.

[Note to the American Edition: The “Criminal Statistics, Ireland”

(1905) even gives a percentage as high as 38.5, of prostitutes among

female prisoners (p. 25).]

[753] G. S., “Die weibliche Lohnarbeit und ihr Einfluss auf die

Sittlichkeit und Kriminalität”, p. 751 (“Neue Zeit”, 1899–1900, II).

[754] After “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali

degli anni 1890–95.”

[755] P. 173.

[756] See further: Parent-Duchatelet, op. cit., pp. 139–142; Faucher,

“Études sur l’Angleterre”, I, pp. 77, 78; C. L. Brace, “The Dangerous

Classes in New York”, pp. 116, 117; “Einiges über die Prostitution in

Gegenwart und Zukunft”, p. 519 (“Neue Zeit”, 1891–92, I); Commenge, “La

prostitution clandestine à Paris”, pp. 29–131; Blaschko, “Die

Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, pp. 27, 28.

[757] Upon “souteneurs” and the part they play in crime see:

Parent-Duchatelet, op. cit., I, Chap. II, § 12; Frégier, “Les classes

dangereuses”, I, pp. 168–170; Ladame, “De la prostitution dans ses

rapports avec l’alcoolisme, le crime, et la folie”, p. 16; Sichart,

“Ueber individuelle Faktoren des Verbrechens”, p. 44; Baumgarten, op.

cit., pp. 17–19; Stursberg, “Die Prostitution in Deutschland und ihre

Bekämpfung”, pp. 76–82.

[Note to the American Edition: See further Hermann, op. cit., pp. 68

ff.; Brusse, op. cit.; and H. Ostwald, “Das Zuhältertum in Berlin”.]

[758] P. 138. See also: Engels, “Der Ursprung der Familie, des

Privateigenthums und des Staats”, p. 63; Stursberg, op. cit., pp. 28,

29; Faure, “Souvenirs de la Roquette”, p. 360; Baumgarten, op. cit., p.

20; Blaschko, op. cit., pp. 28, 29.

Upon the relation between prostitution and criminality in general see:

Moreau-Christophe, “Du problème de la misère”, III, pp. 167–170;

Richelot, op. cit., pp. 610–615; Avé-Lallemant, “Das Deutsche

Gaunerthum”, II, pp. 28, 29, and 336, III, pp. 157 and 165; Oettingen,

“Moralstatistik”, pp. 224–232; Ladame, op. cit., pp. 15 ff.; Lombroso

and Ferrero, “La femme criminelle et la prostituée”, pp. 535–538.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further the recent studies: A. H.

Hübner, “Ueber Prostituirte und ihre strafrechtliche Behandlung”

(“Monatschr. f. krim. Psych. und Strafrechtsreform”, III); O.

Mönkemöller, “Die Kriminalität der Korrigendin” (“Monatschr.” etc. V)

and “Korrektionsanstalt und Landarmenhaus”, ch. III.]

[759] See among others: Krauss, “Die Psychologie des Verbrechens”, pp.

68, 69; Grotjahn, “Der Alkoholismus”, p. 87.

[760] “L’alcoolisme dans ses rapports avec la criminalité”, pp. 411,

413, 415 (“Bulletin de l’académie royale de médecine de Belgique”,

1896).

[761] “La prophylaxie et le traitement du criminel récidiviste”, p.64

(“Compte rendu Ve congrès d’anthropologie criminelle”).

[762] Löffler, “Alkohol und Verbrechen”, p. 511 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges.

Strafrw.” XXIII).

[763] Dalhoff, “Rapport sur l’influence de l’alcoolisme sur la

criminalité”, pp. 40, 41. (“Actes du Congrès pénitentiaire internat. de

Bruxelles”, IV.)

[764] For the years 1858–1862 taken from Mayr, “Statistik der

gerichtlichen Polizei im Königreiche Bayern und in einigen anderen

Ländern”, Tab. CXVIII; and for the other years from “Criminal

Statistics”, 1894–1897.

[765] In these tables the term “drinker” is used for one who drinks to

excess.

[766] Upon England see further: L. Gordon Rylands, “Crime, its Causes

and Remedy”, pp. 17, 20–22; J. Baker, “Rapport sur l’influence de

l’alcoolisme sur la criminalité”, and W. C. Sullivan, id. (“Actes du

Cong. pén. internat. de Brux.” 1900, IV).

[Note to the American Edition: The “Report on the Judicial Statistics

of Scotland for the year 1908” contains data upon criminality and

alcoholism.]

[767] “Actes,” p. 112.

[768] “Actes”, p. 106. See also upon France: Laurent, “Les habitués des

prisons de Paris”, pp. 297 ff.; Corre, “Crime et suicide”, pp. 182 ff.,

and Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, p. 144.

[Note to the American Edition: See also the “Compte général de

l’administration de la justice criminelle pendant l’année 1907”, pp. xx

ff.]

[769] “Der Alcoholismus”, p. 348.

[770] Op. cit., p. 351.

[771] “Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis des grossstädtischen Bettel- und

Vagabondentums” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.” XXI).

[772] “I caratteri dei delinquenti”, p. 296.

[773] [Note to the American Edition: “The criminal statistics of the

Netherlands for 1904” contain data upon the subject in question. Cf.

further de Roos, op. cit., pp. 175 ff., and “Parallelismen tusschen

alcoholisme en criminaliteit” (“Tijdschrift v. Strafrecht”, XXIII);

Verrijn Stuart, op. cit., pp. 204 ff.; A. Ariëns, “Criminaliteit en

drankmisbruik.”]

[774] P. 66.

[775] “The Jukes”, p. 85.

[776] Evert, “Zur Statistik rückfälliger Verbrecher in Preussen”, p.

198.

[777] Wieselgren, “L’influence de l’alcoolisme sur la criminalité”, p.

164 (“Actes du Congr. pénit. de Bruxelles”), cf. Kinberg, “Alcool et

criminalité” (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.” XXVIII).

[778] Schaffroth, “L’influence de l’alcoolisme sur la criminalité”, p.

128 (“Actes du Cong. pén. intern. de Bruxelles”).

[779] “Die Ergebnisse der Schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der

Jahre 1892–1896”, p. 36.

[780] “Ueber individuelle Faktoren des Verbrechens”, p. 42.

[781] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. besides the works of de Roos,

Verrijn Stuart, Ariëns, and Kinberg, already cited, the following of

recent date: H. Hoppe, “Alkohol und Kriminalität”; A. Pistolese,

“Alcoolismo e delinquenza”; Hoegel, op. cit., pp. 397 ff.; K. W. F.

Boas, “Alkohol und Verbrechen nach neueren Statistiken”; Aull, “Alkohol

und Verbrechen”; A. Ley et R. Charpentier, “Alcoolisme et criminalité”;

G. B. Gruber, “Der Alkoholismus.” All these authors recognize, though

not all in the same degree, that the influence of alcoholism upon crime

is great; Pistolese alone denies it almost wholly.]

[782] The question must be looked at from the other side also, and it

must be admitted that military service can have a favorable effect upon

totally lawless individuals, who thus learn order and discipline; this,

however, does not prevent the disadvantages from remaining.

[783] Quoted by Oettingen in his “Moralstatistik”, p. 481.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: upon Germany: H. Dietz,

“Die Militärstrafrechtspflege im Lichte der Kriminalstatistik”; for

France: A. Corre, “Aperçu général de la criminalité militaire en

France”; for Italy: L. Ferrero di Cavallerleone and C. Placido, “Essais

de criminologie militaire.”]

[784] See also Oettingen, op. cit., p. 687; Colajanni, “Sociologia

criminale”, II, pp. 572–589; Corre, “Crime et suicide”, p. 337; Lux,

“Sozialpolitisches Handbuch”, p. 250; Wagner, “Die Sittlichkeit auf dem

Lande”, pp. 77–81; Lombroso, “Crime, its Causes and Remedies”, pp.

201–203; Steinmetz, “Der Krieg als sociologisches Problem”, p. 37;

Bleibtreu, op. cit., p. 16; Hamon, “Psychologie du Militaire

professionnel”, Chs. V–VIII.

[785] See also: Corre, “Essai sur la criminalité”, p. 78 (“Journal des

Economistes”, 1868); Colajanni, op. cit. II, pp. 572–589; Aubry, “La

contagion du meurtre”, pp. 247–249; Prof. Fr. v. Liszt, “Das Verbrechen

als sozial-pathologische Erscheinung”, p. 17.

[Note to the American Edition: See further upon the demoralizing

consequences of war: Steinmetz, “Die Philosophie des Krieges”, ch. III,

5, and my criticism of this book under the title “An apology for war”

(“Nieuwe Tijd”, XIII, pp. 488 ff.). Think of the horrible cruelties

committed in the recent wars in the Balkans (see the report of the

Commission of the Carnegie Foundation); no one can any longer deny the

demoralizing consequences of war!] [It may be of interest to the reader

to know that the author wrote the foregoing in the spring of

1914.—Transl.]

[786] Aubry, “La contagion du meurtre”, p. 70; see also Ch. III, and

Aschaffenburg, op. cit., p. 229.

[787] “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1895”, I, p. 31.

[788] “Kriminalstat. f. d. Jahr 1900”, I, pp. 18–19.

[789] “Kriminalstat. f. d. Jahr 1895”, I, p. 25.

[790] Drähms, “The Criminal”, p. 228, and “Criminal Statistics”,

1894–1900, Table XXXV.

[791] After “Criminal Statistics”, 1894–1900, Table IX.

[792] “Ergebnisse der Strafrechtspflege in den im Reichsrate

vertretenen Königreichen und Ländern im Jahre 1899”, p. li.

[793] The figures for 1850–1880 are taken from Bournet, “De la

criminalité en France et en Italie”, p. 31, for the Assizes, and from

Joly, “La France criminelle”, p. 166, for the others; the figures for

1881–1900 are from the “Rapport sur l’administration de la justice

criminelle de 1881 à 1900”, p. lxii.

[794] “Rapport etc.”, pp. lxiv and lxv.

[795] After Bournet “De la criminalité en France et en Italie”, p. 32,

and “Statistica giudiziaria penale”, 1881–1889. The criminal statistics

for 1890–95 contain all those convicted including those brought before

the justices of the peace, which makes them not comparable with those

given above. The average figure for 1891–95 was 25.27%, and for

1896–1900, 30.19% (“Notizie complementari etc.”, 1896–1900).

[796] After the “Jaarcijfers voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden”,

1901, p. 121.

[Note to the American Edition: The general percentage of recidivism in

the Netherlands had risen to 44.5% in 1908.]

[797] On short imprisonments for minor offenses see von Liszt,

“Kriminalpolitische Aufgaben”, V, “Die kurzzeitige Freiheitsstrafe”

(“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.” IX).

[798] See Gautier, “Le monde des prisons” (“Archives d’anthropologie

criminelle”, III) p. 563; Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, II, pp.

671–679; Laurent, “Les habitués des prisons de Paris”, pp. 592–596;

Havelock Ellis, “Verbrecher und Verbrechen”, pp. 266–276; Moreau, “Le

monde des prisons”, pp. 280–282; Aubry, “La contagion du meurtre”, Ch.

II; Lombroso, “Les palimpsestes des prisons”, pp. 379–381.

[799] Pp. 142, 143.

[800] Op. cit., p. 22.

[801] I will mention the following: Prins, “Criminalité et répression”,

Ch. V; Ferri, “La sociologie criminelle”, pp. 546–554, and “Eine

Verirrung des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts” (“Neue Zeit”, 1898–1899, II);

Sacker, op. cit., pp. 70–74; Roos, “De strafmiddelen in de nieuwere

strafrechtswetenschap”, Ch. VIII; Leuss, op. cit., pp. 176–193.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: G. Gradnauer, “Das Elend

des Strafvollzugs”, and A. Aletrino, “Is celstraf nog langer geoorloofd

en gewenscht?”]

[802] See the Reports already cited, and Winter, “The New York State

Reformatory in Elmira.”

[803] As was pointed out in Part I, Tarde is the author who has drawn

attention to the rôle of imitation in the etiology of crime; but see

also: Sighele, “Le crime à deux”, “La foule criminelle”, and “La

psychologie des sectes”; Aubry, “La contagion du meurtre”; Ferriani,

“Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 203–211.

[804] P. 37.

[805] See Engels, “The Condition of the Working Class in England”, pp.

120 ff.

[806] “Criminal statistics”, 1894 and 1898, pp. 24 and 31.

[Note to the American Edition: In the “Crim. Stat. England and Wales,

1905” there is a special study of crime in some of the great cities

(pp. 62 ff.).]

[807] Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität”, pp. 565, 566.

[808] “Rapport sur l’administration de la justice criminelle de 1881 à

1900”, p. xxix.

[809] “Rapport etc.”, p. xxx.

[810] “Crimineele statistiek over het jaar 1901”, pp. xvii and xviii.

[811] See also A. Mayer, “Die Verbrechen in ihrem Zusammenhang mit den

wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Verhältnissen im Kanton Zürich.”

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: for Germany: J. Galle, “Die

Kriminalität in Stadt und Land in ihrer Beziehung zur

Berufsverteilung”; for the Balkan States: Wadler, op. cit., pp. 155

ff.; for Belgium: Jacquart, op. cit., pp. 86 ff.; for the Netherlands:

de Roos, op. cit., pp. 222 ff., and Verrijn Stuart, op. cit., p. 239.]

[812] See, among others, de Vries, “Eenheid in Veranderlijkheid”, pp.

3–6.

[813] [Note to the American Edition: In present day sociology it is

almost universally accepted that there is only a quantitative

difference between criminals and other men, and that the “homo

criminalis” does not exist. An interesting contribution to this

question is given by Dr. Finkelnburg in his “Die Bestraften in

Deutschland”. His statistical calculations bring him to the conclusion

that in Germany there is one person out of every 12 (over 20 years of

age) convicted!]

[814] I speak neither of all the crimes nor of all the motives of those

of which I do treat. For a complete enumeration of the motives of

crimes, see Starke, “Des éléments essentiels qui doivent figurer dans

la statistique criminelle et des moyens de les rendre comparables”, pp.

77, 78 (“Bulletin de l’institut international de statistique”, 1889),

and von Liszt, “Die psychologischen Grundlagen der Kriminalpolitik”,

pp. 490–494 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.” XVI).

[815] After the “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1900”, II, pp. 7–13.

[816]

[817] After the “Rapport sur l’administration etc.”, Tables 1, 2, and

7.

[818] After “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali

degli anni 1890–1895”, pp. x and xi.

[819] After the “Gerechtelijke Statistiek”, 1897–1899, and the

“Crimineele Statistiek”, 1900–1901.

[820] “Rapport sur l’administration etc.”, p. xxxvii.

[821] Ferri, “Atlante antropologico-statistico dell’omicidio”, p. 328,

for 1880, and for 1881, from “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno

1881”, pp. xc and xci.

[822] [There seems no better way to designate a classification that

does not exist in English than by taking over this French

term.—Transl.]

[823] Pp. 6, 14–18.

[824] “Ueber individuelle Faktoren des Verbrechens”, pp. 40, 41. On the

relation between vagrancy and mendicity, and criminality see also:

Colajanni, “Sociologia criminale”, I, pp. 478, 479 (quoted in Part I of

this work); Kurella, “Naturgeschichte des Verbrechers”, pp. 206, 207;

Sacker, “Der Rückfall”, pp. 56, 57; Fornasari de Verce, “La criminalità

e le vicende economiche d’Italia”, p. 19; A. Meyer, “Die Verbrechen in

ihrem Zusammenhang mit den wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Verhältnissen

im Kanton Zürich”, p. 59; Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 144

ff.; Bérard, “Le vagabondage en France”, pp. 609, 610 (“Arch. d’anthr.

crim.” XIII); Florian and Cavaglieri, “I Vagabondi”, II, pp. 181–197;

Löwenstimm, “Das Bettelgewerbe”, pp. 124–128 (“Kriminalistische

Studien”); Rivière, “Mendiants et vagabonds”, pp. 227, 228.

[825] “Neue Zeit”, 1893–1894, II, p. 443.

[826] Ostwald, “Das Leben der Wanderarmen”, p. 313 (“Archiv f.

Kriminalanthr. u. Kriminalstat.” XIII).

[827] “Neue Zeit”, 1893–1894, II, p. 58.

[828] Ostwald, op. cit., p. 313.

[829] Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, pp. xl and xli.

[830] See the works of Fornasari di Verce, Tugan-Baranowsky, and G.

Mayr, cited in Part I.

[Note to the American Edition: In his “Statistik und

Gesellschaftslehre”, III, p. 653, G. V. Mayr gives statistics of

vagrancy and mendicity for Germany (1877–1888), in which there appears

a formidable increase during the years 1877–1880 (the end of the

economic crisis), and a decrease after 1880. For Austria cf. Herz, op.

cit., pp. 49 ff.]

[831] [Note to the American Edition: Upon Bavaria, cf. F. Knoblauch,

“Bettel und Landstreicherei im Königreiche Bayern”, 1893–99.]

[832] For France see also Bérard, op. cit., pp. 607, 608.

[833] Ostwald, op. cit., p. 313. Cf. upon the periods 1866–1870 and

1877–1884, H. Bennecke, “Bemerkungen zur Kriminalstatistik des

Grossherzogtums Hessen”, pp. 369 ff.

[834] Cf. K. Böhmert, “Die Sächsische Kriminalstatistik mit besonderer

Rücksicht auf die Jahre 1882–1887.”

[835] See Bérard, op. cit., pp. 605, 606.

[836] Flynt, op. cit., p. 170.

[837] “Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis des grossstädtischen Bettel- und

Vagabondentums” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XXI).

[838] See Ostwald, op. cit., pp. 306, 307.

[839] After “Criminal Statistics”, 1894–1900, Table XIII. In studying

these figures it must not be lost sight of that in general a workman is

soon worn out and after that is no longer hired.

[840] After “de Gerechtelijke Statistiek”, 1896–1899 and “de Crimineele

Statistiek”, 1901.

[841] After pp. 30, 31.

[842] Pp. 40, 41.

[843] “Naturgeschichte des Verbrechers”, p. 208.

[844] Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, p. 22. See also the whole

of Sec. 5, IV, Chap. 2, of the same authors.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon this subject cf. K. Wilmanns, “Zur

Psychopathologie des Landstreichers”, and Stelzner, op. cit., pp. 92

ff.]

[845] See Dugdale, “The Jukes”, pp. 47 and 49; and Flynt, op. cit., p.

6.

[846] See Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, pp. 34, 35, 177, 178.

[847] See Tomel and Rollet, “Les enfants en prison”, pp. 55–76;

Puibaraud, “Les malfaiteurs de profession”, pp. 217–230; Albanel, “Le

crime dans la famille”, p. 88; Löwenstimm, op. cit., pp. 89–99; Joly,

“L’enfance coupable”, pp. 60 ff.

[848] Op. cit., pp. 31, 32.

[849] Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, p. 52. See also: Frégier,

“Les classes dangereuses de la population dans les grandes villes”, I,

pp. 199, 200; Tomel and Rollet, op. cit., pp. 28–45; and Albanel, op.

cit., p. 78.

[850] Op. cit., p. 2.

[851] Flynt, op. cit., p. 49; Th. Holmes, “Pictures and Problems of

London Police Courts”, p. 64; and others.

[852] Upon vagrancy and mendicity of children see further: J. Délie,

“Le vagabondage des mineurs”; Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp.

144–155; and Flynt, op. cit., pp. 28–60.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon pathological children see P.

Schroeder, “Das Fortlaufen der Kinder” (“Monatschr. f. Krim.

Psychologie u. Strafr. reform”, VIII); and E. Stier, “Wandertrieb und

pathologisches Fortlaufen bei Kindern.”]

[853] See Florian and Cavaglieri, op. cit., II, pp. 11–14.

[854] See, for example, Löwenstimm, op. cit., pp. 17 and 92.

[855] See Bérard, op. cit., p. 605.

[856] See Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 177 ff., and

“Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, pp. 460 ff.

[857] Op. cit., pp. 97, 103, 110, 182, and 244.

[858] Op. cit., p. 38.

[859] Op. cit., I, pp. 111, 112.

[860] Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 151–154. Tomel and

Rollet, op. cit., pp. 24–27.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Haury, “La paresse pathologique”

(“Archives d’anthrop. crim.” XXVIII).]

[861] “Die Vagabondage und ihre Behandlung”, p. 715 (“Zeitschr. f. d.

ges. Strafrw.” XI).

[862] [Note to the American Edition: Of the recent literature upon

vagrancy and mendicity we would call attention to the following: K.

Wilmanns, “Das Landstreichertum, seine Bekämpfung und Abhilfe”; A.

Aletrino, “Handleiding bij de studie der crimineele anthropologie”, II,

ch. VI; Rotering, “Das Landstreichertum der Gegenwart”; Riebeth, “Ueber

den geistigen und körperlichen Zustand der Korrigenden”; de Roos, op.

cit., pp. 151 ff.; A. Marie and R. Meunier, “Les vagabonds”; Pollitz,

op. cit., pp. 95 ff.; A. Pagnier, “Le vagabond”; Kauffmann, op. cit.,

pp. 97 ff.; H. T. de Graaf, “Karakter en behandeling van veroordeelden

wegens landlooperij en bedelarij.”]

[863] Marx, “Kapital”, I, ch. XXLV, pp. 699 ff.

[864] Upon the impossibility of innate moral concepts see Näcke, “Die

neueren Erscheinungen auf kriminal-anthropologischen Gebiete und ihre

Bedeutung”, p. 342 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XIV).

[865] “Der Ursprung der Idee des Gerechten und Ungerechten”, pp. 470,

471. (“Neue Zeit”, 1898–1899, II.)

[866] “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1894”, II, p. 53.

[867] The figures in the line a are the absolute figures (annual

averages), those in the line b the relative numbers, i.e. what the

daily average for that month would be if the daily average for the year

were 100.

[868] “Marche de la criminalité en France, 1825–1880” (“Revue

scientifique”, 1881), to be found also in Levasseur’s “La population

française”, II, p. 458.

[869] Taken from the “Kriminalstatistik”, 1895, 1907, 1908 and 1911,

and from the “Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich.”

[870] The figures from 1906 on are comparable with those preceding,

only with reserve.

[871] The figures from 1907 on are not comparable with those preceding.

[872] For details see my study already cited, “Verbrechen und

Sozialismus.”

[873] [Note to the American Edition: The English criminal statistics

for 1905 show an interesting diagram upon the connection between the

trend of economic crime and that of business from 1885 to 1905 (Int. p.

24).]

[874] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. Jacquart, op. cit. pp. 109

ff.]

[875] [Note to the American Edition: For the period 1896–1908 I have

shown in my study “Crime et Socialisme” the striking parallel between

economic crime and the business situation.]

[876] There are still to be mentioned as authors who have treated the

dynamics of criminality: J. Sacker, “Der Rückfall” (pp. 39, 40);

Aschaffenburg, “Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung” (pp. 89 ff.); and

H. Leuss, “Aus dem Zuchthause” (pp. 228 ff.).

[Note to the American Edition: See further: for Austria: Hoegel, op.

cit., pp. 369 ff., Herz, op. cit., pp. 40 ff.; for Saxony: Böhmert, op.

cit., and Wulffen, op. cit., I pp. 390 ff.; for Servia: Wadler, op.

cit., p. 73 ff. Cf. also in general: V. Mancini, “Le varie specie di

furto nella storia e nella sociologia”, III 3, Ch. IV.]

[877] Cf. further: Aschaffenburg, op. cit., pp. 98 ff.; Eggert, “Not

und Verbrechen”; Wulffen, op. cit., I, pp. 395 ff.; v. Rohden in

“Zeitschr. f. Sozialwissenschaft”, VII, pp. 522 ff., and IX, pp. 229

ff.

[878] Cf. the recent study of Prinzing, “Die soziale Lage der Witwe in

Deutschland” (“Zeitschr. f. Sozialwissenschaft”, III).

[879] In general, criminals are distinguished as occasional, habitual,

and professional. Habitual criminals, however, are also occasional

criminals, for they do not seek the occasion for their crimes like

criminals by profession, but profit by it whenever it presents itself.

They are the bond of union between the first and third kind of

criminals, and in my opinion, it is unnecessary to treat of them

separately.

[880] See the passage from Mably, Pt. I, p. 14; also Lassalle, “Offenes

Antwort-Schreiben” (“Reden und Schriften”, II, pp. 426–427).

[881] Cf. Földes, “Einige Ergebnisse der neueren Kriminalstatistik”, p.

548.

[882] Cf. Ryckère, “La servante criminelle”, ch. III.

[883] As to the literature upon theft in stores, etc., see especially

Lacassagne, “Les vols à l’étalage et dans les grands magasins” (“Compte

rendu du IVe Congrès d’anthr. crim.”) and Dubuisson, “Les voleuses des

grands magasins” (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.”, XVI.); also Lombroso and

Ferrero, “La femme criminelle et la prostituée”, pp. 481, 482; Albanel,

op. cit., pp. 91–95.

[884] An interesting proof of the truth of this assertion may be found

in an article by Dr. P. v. Gizycki, entitled “Wie urteilen Schulkinder

über Funddiebstahl?” (“Zeitschrift für Kinderforschung”, VIII). One day

this author gave young girls (between 11 and 15 years of age) in a

school of the poor in Berlin, the following composition: “You are going

to the Christmas fair without money, for your parents are poor. Your

father is out of work. You find a pocket book containing a five-mark

piece. What do you do with it?” The children had not been prepared for

the subject and had received no indication of how they ought to treat

it. Only five per cent. of the girls said that they would return the

money, because they would pity the person who lost it, and who might

also be poor. All the others among those who also wished to return the

money (53%) had other motives. Those who, on the contrary, wished to

retain the money, wanted, without exception, to use it to give their

parents things they needed. Who will still dare to say that the

children who wanted to keep the money (most of them believing in good

faith that they had a right to it) in order to give it to others, had

feelings less social than most of the rich who, without blushing, see

the misery of the poor?

[885] Upon the bad surroundings of the childhood of thieves see

further: Raux, “Nos jeunes détenus”, p. 42, and Ferriani,

“Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 264 ff.

[886] Op. cit., p. 28.

[887] “Das Verbrechen, etc.”, p. 123.

[888] Op. cit., p. 42.

[889] Cf. Ferriani, “Schlaue und glückliche Verbrecher”, p. 39, and

Sighele, “Psychologie des sectes”, pp. 141, 142.

[890] Ferriani, op. cit. See also Zerboglio, “Les inconvénients de

l’honnêteté” (“L’ère nouvelle”, 1894).

[891] “Aus dem Zuchthause”, p. 122.

[892] “Kriminalstatistik f. d. Jahr 1896”, I, p. 14.

[893] “Notizie complementari alle statistiche giudiziarie penali degli

anni 1890–1895”, p. viii.

[894] Tönnies, “Das Verbrechen als soziale Erscheinung”, p. 334 (“Arch.

f. Soz. Gesetzgeb. u. Stat.”, VIII).

[895] Tarde, “Les délits impoursuivis”, p. 207 (“Essais et mélanges

sociologiques”).

[896] “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1894”, p. lxxxii. See

also the detailed statistics cited by Ferriani, op. cit., pp. 112–118.

[897] “Les malfaiteurs de profession”, 5. 139.

[898] “Les transformations de l’impunité”, p. 167 (published by

Professor Lacassagne in “Vacher l’éventreur et les crimes sadiques”).

[899] “Betrachtungen über ein Sammeln der verbrecherischen Motive”, p.

278 (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, XVII). See also Földes, op. cit.,

pp. 516–519.

[900] In a work upon the etiology of crime it is unnecessary to set

forth in detail the numerous ruses that professional criminals make use

of to dupe the public and the police. We merely note here a few

important works dealing with this subject: Frégier, “Les classes

dangereuses de la population dans les grandes villes”, I, Part II,

Chap. VII; Avé-Lallemant, “Das deutsche Gaunerthum”, III, pp. 118–340;

O. S., “Die Verbrecherwelt von Berlin”, III (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges.

Strafrw.”, V); Puibaraud, “Les malfaiteurs de profession.”

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Herz, op. cit., Ch. IVa, and E.

Wulffen, “Gauner- und Verbrechertypen.”]

[901] Cf. the following passage from “Tramping with Tramps”, by Josiah

Flynt: “One more regret which nearly all criminals of the class I am

considering have experienced at one time or another in their lives, is

that circumstances have led them into a criminal career. Their remorse

may be only for a moment, and an exaggerated indifference often follows

it; but while it lasts it is genuine and sincere. I have never known a

criminal well who has not confessed to me something of this sort; and

he has often capped it with a further confidence—his sorrow that it was

now too late to try anything else” (pp. 25–26).

[902] Op. cit., pp. 131, 132. As regards the education of children in

thieving, see also: Faucher, “Études sur l’Angleterre”, I, pp. 89 ff.;

Tomel and Rollet, “Les enfants en prison”, pp. 195–197.

[903] Although there are some works upon this subject, criminal

sociology would derive great profit from the publication of a great

number of biographies of criminals, and especially of great criminals.

[Note to the American Edition: Dr. N. Muller in his work already

referred to, “Biografisch-aetiologisch onderzoek etc.”, has made a

noteworthy beginning in this field, by giving biographies of 24 great

criminals. The “Verbrechertypen” edited by Gruhle and Wetzel, promises

much.]

[904] See, among others, G. Moreau, “Souvenirs de la petite et de la

grande Roquette”, I. p. 27, and “Le monde des prisons”, pp. 11, 16; L.

Gordon Rylands, “Crime, its Causes and Remedy”, pp. 18 ff.

[905] Op. cit., pp. 21, 22.

[906] Op. cit., p. 22.

[907] Op. cit., pp. 23, 24. To the same effect see O. S., op. cit., pp.

136, 137.

[908] Op. cit., pp. 5, 6; see also pp. 11–12. To the same effect:

Starke, “Verbrechen und Verbrecher in Preussen”, p. 221; Havelock

Ellis, “Verbrecher und Verbrechen”, pp. 24, 25; and Leuss, “Aus dem

Zuchthause”, p. 125.

[909] [Note to the American Edition: Muller mentions further as a

result of his researches that criminals by profession show in general

an adventurous and unstable character. Cf. Kauffmann, op. cit., pp. 160

ff.]

[910] “Actes du IIe Congrès d’Anthr. Crim.”, p. 163.

[911] IV., pp. 386–388. See also Zerboglio, “Les inconvénients de

l’honnêteté”, pp. 385 ff.

[912] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. further (besides the works of

Muller and Kauffmann): Wulffen, II, pp. 284 ff.; Pollitz, op. cit., pp.

124 ff.; also Brusse’s brochure, already cited, “Het rosse”, etc.]

[913] Cf. A. H. Post, “Bausteine für eine allgemeine

Rechtswissenschaft”, I, p. 293, and “Grundriss der ethnologischen

Jurisprudenz”, II, pp. 421 ff.

[914] In his “Grundriss, etc.”, II, p. 213, Dr. Post names different

peoples who do not consider theft as blamable but as praiseworthy. It

is very probable that this relates to theft committed to the detriment

of another group, and not to the prejudice of the members of the

thief’s own group. It is plain that it is only the latter kind of theft

that we treat of in a work upon crime. Cf. Kovalewsky, “Les origines du

devoir”, pp. 88, 89 (“Revue internationale de sociologie”, II).

[915] To the same effect see Kovalewsky, op. cit., pp. 88, 89, note.

[916] “Bausteine etc.”, I, pp. 286, 287. See by the same author,

“Grundriss etc.”, II, p. 429, and “Der Ursprung des Rechts”, pp. 114,

115. Cf. Steinmetz, “Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der

Strafe”, II, p. 252.

[917] Cf. the quotation from Morgan on p. 386 of this work.

[918] See Dargun, “Ursprung und Entwicklungsgeschichte des Eigenthums”,

pp. 81–83.

[919] Cf. Post, “Bausteine etc.”, I, p. 288 ff.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: Westermarck, “Ursprung und

Entwicklung der Moralbegriffe”, II, ch. 24.]

[920] Cf. v. Liszt, “Das gewerbmässige Verbrechen”, pp. 126, 127

(“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.” XXI).

[921] “Statistica giudiziaria penale per l’anno 1889”, pp. cliv–clv.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. further upon Austria: Herz, op.

cit., pp. 39 ff.; upon the Balkan states: Wadler, op. cit., pp. 46 and

54.]

[922] “Della statistica dell’omicidio negli stati Uniti d’America”

(“Bulletin de l’Institut intern. de statistique”, X), pp. 40 ff.

[923] Cf. Niceforo, “Les transformations du crime et la civilisation

moderne”, pp. 642 ff. (“Scuola Positiva”, XI).

[924] “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1894”, II, p. 53.

[925] H. Berg, “Getreidepreise und Kriminalität in Deutschland seit

1882”, pp. 10, 18.

[Note to the American Edition: After 1898, also, the influence of the

economic situation made itself felt in these crimes.]

[926] P. 47. See plate, pp. 40, 41.

[927] [Note to the American Edition: Wadler has shown the connection of

these two phenomena for Servia (op. cit., p. 83).]

[928] Taken from Sighele, “Le crime à deux”, pp. 122–125.

[929] Taken from “Archiv für Kriminal-Anthropologie und

Kriminalstatistik”, XI, pp. 307 ff.

[930] Baer, “Ueber jugendliche Mörder und Todtschläger” (“Archiv f.

Krim.-Anthr. und Krim.”, XI).

[931] Op. cit., pp. 166, 167.

[932] “Les enfants en prison”, p. 215.

[933] Cf. Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 279 ff.

[934] Taken from Moreau, “Souvenirs de la petite et de la grande

Roquette”, II, ch. VIII. See also Joly, “Le crime”, pp. 97 ff.

[935] Cf. Manouvrier, “Les crânes des suppliciés” (“Arch. d’anthr.

crim.”, I), where he shows that the conformation of the skulls of

assassins is simply of a coarser type than others.

[936] Pp. 47–48.

[937] “Tramping with Tramps”, p. 24. Cf. Moreau, “Le monde des

prisons”, p. 621, and Kauffmann, op. cit., pp. 163, 164 and 203–206.

[938] Cf. Post, “Der Ursprung des Rechts”, p. 116, “Bausteine etc.”, I,

pp. 300–302, and “Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz”, II, p.

444.

[939] P. 318.

[940] For Germany see also H. Berg, “Getreidepreise und Kriminalität in

Deutschland seit 1882”, p. 18.

[941] Pp. 375, 376.

[942] Where capitalism is beginning to develop, adulteration, etc., is

the order of the day (e.g. in Japan in our day. See “Zeitschr. f.

Socialwissenschaft”, N. F. IV, p. 503); later a certain honesty, based

upon interest, especially in the wholesale business, becomes the rule.

(Cf. Engels, “Die Lage der arbeitenden Klassen in England”, Preface pp.

vii–viii.)

[943] See Zerboglio, “Les inconvénients de l’honnêteté” (“L’ère

nouvelle”, 1894); also Ferriani, “Glückliche und schlaue Verbrecher”,

IV.

[944] Laschi, op. cit., pp. 72, 73.

[945] Laschi, op. cit., p. 106.

[946] Laschi, op. cit., pp. 97 ff.

[947] Pp. xx and xxi.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. B. Kritschewsky, “Die Korruption in

der französischen Demokratie” (“Neue Zeit”, XXVIII2), pp. 12 ff.]

[948] See Laschi, op. cit., p. 107.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon the way in which great fortunes

have been amassed, see F. Kummer, “Die Geschichte der grossen

amerikanischen Vermögen” (“Neue Zeit”, XXX2).]

[949] For descriptions of cases see Zola, “L’argent”, and Wulffen, op.

cit., II, p. 334.

[950] Laschi, op. cit., p. 180.

[951] Pp. 147, 148.

[952] P. 128 (in the original, p. 131).

[953] Cf. Post, “Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz”, II, p.

359; Letourneau, “L’évolution du mariage et de la famille”, p. 257;

Lafargue, “Der Ehebruch in Gegenwart und Vergangenheit” (“Neue Zeit”,

VII); and Ferrero, “Le crime d’adultère—son passé, son avenir”

(“Archives d’anthrop. crim.”, IX).

[954] “Les criminels dans l’art et la littérature”, p. 141. Cf. also

Letourneau, “Évolution du mariage”, pp. 282, 283.

[955] Pp. 444, 445.

[956] Aschaffenburg, “Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung”, p. 13. Cf.

A. v. Oettingen, “Moralstatistik”, pp. 221, 222; Prof. Tardieu, “Étude

médico-légale sur les attentats aux mœurs”, pp. 22, 23; Dr. P. Bernard,

“Des viols et attentats à la pudeur sur adultes”, p. 562 (“Arch.

d’anthr. crim.” II); also the German criminal statistics.

[957] “Das Verbrechen in seiner Abhängigkeit von dem jährlichen

Temperaturwechsel” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, II).

[958] See G. v. Mayr, “Gesetzmässigkeit im Gesellschaftsleben”, pp. 239

ff., and “Statistik und Gesellschaftslehre”, II, pp. 170, 171.

[959] “Contribution à l’étude statistique de la criminalité en France”,

p. 60. Dr. A. Bournet, in “De la criminalité en France et en Italie”,

p. 68, and Ferri, op. cit., p. 39, and Bernard, op. cit., p. 566, come

to the same conclusion.

[960] Socquet, op. cit., pp. 61 and 69. See also Ferri, op. cit., p.

43.

[961] Socquet, op. cit., p. 60.

[962] Cf. Bournet, op. cit., p. 68, and Bernard, op. cit., p. 567.

[963] The first two columns are taken from Bernard, op. cit., p. 569;

the last is figured from the “Annuaire statistique de la France”, VII,

p. 526.

[Note to the American Edition: The same thing is shown by the criminal

statistics of the Netherlands. Cf. de Roos, op. cit., p. 114, and my

own study already cited, “Misdaad en Socialisme”, pp. 34–35.]

[964] “Die Sittlichkeitsverbrechen in Deutschland in

kriminalstatistischer Beleuchtung”, p. 266. Cf. Wittenberg and Wagner,

“Die geschlechtlich sittlichen Verhältnisse der evangelischen

Landbewohner im Deutschen Reiche”, and Wagner, “Die Sittlichkeit auf

dem Lande.” See also Ferriani, “Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 96 ff.,

and L. Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, pp. 385, 386.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Herz, op. cit., p. 35; Bonger, op.

cit., pp. 33, 34; Baernreither, op. cit. passim; and Geill,

“Kriminal-anthropologische Untersuchungen dänischer

Sittlichkeitsverbrecher”, p. 358.]

[965] See among others Grotjahn, “Der Alkoholismus”, pp. 53 and 86.

[966] “Actes du congrès pénitentiaire international de Bruxelles.”

[967] Loeffler, “Alkohol und Verbrechen”, pp. 518–521 (“Zeitschrift f.

d. ges. Strafrw.” XXIII).

[968] P. 113. See also Bournet, op. cit., p. 69.

[969] “Crimineele Statistiek voor het jaar 1901”, p. xxvii.

[970] “Actes etc.”, p. 167.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon the influence of alcohol upon

sexual crimes see further Geill, op. cit., p. 362; Aschaffenburg, “Zur

Psychologie der Sittlichkeitsverbrechen”, p. 408; Bonhoeffer,

“Sittlichkeitsdelikt und Körperverletzung”, p. 469.]

[971] “Die Ergebnisse der schweizerischen Kriminalstatistik während der

Jahre 1892–1896.”

[972] See “Der Ursprung des Rechts”, p. 112; “Die Grundlagen des Rechts

etc.”, p. 377; and “Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz”, II, p.

382.

[973] See among others Garraud and Bernard, “Des attentats à la pudeur

et des viols sur les enfants”, pp. 404–405 (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.”, I).

[974] See Lafargue, p. 293; Garraud and Bernard, op. cit., pp. 408–409.

[975] Cf. “Reports on the law relating to the protection of young

girls”, 1882, p. 37; Dr. Ladame, “De la prostitution dans ses rapports

avec l’alcoolisme, le crime, et la folie”, pp. 24–26; and Amschl,

“Aberglauben als Heilmittel”, pp. 397, 398 (“Archiv f. Krim.-Anthr. und

Kriminalstatistik”, XV).

[976] Cf. Tardieu, op. cit., pp. 21, 22; Levasseur, “La population

française”, II, p. 448; Starke, op. cit., pp. 172, 173.

[977] Socquet, op. cit., pp. 60 and 68.

[978] In his “Die Frau und der Sozialismus”, Bebel gives almost the

same proportion for Germany without indicating the source from which he

takes his figures. As he remarks the percentage of the rich and

well-to-do would be larger if those interested did not often succeed in

hushing the matter up. We need only recall the revelations made by the

“Pall Mall Gazette” (see “Les scandales de Londres”).

[979] Garraud and Bernard, op. cit., p. 432.

[980] Socquet, op. cit., pp. 60 and 69.

[981] Cf. Bournet, op. cit., pp. 66–68; Socquet, op. cit., p. 73;

Garraud and Bernard, op. cit., p. 435.

[982] The author makes the mistake of omitting here the words “of

children.” Statistics show that it is especially the country, where the

sexual life is characterized rather by grossness than by perversion,

that produces these crimes. Dr. Després has been led to this error

through studying the geography of rape upon children and upon adults at

the same time—by which method they are seen to be most numerous in the

cities where prostitution exists exclusively. An examination of the two

crimes separately gives different results.

[983] P. 43.

[984] Op. cit., p. 24. Cf. Tarde, “Penal Philosophy”, p. 355, and

Leuss, op. cit., p. 106.

[985] Op. cit., p. 36.

[986] Cf. Bérard des Glajeux, “Les passions criminelles”, pp. 121, 122.

[Note to the American Edition: Additional works that have appeared

recently are: R. Quanter, “Die Sittlichkeitsverbrechen”; F. Leppmann,

“Die Sittlichkeitsverbrecher” (very interesting!); de Roos, “De

sexueele criminaliteit”; L. Wachholz, “Zur Lehre von den sexuellen

Delikten”; E. Wulffen, “Der Sexualverbrecher”; L. Ferrante Capetti,

“Reati e psicopatie sessuali”; J. Werthauer, “Sittlichkeits-Delikte der

Gross-Stadt”; Kauffmann, op. cit., pp. 133 ff.; M. R. Senf,

“Geschlechtstrieb und Verbrechen.”]

[987] For a complete enumeration of the motives of crime see: Liszt,

“Die psychologischen Grundlagen der Kriminalpolitik”, pp. 490–494

(“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.”, XVI) and Starke, “Des éléments

essentiels qui doivent figurer dans la statistique criminelle et des

moyens de les rendre comparables”, pp. 77, 78 (“Bulletin de l’inst.

intern. de statistique”, 1889).

[Note to the American Edition: See further the recent studies upon

superstition and crime: Löwenstimm, “Aberglaube und Verbrechen”,

“Aberglaube und Gesetz”; Wulffen, “Psychologie des Verbrechens”, II,

pp. 219–229; Helling, “Verbrechen und Aberglaube”.]

[988] Upon the psychology of vengeance see Steinmetz, “Ethnologische

Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der Strafe”, I, pp. 99 ff.

[989] Upon the instinct of vengeance see: A. H. Post, “Bausteine für

eine allgemeine Rechtswissenschaft”, I, pp. 140 ff.; Colajanni,

“Sociologia criminale”, II, p. 64; Letourneau, “L’évolution juridique”,

pp. 7 ff.; Lafargue, “Der Ursprung der Idee des Gerechten und

Ungerechten”, p. 421 (“Neue Zeit”, 1898–1899, II).

[990] Cf. Prinzing, “Soziale Faktoren der Kriminalität”, p. 558, and

Aschaffenburg, “Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung”, p. 135.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. especially: Müller-Lyer, “Phasen der

Liebe”, pp. 47 ff.]

[991] See Ferriani, “L’amore in tribunali”, and L. Holtz, “Les crimes

passionels”, upon crimes of this class.

[992] II, p. 131.

[993] “Eskimo Life.”

[994] See Letourneau, “L’évolution du mariage et de la famille”, p.

275.

[995] See Steinmetz, op. cit., II, p. 303, and Sutherland, op. cit., I,

chap. VIII.

[996] It is plain that this influences also those relationships that

are not sanctioned by law.

[997] There is almost no mention of sexual jealousy where men and women

both occupy an independent position. Cf. Morgan, “Ancient Society”, p.

431.

[998] Cf. Holtz, op. cit., pp. 52–54.

[999] Cf. Holtz, op. cit., pp. 147–149.

[1000] “Kriminalstatistik für das Jahr 1894”, II, p. 52.

[1001] In his “Getreidepreise und Kriminalität in Deutschland”, H. Berg

shows that crimes against persons in Germany were not influenced by

economic occurrences during the years 1882–1898 (pp. 31 ff.).

[Note to the American Edition: I have proved the same for 1898–1908.

(See my study, “Verbrechen und Socialismus”, p. 808.)]

[1002] [Note to the American Edition: The same is true in the

Netherlands. In Austria, Herz has shown a certain relation between the

phenomena in question after 1863, but not in recent years.]

[1003] The figures for homicide, etc., are taken from Ferri, “Atlante

antropologico-statistico dell’omicidio”, pp. 246–248. The figures for

illiteracy in Italy, Belgium, France, Germany, and Holland are taken

from the official statistics, the others from the “Statesman’s Year

Book, 1902.”

[1004] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: Wadler, op. cit.,

pp. 176 ff., upon the Balkan States, where the crimes in question are

very frequent, and the degree of civilization is very low. (In Servia,

for example, in 1900 there was a percentage of illiteracy of about

79!)]

[1005] From Colajanni, “L’homicide en Italie”, p. 49 (“Revue

Socialiste”, 1901).

[1006] The first column is taken from “Kriminalstatistik f. d. Jahr

1898”, II, pp. 27–30; the second from “Statistisches Jahrbuch f. d.

Deutsche Reich, 1894”, p. 151; the last is figured from “Statistik der

Reichstagswahlen von 1898”, p. 3.

[Note to the American Edition: In my study already quoted, “Verbrechen

und Socialismus”, I have given figures for 1903–1907, which show in

general the same results.]

[1007] I have chosen the crime of serious assault, because it is

committed especially out of revenge, and because the figures for

homicide are too small in Germany to answer for this table.

[1008] Later I will explain why these figures are added.

[1009] From Boies, “Science of Penology”, Appendix B.

[1010] From Ferri, “Atlante dell’omicidio”, pp. 250, 251; the figures

for illiteracy are from “Annuario statistico italiano, 1900”, pp. 177,

178.

[1011] To my regret I have been unable to procure the figures for

1880–1883; the differences between the provinces were, however,

probably the same as for 1896.

[1012] The first column is from “De crimineele statistiek van 1901”,

the second from “Jaarcijfers voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden,

1901”, p. 47.

[Note to the American Edition: In my study, “Misdaad en socialisme”, I

have given the figures for a longer period (1901–1905), which confirm

in general the results given above (p. 35).]

[1013] Cf. Moreau (of Tours), “L’homicide commis par les enfants”, pp.

53 and 77; Ferriani, “Entartete Mütter”, pp. 73 and 167, and

“Minderjährige Verbrecher”, pp. 134 ff.

[1014] Cf. E. Key, “Das Jahrhundert des Kindes”, p. 149.

[1015] Steinmetz, “Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung der

Strafe”, I, pp. 299 ff.

[1016] Cf. Colajanni, op. cit., p. 39.

[1017] For Italy, in addition to the official statistics already cited,

see Colajanni, “L’homicide en Italie”, pp. 43, 44, 51–52. I have not

been able to procure figures for the movement of these crimes in other

countries.

[Note to the American Edition: Herz mentions, for Austria (1862–1899) a

decrease of crimes in their most serious form and an increase in the

less serious. For Scotland and Ireland the criminal statistics show a

remarkable decrease; in England this decrease has been very

considerable in recent years, and for all forms of these crimes. In

Belgium there is a decrease for the more serious forms, the others

remaining stationary. In the Netherlands there has been a decrease in

recent years. In the United States the crimes in question seem to be

increasing (cf. J. W. Garner, “Homicide in American Cities” (“Journal

of Criminal Law and Criminology”, III, p. 675).]

[1018] Cf. Starke, “Verbrechen und Verbrecher in Preussen”, p. 236, and

Berg, “Getreidepreise und Kriminalität in Deutschland seit 1882”, pp.

34 ff.

[1019] Cf. Lux, “Sozialpolitisches Handbuch”, p. 152.

[1020] [Note to the American Edition: Later it has been shown that the

last remark is perfectly correct. In recent years (about the beginning

of the century), the consumption of alcohol has decreased, and also the

crimes in question: cf. my study “Verbrechen und Sozialismus”, pp. 807

ff.]

[1021] “Der Alkoholismus”, p. 57. Cf. O. Lang, “Alkoholgenuss und

Verbrechen”, pp. 50, 51.

[1022] See A. Baer, “Der Alcoholismus”, pp. 30 ff.; Grotjahn, op. cit.,

pp. 52 ff.; Aschaffenburg, “Alkoholgenuss und Verbrechen”, pp. 73–77

(“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.”, XX. This is also to be found in “Das

Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung”, pp. 69–72).

[1023] “Sociologie criminelle”, p. 222.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. for Germany Bonger, op. cit., pp.

807 ff.; for Austria: Herz, op. cit., pp. 57 ff.; for Belgium:

Jacquart, op. cit., pp. 98 ff.; and for the Netherlands: Bonger, op.

cit., p. 27.]

[1024] The first two columns have been taken from Löffler, “Alkohol und

Verbrechen”, pp. 533, 534; the third from Lang, op. cit., p. 43; and

the two others from Aschaffenburg, op. cit., pp. 86 and 88.

[Note to the American Edition: See also: E. Kürz, “Zur Prophylaxe der

Roheitsdelikte”, and C. Hotter, “Alkohol und Verbrechen in

Niederbayern.”]

[1025] P. 92. See also Merens, “Over het onderzoek naar den invloed der

dronkenschap op de criminaliteit”, pp. 170–200.

[1026] See the criticism of these methods in Merens, op. cit., pp. 128

ff.

[1027] Löffler, op. cit., pp. 518–521.

[1028] Aschaffenburg, op. cit., p. 85.

[1029] Masoin, “L’alcoolisme dans ses rapports avec la criminalité”,

pp. 410–414 (“Bulletin de l’académie royale de médecine de Belgique”,

1896).

[Note to the American Edition: For Austria see Herz, op. cit., pp. 31

ff., and for the Netherlands: Bonger, op. cit., p. 35.]

[1030] “Actes etc.”, p. 113.

[Note to the American Edition: For France see also M. Yvernès,

“L’alcoolisme et la criminalité” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.”, XXVII).]

[1031] “Actes etc.”, p. 58.

[1032] Merens, op. cit., p. 126.

[1033] Merens, op. cit., p. 107.

[1034] “Crimineele Statistiek, 1901”, pp. xxvi–xxvii.

[1035] Wieselgren, “Rapport sur l’influence de l’alcoolisme sur la

criminalité” (“Actes du Congrès pénitent. de Bruxelles”).

[1036] P. 36.

[1037] [Note to the American Edition: In his “Anthropologie der

nichtbesitzenden Klassen”, Niceforo defends the thesis that the crimes

in question are caused by the physiological poverty of the poor

classes, in its turn a consequence of environment (pp. 369 ff.).]

[1038] Cf. Steinmetz, op. cit., I, Pt. III.

[1039] T. W. Teifen, “Das soziale Elend und die besitzenden Klassen in

Oesterreich”, p. 171.

[1040] Socquet, “Contribution à l’étude statistique de la criminalité

en France, 1876–1880”, p. 41.

[1041] Op. cit., p. 36.

[1042] Cf. Dr. Audiffrent, “Quelques considérations sur l’infanticide”,

p. 5 (“Archives d’anthrop. crim.”, XVII).

[1043] Cf. Starke, “Verbrechen und Verbrecher in Preussen”, p. 156;

Loosjes, “Bijdrage tot de studie van de criminaliteit der vrouw”, pp.

164, 165; Lombroso, “La femme criminelle et la prostituée”, p. 494;

Joly, “Le crime”, pp. 263, 264.

[1044] In his “L’évolution de la morale”, Letourneau points out that in

countries where public opinion is very indulgent to female frailty,

infanticide is almost unknown (p. 73).

[1045] Cf. Brissot de Warville, “Théorie des lois criminelles”, I, p.

95. Of a literature that has long been copious may be named,

especially, the interesting work of Pestalozzi, “Ueber Gesetzgebung und

Kindermord.”

[1046] Cf. Sutherland, “Origin and Growth of the Moral Instinct”, I,

pp. 113 ff.

[1047] [Note to the American Edition: Of the recent literature upon

infanticide I would call attention to: W. Gleispach, “Ueber

Kindesmord”; A. Amschl, “Das Verbrechen des Kindesmordes nach

oesterreichischem Recht”; G. van Dijck, “Eenige beschouwingen over het

misdrijf van kindermoord”; W. Kürbitz-Sonnenschein, “Der Geisteszustand

der Kindermörderinnen.”]

[1048] It seems to me that Lombroso and Laschi extend the conception of

political crime too much in making it any revolt against the

authorities, as they do in their work, “Der politische Verbrecher und

die Revolutionen”. Very often these troubles are only more or less

serious fights with the police and have no political character at all.

Opinions may differ as to the value of Professor Lombroso’s works, but

I cannot imagine how any one can admire his work upon political crime.

It is full of mistakes and superficial observations.

[1049] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. Vallon and Genil-Perrin,

“Crime et altruisme” (“Archives d’anthr. crim.”, XXVIII).]

[1050] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. upon political crimes in

Russia: E. Tarnowsky, “Les crimes politiques en Russie” (“Archives

d’anthr. crim.” XII), and A. Wadler, “Die politische Verbrechen in

Russland” (“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strafrw.” XXIX).]

[1051] See Dubois, “Le péril anarchiste”, pp. 25 ff.; Aubry, “La

contagion du meurtre”, pp. 256 ff.; and Enthoven, “Het anarchisme van

de daad”, ch. II.

[1052] Cf. Lombroso, “Les anarchistes”, p. 116.

[1053] Cf. Hamon, “Psychologie de l’anarchiste-socialiste”, ch. IV.

[1054] Lombroso, “Les anarchistes”, pp. 143, 144.

[1055] Cf. Seuffert, “Anarchismus und Strafrecht”, pp. 12 ff.

[1056] Cf. Hamon, op. cit., ch. V, and Lombroso, “Les anarchistes”, pp.

131 ff.

[1057] Some authors claim that active anarchists are ordinary

criminals. But see Hamon, op. cit., p. 15.

[1058] With regard to Caserio see Lacassagne, “L’assassinat du

président Carnot”, pp. 535 and 539, and the unsigned article, “Caserio

en prison”, both in “Arch. d’anthr. crim.”, LX and XVI respectively.

[Note to the American Edition: Upon Lucheni see further Forel,

“Verbrechen und konstitutionelle Seelenabnormitäten” and Ladame and

Régis, “Le régicide Lucheni.” The books of H. Varennes, “De Ravachol à

Caserio”, and of Hesse, “Les criminels peints par eux-mêmes” III,

“L’apostolat”, contain interesting information upon the active

anarchists.]

[1059] An exposition of the anarchistic theories has been given by Dr.

Eltzbacher, “Der Anarchismus”, and a very just critique of this subject

is that of Plechanow, “Anarchismus und Sozialismus.”

[Note to the American Edition: Upon Anarchism in general see further:

H. Zoccoli, “Die anarchie.”]

[1060] Tarde, “Les crimes de haine” (“Arch. d’anthr. crim.”, IX,

reproduced also in “Essais et mélanges sociologiques”).

[1061] It is impossible to fix the percentage of these cases, the

judges in general not being enough in touch with modern ideas etc.

[1062] See Benedikt, “Biologie und Kriminalstatistik”, p. 489

(“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.”, VII); Näcke, “Verbrechen und Wahnsinn

beim Weibe”, p. 175; “Die neueren Erscheinungen auf

kriminal-anthropologischen Gebiete und ihre Bedeutung”, p. 340

(“Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Strw.”, XIV).

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Th. Ziehen, “Die Erkennung der

psychopathischen Konstitutionen und die öffentliche Fürsorge für

psychopathisch veranlagte Kinder”, and Stier, op. cit., p. 99.]

[1063] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. R. Gaupp, “Ueber den heutigen

Stand der Lehre vom ‘geborenen’ Verbrecher”, and J. Longard, “Ueber

‘Moral insanity.’” De Lanessan truly says that although these

individual causes are found in equal proportions in the two sexes,

women are much less criminal than men (“La lutte contre le crime”, p.

146).]

[1064] See above, pp. 439 ff. Also Patijn, “Atavisme en Misdaad”

(“Tijdschrift v. Strafr.”, V).

[1065] P. 106, “Tijdschrift v. Strafrecht”, VI.

[1066] P. 339. In further refutation from the anthropological

standpoint see Ch. Féré, “Dégénérescence et criminalité”, ch. V;

Manouvrier, “L’atavisme et le crime” (“L’ère nouvelle”, 1894);

Dallemagne, “Les théories de la criminalité”, ch. I; and Aschaffenburg,

“Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung”, pp. 170, 171.

[1067] Upon the criminal as morally insane see: Baer, op. cit., pp. 380

ff.; Näcke, op. cit., p. 341; and Dallemagne, op. cit., ch. III.

Upon the criminal as epileptic see: Baer, op. cit., pp. 384 ff.;

Dallemagne, op. cit., ch. III; and Aschaffenburg, op. cit., p. 172.

[1068] Cf. Lacassagne and E. Martin, “Des résultats positifs et

indiscutables que l’anthropologie criminelle peut fournir à

l’élaboration ou l’application des lois” (Compte rendu du Ve Congrès

d’anthrop. crim.).

[1069] Kurella is one of the rare authors who denies this (see

“Naturgeschichte des Verbrechers”, pp. 258 ff.).

[1070] Upon page 107 of the article cited Professor Jelgersma shows

that certain really atavistic stigmata found in some criminals are very

well explained by degeneracy.

[1071] [Note to the American Edition: Cf. further: K. Birnbaum, “Die

psychopathischen Verbrecher”, and Stelzner, op. cit.]

[1072] “La famille névropathique”, p. 10.

[1073] “Dégénérés et déséquilibrés”, p. 168.

[1074] Op. cit., p. 102. See also Kende, “Die Entartung des

Menschengeschlechts”, p. 34.

[1075] [Note to the American Edition: Upon the relation between disease

and society see the fundamental work “Krankheit und soziale Lage”

(edited by M. Mosse and Tugendreich with collaboration of several

authorities).

It should also be mentioned here that the eugenists (e.g. Schallmayer

in the book just cited, pp. 841 ff.) deny that the causes mentioned

under first and second have any significance in heredity.]

[1076] “Les causes de la folie”, p. 34.

[1077] Stinca, “Le milieu social comme facteur pathologique”, p. 148

(“L’ère nouvelle”, 1894).

[1078] See Féré, “La famille névropathique”, pp. 133 ff.

[1079] “Verbrechen und Wahnsinn beim Weibe”, p. 155.

[1080] Cf. Maudsley, “The Physiology and Pathology of Mind”, pp. 232,

233.

[1081] Quoted by Lux, “Sozialpolitisches Handbuch”, pp. 71, 72.

[1082] Cf. Zadek, “Die Achtstundentag eine gesundheitliche Forderung”,

pp. 12 ff.

[1083] Quoted by Lux, p. 173. See also Toulouse, op. cit., p. 68.

[1084] See Braun, “Die Frauenfrage”, pp. 312 ff.

[1085] Cf. Näcke, “Verbrechen und Wahnsinn beim Weibe”, p. 196.

[1086] Upon the relation of the condition of the poorer classes to

degeneracy, cf. Zerboglio, “La fin de la névrose” (“Devenir Social”, I)

and “Les bases économiques de la santé” (“Devenir Social”, III); “Die

Not des Vierten Standes” (anonymous); Fornasari di Verce, “La

criminalità e le vicende economiche in Italia”, pp. 5–10; Dallemagne,

“Dégénérés et déséquilibrés”, p. 142; and Aschaffenburg, “Das

Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung”, p. 172.

[Note to the American Edition: Cf. Niceforo, op. cit., pp. 474 ff.]

[1087] Cf. Toulouse, op. cit., p. 86, and Zerboglio, “La fin de la

névrose”, p. 630.

[1088] Pp. 103, 104.

[1089] Op. cit., pp. 233–235.

[1090] Cf. Battaglia, “La dinamica del delitto”, p. 412; Näcke, op.

cit., p. 156; Zerboglio, “La fin de la névrose”, p. 629. Toulouse, op.

cit., p. 85; Kraepelin, “Psychiatrie”, I, pp. 88, 89; Hellpach,

“Soziale Ursachen und Wirkungen der Nervosität”

(“Politisch-anthropologische Revue”, i).

[1091] Cf. Toulouse, op. cit., pp. 224 ff.

[1092] “Die Prostitution im XIX Jahrhundert”, p. 33; see also by the

same author, “Hygiene der Prostitution und venerischen Krankheiten”,

pp. 7 ff. Cf. also Kende, op. cit., p. 90, and Dr. M. Alsberg,

“Erbliche Entartung bedingt durch soziale Einflüsse”, p. 20.

[1093] “Hygiene der Prostitution etc.” p. 35.

Above we have seen that prostitution increases and diminishes with the

fluctuations of economic conditions. Dr. Schoenlank proves in his “Die

Syphilis und die Sozialzustände” (“Neue Zeit”, 1887) that syphilis also

increases and diminishes in these periods, an added proof of the

intimate connection of syphilis and prostitution.

[1094] Cf. Hellpach, “Der Kampf gegen die Geschlechtskrankheiten”, p.

197 (“Sozialistische Monatshefte”, VII).

[1095] Blaschko, “Die Prostitution etc.”, p. 32.

[1096] “Dégénérés et déséquilibrés”, p. 167.

[1097] Some authorities are of the opinion that children conceived

during a state of intoxication run the danger of being degenerates;

others, however, doubt this. See Grotjahn, “Der Alkoholismus”, p. 165.

[1098] “Conséquences sociales de l’alcoolisme des ascendants au point

de vue de la dégénérescence, de la morale et de la criminalité”, pp.

160–165 (“Compte Rendu IVe Congr. d’anthr. crim.”). For other figures

see also: de Vaucleroy, “Influence de l’hérédité alcoolique sur la

folie et la criminalité” (“Actes du IIIme Congr. d’anthr. crim.”);

Grotjahn, op. cit., pp. 166 ff.; Verhaeghe, “De l’alcoolisation”, pp.

112 ff.

[1099] See Toulouse, op. cit., pp. 163–167; and Grotjahn, op. cit., p.

220.

[1100] See Toulouse, op. cit., p. 178.