commit these acts have nothing in common with ordinary criminals but
the name. Most criminals are individuals whose social sentiments are
reduced to a minimum, and who injure others purely for the satisfaction
of their own desires. The political criminals of whom we are speaking,
on the other hand, are the direct opposite; they risk their most sacred
interests, their liberty and their life, for the benefit of society;
they injure the ruling class only to aid the oppressed classes, and
consequently all humanity. While the ordinary criminal is generally
“l’homme canaille” (as van Benedikt phrases it in his “Biologie und
Kriminalstatistik”) the political criminal is “homo nobilis.” History
rights the matter, for the name of the ordinary great criminal is
pronounced only with horror, and ends by falling into oblivion, while
the political criminal survives in the memory of posterity as a hero.
[1049]
We must put in the same class the political criminals who aim to
deliver a subjugated people from their oppressors. The authors of these
crimes also have nothing in common with ordinary criminals.
Besides these two kinds of political crimes, which are plainly
collective in their nature, there are cases of crimes committed by
individuals which for the most part are attempts upon the life of the
monarch or of one of his representatives. The more absolute a
government, the more liberty is restricted, and the less chance there
is, consequently, of seeing the situation changed by legal means, the
greater will become the danger that one of those oppressed will kill
the autocrat, either to better the situation or to take revenge for
what he and his have suffered. Anyone who wants to follow the genesis
of this kind of crime has only to turn to Russia. There all the factors
meet which lead to political homicide; the repression of all freedom, a
corrupt bureaucracy, and the impossibility of obtaining the least
change by legal means.
These circumstances naturally excite the revengeful feelings which
sooner or later show themselves in acts. Though we may have the
conviction that these acts are almost always useless, though we may
have a deep aversion to violence—this does not justify us in ranking
those who do these things with ordinary criminals. It matters not how
we may abhor violence as such; every reasonable man will justify it
when it serves to defend oneself, and most of the acts of political
criminals in Russia are only acts of defense against the unheard-of
cruelty and violence of the government. [1050]
Finally there remains a third kind of political crimes, analogous to
ordinary crime, the assassination of the monarch by individuals who
thus attempt to place themselves in power. These are actuated by the
same vile motives that inspire the robber-murderer—cupidity, desire to
dominate, etc.
Now what are the political crimes committed in our days? Leaving aside
the case of Russia, which is still living in an epoch that western
Europe has left behind, there are only the political crimes of
socialists and anarchists. There is little to be said about those
committed by socialists. The international social democracy attempts to
reach its end by legal means. Since the fall of absolutism it has been
possible to exercise an influence on the state in this way, an
influence which varies with the country. It is this possibility that
the social democracy makes use of. In conformity with its fundamental
principles it rejects all violence against the head of the state.
Accordingly its partisans have never committed such acts. The more
democratic the constitution of a country, the less justification the
social democracy will have for political crimes, as in Switzerland, for
example, a country where the penal code, moreover, mentions but few
political crimes. In other countries, where the democratic institutions
are weak, where the constitutional monarchy has still an absolutist
character, and where social democracy has become powerful, as in
Germany, political crimes are inevitable. Their number, however, is
insignificant in comparison with ordinary crimes. From a criminological
point of view they have little importance, though often punished
severely, and they are generally limited to the crime of leze majesty.
Social democrats are, then, sometimes guilty of minor political
offenses, and in some countries only. Whether this party will not in
the future be guilty of crime of the great political type, or, in other
words, whether it will not come to political revolution, is another
question and one that no one can answer with certainty. Like all the
bourgeoisie when the contest with the feudal classes was still going
on, the social democrats are a revolutionary class; they wish to place
society upon a basis different from the present one. It is possible
that in democratic countries they will attain this by legal means, and
consequently without there being any reason for political crime.
However, it may also happen that at a given moment when the proletariat
forms the majority of the legislative body, the ruling class may have
recourse to a “coup d’état”, to a political crime, in order to prevent
the proletariat from governing. This possibility is even a probability
in some countries, where the opposition of classes is very marked. In
Germany, for example, where the social democracy is very powerful, it
is very likely that the government will attempt some day to suppress
universal suffrage by a “coup d’état.” It is only in such a case that
the social democracy will in its turn abandon the legal way and be
forced to have recourse to other methods.
In the second place there are the political crimes of anarchists. Their
number is not great enough for us to learn their etiology from
statistics. [1051] We must therefore analyze individual cases. What are
the individuals that are guilty of these? The anarchists of the
propaganda are most exclusively young men. Leauthier and Langs were 20
years old, Angelillo also, Henry 21, Caserio 21, Schwabe 23, Pallas 24,
Lucheni 25, Vaillant and Bresci 31, and Salvador 33, at the time they
committed their crimes, and as far as I know there were none of them
who were over 33. In disposition they were very excitable. As soon as
an idea took hold of them they thought of nothing else. Chance brought
them into contact with anarchism which immediately made a conquest of
them. Brought up in another environment they would have become, for
example, religious devotees; in fact Caserio, Salvador, Vaillant,
Cyvoct, and Henry were such before becoming anarchists. [1052]
Extreme individualism is also a characteristic of theirs. [1053] They
abhor discipline, from which it follows that they nourish a fierce
hatred of militarism. Even a mild form of discipline, such as that of a
party of which one voluntarily becomes a member, is insupportable to
them. Some of them have been socialists, but have soon left the party.
Among these was Henry, who says in his defense: “For an instant I was
attracted by socialism, but I did not delay in separating myself from
this party. I had too much love for liberty, too much respect for
individual initiative, too much repugnance to incorporation, to take a
number in the enlisted army of the fourth estate.” [1054]
Another characteristic of nearly all active anarchists, and one
intimately connected with the preceding, is great vanity. Lucheni, for
instance, in speaking of his crime said, “I wanted to kill a person of
note, because that would get into print.” Vaillant had himself
photographed before making his attack, distributed his portraits right
and left, and when arrested asked whether the journals had printed his
picture, etc.
These traits of character, observed in the case of these individuals,
are not rare; vain and excitable individualists are fairly numerous,
yet almost none become active anarchists. We must therefore seek the
explanation elsewhere, and ask ourselves the question, in what
environment have they lived? When the president of the tribunal before
which Lucheni appeared, asked him what was the motive that led him to
commit his act, he replied, “It was poverty.” This is applicable to
almost all the active anarchists. See, for example, the life of
Vaillant. An illegitimate child without any education, he had to earn
his living at the age of 12; having escaped from his employer, with
whom he was living, he implored his mother to take him in. Rebuffed he
had himself arrested by the police, but when he was once more brought
back to his parents they refused anew to receive him. He tried to make
his own way, but failed in all that he undertook. It was when
embittered by all the miseries he had experienced that he became
acquainted with socialism, but finding this too theoretical he ranked
himself on the side of the anarchists, and the last link in this chain
of misery was his well-known crime. [1055]
There are authors who claim that poverty is not to be considered as one
of the principal causes of anarchy, and in support of their assertion
cite the case of Henry and some others, who while not living in easy
circumstances, yet did not know the blackest poverty. Those who reason
thus have a false notion of the motives that impel anarchists. It is
not only the poverty that they have themselves experienced that moves
them, but also, and chiefly, the poverty of others. Those who remain
insensible to the sufferings of their neighbors never become
anarchists; for not being able to draw any personal profit from
anarchism, they consider it madness. Placed in unfavorable conditions
such persons become ordinary criminals, or commit suicide. They never
sacrifice themselves for an ideal.
Thus we come to another psychological trait of the anarchists, namely
that they are born with pronounced altruistic tendencies. [1056] It is
their altruism which separates them from the ordinary great criminal,
whose social instincts are very weak. [1057]
It seems paradoxical to say that persons who commit such acts are of an
altruistic nature, but the paradox is only apparent. When two persons,
an egoist and an altruist, see a child being maltreated, the former
goes on his way saying that he would only get himself into trouble if
he interfered; the latter, on the other hand, delivers the child from
his tormentor, to whom he may give a good thrashing in addition. Here
the violent person is the altruist, the other the egoist. Every
comparison is imperfect, and this is the case with the one before us,
but there is some analogy between the act cited and those of the
anarchists. The crimes which they commit are egoistic towards certain
persons, but altruistic with reference to others. As a consequence of
their own poverty and of the irritation they feel when they see that of
their fellows, they have been seized with a hatred of society and wish
to avenge themselves. These sentiments are not tempered by much
intellectual development. This is a very important factor in the
development of active anarchism. Almost all these persons are either
very ignorant or have only an elementary education, some know a little
more, and persons of thorough education are not found at all among
them. Further, most of them lack pronounced intellectual aptitudes, but
are rather especially impulsive. [1058]
These individuals, excitable, vain, with little intellectual capacity,
and ignorant in addition, but oppressed by their own poverty and that
of others, and filled with a hatred of society, come into contact with
anarchism. It is unnecessary to give an exposition of this doctrine;
[1059] the active anarchists in their ignorance get no clear idea of
any theory whatever, and certainly not of anything as vague and
confused as anarchism. They have heard it said that it looks to the
formation of a society of altruists where there will be no more
poverty, and this appeals to their altruistic instincts; at the same
time anarchism gives a preponderating part to the individual, and this
draws their vanity. Thus their hate increases, and at the same time
attaches itself to certain individuals, whom anarchism holds
responsible for existing conditions. Further, the absurd opinion has
been instilled into them that it is possible for society to be
reorganized at a single stroke, and that to attain this end it will be
necessary to use violence.
Is it astonishing that such individuals come to attempt homicide? No;
to be sure all persons of this kind do not go so far; for that it would
be necessary that other conditions should be complied with. It is plain
that persons with a great aversion to violence would run little risk of
attempting an assassination; with others it is courage that is lacking;
others still attach too high a price to life and liberty to be willing
to risk them; etc. We must note this last point especially. Generally
active anarchists are persons who care nothing for a life in which they
have nothing further to lose. Their conduct in court and their
indifference in the face of death are proof of this; knowing beforehand
that they will almost certainly not go unpunished their act is often an
indirect suicide.
If we ask what the active anarchists wish to attain by their crimes the
answer is principally that they wish to avenge upon society the misery
experienced by others and by themselves, [1060] they wish to terrorize
the ruling classes, in order to force upon them social reforms; they
wish to set an example to the working classes and finally, they wish to
satisfy their vanity, by making themselves talked of. Once committed,
the crime is often the commencement of a vicious circle, since society
avenges itself upon the author, who, in turn, is avenged by his
friends; imitation thus leading to new crimes.
As in the case of all other crimes, I find for anarchism only social
causes, and in the last analysis, only economic causes. To be sure, the
individuals who commit these crimes are already predisposed in that
direction, but this is true of other crimes also. Only the
predisposition in these latter is simple, while that which leads to
anarchistic crimes is much more complex. However, this predisposition
alone explains nothing. I would ask those who think that only
individual factors play any part, whether fanatical persons with all
the characteristics of the anarchists of our time have not been found
in all ages and countries. Everyone, I think, will answer in the
affirmative. Well then, anarchistic crimes have occurred only during a
certain period and in certain countries. No one can deny that there are
as many persons predisposed to anarchistic crimes in a country like
Germany, as there are in Italy, for example. Yet anarchistic crimes do
not occur in Germany, for the good reason that the material conditions
of the proletariat there are so much better than in Italy, and the
degree of intellectual development in the working people is so much
higher; the German working-man derides the “naïveté” of the anarchists,
and detests their futile crimes. It is in the environment alone then
that we find the causes of active anarchism, the poverty and ignorance
in which the lower classes live.
CHAPTER VI.
PATHOLOGICAL CRIMES.
So far we have been examining crime in its relation to the economic and
social environment. We have not been able to discover the existence of
individual factors; the celebrated formula, “crime = individual factor
+ social factor,” has been shown to be incorrect if we are seeking for
the causes of crime instead of asking why a certain individual has
become a criminal. The conclusion obtained by sociology is the same as
that arrived at in anthropology by authors like Manouvrier, Baer, and
Näcke.
However, when one is trying to determine the cause of crime by
sociology, certain cases are at times met with that cannot be explained
in this way. For example, one person will steal useless objects which
he is perfectly well able to buy; another will assault or kill without
provocation, etc. These cases, it is true, are the exception, but they
do exist and must not be neglected. [1061] We have here, then, real
individual factors, factors which are found in certain individuals
only. Other crimes, forming the great majority, are committed from
motives which form the basis of all human acts, but are stronger with
some few than they are with the general body of mankind. It is these
individuals who run more danger than most of committing a crime when
they live in a certain environment. The great mass of criminals differ
only quantitatively from persons who never get into the courts; the
criminals we are about to consider on the other hand differ
qualitatively also.
One thing more before we ask ourselves what this individual factor is.
As many authors have remarked, it very often happens that, even in the
cases we are about to treat, there is a social factor. [1062] The proof
of this is that individuals thus disposed to crime, but belonging to
the well-to-do classes, seldom get to the point of committing them;
because their education being better, the tendency is sooner noticed,
they are better watched, and thus their committing a crime is often
avoided. Born-criminals, in the sense of those who become criminals
whatever the circumstances may be (the only meaning that can properly
be given to the word “born” here), are doubtless very rare. [1063]
What, then, is the nature of this individual factor? It is especially
the Italian school that has busied itself with this problem, and in
doing so has rendered a service to science, although it has given an
undue importance to this individual factor, attempting to discover it
in all crimes. The first hypothesis given by Professor Lombroso was
that of atavism, according to which the criminal was an individual in
whom reappeared the characteristics of his remote ancestors, the desire
to steal, kill, etc. It will not be far from the truth if we assert
that almost no reputable scientist now accepts this hypothesis as
correct. It has been attacked both from the side of sociology and from
that of anthropology. Sociologists have proved that the facts
contradict Professor Lombroso’s thesis, for primitive peoples are
neither thieves nor murderers, and our ancestors, consequently, may be
regarded as cleared of the same charge. [1064]
Anthropologists also are strongly opposed to this hypothesis. In his
article, “De geboren misdadiger” (the born-criminal) Professor
Jelgersma says that most of the anomalies observed in certain criminals
have no atavistic character, such as unsymmetrical eyes and ears,
abnormal growth of hair, etc. [1065] Dr. A. Baer makes the same remark
in his “Der Verbrecher in anthropologischer Beziehung”, and goes on as
follows: “The number of such abnormalities, which betray a disordered
and an apparently genuine atavistic condition, is ... so small and so
accidental, that no force can be recognized in them that might serve
for the explanation of criminality, or establish a causal connection
with the criminal nature of an individual. Out of this mixture of
stigmata of the most various origin and importance, to attempt to find
the sole basis in their atavistic character is to do more than
permissible violence to the facts. [1066]
After this beginning the Italian school put forth another explanation,
to which it attached the more importance as the hypothesis of atavism
fell into discredit: the criminal is either an epileptic or morally
insane. Although the correctness of this hypothesis has not been proved
any more than the other, [1067] the Italian school here found itself in
a field recognized by criminal-anthropologists as its true one. At
present one has even the right to say that the opinion in this regard
is almost unanimous. [1068] The origin of the tendencies of part of the
criminals is to be found in the pathological nature of the individuals
themselves. [1069] These are disordered or degenerate, not, as some
authors would have us believe, individuals differing more or less from
the average, but persons who suffer from mental diseases, or whose
nervous system is affected. [1070]
Among those disordered and degenerate, some individuals [1071] have
tendencies not found in others (such as the desire to kill for the sake
of killing), or their moral sentiments are excessively weak. It is to
be noticed that we have met with degeneracy above, as it is to be named
among the causes of alcoholism and prostitution also. In treating of
economic crimes we saw that degenerates also run more danger than
others of succumbing in the struggle for existence, and hence become
criminals more easily. Thus we meet degeneracy both as a direct and as
an indirect cause of crime.
We might leave the matter here, for we have come to a field other than
that of sociology. However, one more question presents itself. To what
extent are the economic system and its consequences the cause of these
maladies? It is plain that this important question belongs in a work on
sociology. We shall accordingly attempt to answer it briefly with the
aid of competent authorities.
First of all, we note that heredity plays a great part in these
maladies. The authors who have taken up the subject agree. It has been
remarked that:
First, the inheritance of defects is not inevitable; degenerate parents
may have sound children, though the chances are not very great.
Second, the disease of the parents is not always transmitted as such to
the child, but the child may be predisposed to this same disease or one
analogous. Dr. Féré expresses this as follows: “The diseases of the
nervous system ... make up a single family, indissolubly united by the
laws of heredity ... everyone (of those who have these diseases), if he
is still fertile, can reproduce them all.” [1072]
In speaking of heredity we come to the first relation between the
diseases in question and the social environment, since, in our present
society, human reproduction is intimately bound up with the economic
life. A person who is diseased but rich is often in a position to marry
and procreate, while he would have had a smaller chance if sexual
selection alone had been effective. On the other hand many well and
strong individuals are prevented at present from establishing a family,
since they lack the means to support it.
A second harmful kind of selection in our present society is found in
the effect of militarism, which takes the strongest individuals,
decimates them in time of war, or returns them to society weakened and
diseased, while the weak have the greater chance to procreate.
In the third place, the ignorance of the harmful effects for humanity
of the reproduction of degenerates is one of the principal reasons why
degeneracy is so frequently present. This ignorance is great in the
well-to-do classes, and naturally greater still among the poor. It is
often repeated, and with truth, that man takes great care to improve
his live stock by selection but takes none whatever in the matter of
his own race; the weak and the diseased continue to reproduce
themselves to the detriment of all society. The lack of all feeling of
responsibility, natural to our intensely individualistic society, also
contributes its share toward bringing to birth so many unhappy
creatures for whom it would have been better if they had never existed.
If we ask how it happens that one individual or another is degenerate,
we must answer that very often this degeneracy is due to heredity,
either in part or altogether. But if we enquire into the causes of
degeneracy in general heredity ceases to be a cause. As Professor
Dallemagne says: “Heredity creates nothing; from heredity to heredity
we must still go back to the cause.” [1073]
What are at present the principal characteristics of the relation
between degeneracy and the present economic system with its
consequences? Some authors in treating of the etiology of degeneracy
express themselves only in general terms, and point out no other cause
than “unfavorable circumstances.” Professor Jelgersma, for example,
says: “The simple psychoses, melancholia, mania, etc. are caused by
unfavorable circumstances. The cause of the psychoses of degeneracy is
deeper; the unfavorable circumstances have exercised their influence
from generation to generation, and thus an individual is born who is
abnormal from birth.” [1074]
These unfavorable circumstances must be more precisely defined,
therefore. We shall divide them into four great groups. [1075]
First. The material condition of the poor classes. “To be well,” says
Dr. Toulouse, “one must be sufficiently fed, must clothe himself
according to the season, be clean, not work beyond one’s strength, and
be more or less exempt from care.” [1076] This is a simple truth of
which all the world is convinced when it is a question of themselves or
of their families, but which the physicians forget only too often when
they are speaking of the social causes of diseases. [1077]
In the first place the poor classes are badly and insufficiently fed,
and as a consequence grow weak, and the children born to them are
inferior physically and mentally. The insufficient nourishment of the
mother during her pregnancy, and the insufficient nourishment of the
child during the first years of his life, are especially fatal to him.
Then those who are badly fed are predisposed to tuberculosis, scrofula,
and rickets, which, in their turn, may be the causes of degeneracy.
[1078] Rickety women often have a contraction of the pelvis, which
hinders child-birth, and may cause a lesion to the infant’s brain.
Note, for example, the opinion of Dr. Näcke, who says: “The social
misery, bad hygiene and food ... often enough beget a miserable
generation and must already have injured the germ. The same causes,
however, on the other hand easily produce feeble women with
qualitatively and quantitatively insufficient milk, and most of all
with a narrow pelvis, through which births take place with difficulty
and to the detriment of the brain of the child. If now the above named
factors come in later to affect the child, the derangement of nutrition
will be further increased, and it is no wonder if all kinds of rickety
and scrofulous symptoms appear in the body, and all kinds of children’s
ailments injure both body and mind.” [1079]
In the second place, unsanitary dwellings and insufficient clothing are
the cause of all sorts of diseases, especially tuberculosis, which in
their turn may lead to degeneracy. [1080] The density of population in
the great cities exercises its influence in the same direction.
In the third place, the long duration and intensity of the work forced
upon the proletariat also contribute to degeneracy. For each individual
there is a fixed measure of labor that he cannot pass without
experiencing harmful consequences in body and mind. Dr. Lewy describes
them as follows: “The consequences of immoderately long hours of labor
are, a certain overexcitement of the nervous system, which later gives
place to a permanent debility, with which may be associated a dull
headache as well as an inability to think clearly. If the overwork
continues for a longer time, soon all the systems of the body are
affected, the heart and larger arteries as well are injured in
structure and function, disturbances of the regular circulation appear,
manifested partly in swellings in various parts of the body, especially
in the feet, and partly through hemorrhages. The brain ceases to
function regularly, and so-called brain-symptoms appear, such as
vertigo, ringing in the ears, deafness, defective vision, paralysis,
and apoplexy. In the same way the liver, kidneys, and the digestive
tract may be drawn into the general weakening process. The muscles
become weak and slack, the body disposed to epidemic diseases, but
especially prepared to vocational diseases, to which persons in a
run-down condition most easily fall victim. If, then, the end of the
worker is not brought about prematurely by some intercurrent disease
like typhus, under the immoderate strain he uses up his existing forces
faster than he is in a position to replace them, and wastes away with
tuberculosis of the lungs, so much the quicker, of course, the weaker
he is constitutionally, and the younger he was when he had to submit to
excessive labor.” [1081]
The harmful consequences of long working hours make themselves felt
especially in the trades which are already dangerous to health, like
those where there is a great deal of dust produced, or those which use
poisons like lead, mercury, etc. [1082] Monotony of work joined with
long hours is also a cause of physical and intellectual deterioration.
Professor Vogt says: “The less variety work presents, the more
fatiguing is it, since it is only the same part of the muscles that are
continually called upon, while the rest of the muscular system, in
accordance with a well-known physiological law, degenerates from misuse
and wastes away. To a still higher degree the uniformity of work has a
deteriorating effect upon the mental powers; these become weakened much
more quickly in the case of long continued fatigue than the muscles,
while the unexercised mental faculties at the same time become
stunted.” [1083]
The present economic system has also led to the work of women and
children, and consequently to an important cause of the degeneration of
the race. The number of women forced to take part in trades for which
they are ill-fitted by nature is very great. The fear of being
discharged, and the impossibility of doing without their wages make
women with child continue to work up to the last moment of their
pregnancy, and recommence shortly after childbirth, leading to very
harmful results both for them and for their children. [1084] Then child
labor prevents the normal development of the children and ages them
prematurely. [1085]
Further, the cares and restlessness consequent upon the uncertainty of
life may be causes of the weakening of the nervous system and the
origin of a neurosis.
Finally, when an individual of this class falls sick his restoration to
health may be hindered by the lack of care and medical assistance and
the necessity of recommencing work too soon. [1086]
Second. The condition of the well-to-do classes. Most of the causes
producing degeneracy in the poor classes do not appear among the
well-to-do. With the latter there can be no question of insufficient
food or clothing, or of bad housing. Yet in the well-to-do classes the
idle, from their manner of living and this lack of regular exercise,
are led to excesses of all kinds, which may make them too, in another
way, subject to degeneracy. [1087]
In the active part of the bourgeoisie, among the manufacturers,
merchants, etc., the case is different. They are constantly absorbed in
the question of how to increase their wealth, or, if they are
unfortunate, they live in fear of losing the position gained. They are
in a state of agitation, of permanent overexcitement. So there are
numbers in the bourgeois class who overtax their minds, with the
resulting chance of neurasthenia, even where the individual is not
predisposed to it. All this applies also to the liberal professions,
though in a smaller degree; there also the great competition has
harmful consequences for the nerves. In “La famille névropathique” Dr.
Féré thus describes the consequences of overdriving: “... excessive
cerebral labor, intellectual and, still more, moral overwork, the
continual preoccupations of the struggle for existence are conditions
eminently fit to bring on functional troubles in the nervous system.
Neurasthenia, like hysteria, may be considered as a chronic fatigue.
The fatigue, to be sure, gives place to a number of troubles peculiar
to neurasthenia. And these troubles, even if only temporary, cannot
fail to have the most harmful effect upon children conceived under
these conditions.” [1088]
The opinion of the celebrated alienist Maudsley is also very
interesting; he says: “Perhaps one, and certainly not the least, of the
ill effects which spring from some of the conditions of our present
civilization, is seen in the general dread and disdain of poverty, in
the eager passion to become rich. The practical gospel of the age,
testified everywhere by faith and works, is that of money-getting; men
are estimated mainly by the amount of their wealth, take social rank
accordingly, and consequently bend all their energies to acquire that
which gains them esteem and influence. The result is that in the higher
departments of trade and commerce speculations of all sorts are eagerly
entered on, and that many people are kept in a continued state of
excitement and anxiety by the fluctuations of the money market. In the
lower branches of trade there is the same eager desire for petty gains;
and the continued absorption of the mind in these small acquisitions
generates a littleness of mind and meanness of spirit, where it does
not lead to actual dishonesty, which are nowhere displayed in a more
pitiable form than by certain petty tradesmen. The occupation which a
man is entirely engaged in does not fail to modify his character, and
the reaction upon the individual’s nature of a life which is being
spent with the sole aim of becoming rich, is most baneful. It is not
that the fluctuations of excitement unhinge the merchant’s mind and
lead to maniacal outbreaks, although that does sometimes happen; it is
not that failure in the paroxysm of some crisis prostrates his energies
and makes him melancholic, although that also is occasionally
witnessed; but it is that exclusiveness of his life-aim and occupation
too often saps the moral or altruistic element in his nature, makes him
become egoistic, formal, and unsympathetic, and in his person
deteriorates the nature of humanity. What is the consequence? If one
conviction has been fixed in my mind more distinctly than another by
observation of instances, it is that it is extremely unlikely such a
man will beget healthy children; on the contrary, it is extremely
likely that the deterioration of nature which he has acquired will be
transmitted as an evil heritage to his children. In several instances
in which the father has toiled upwards from poverty to vast wealth,
with the aim and hope of founding a family, I have witnessed the
results in a degeneracy, mental and physical, of his offspring, which
has sometimes gone as far as extinction of the family in the third or
fourth generation. When the evil is not so extreme as madness or
ruinous vice, the savour of a mother’s influence having been present,
it may still be manifest in an instinctive cunning and duplicity, and
an extreme selfishness of nature—a nature not having the capacity of a
true moral conception or altruistic feeling. Whatever opinion other
more experienced observers may hold, I cannot but think, after what I
have seen, that the extreme passion for getting rich, absorbing the
whole energies of life, does predispose to mental degeneration in the
offspring—either to moral defect, or to moral and intellectual
deficiency, or to outbreaks of positive insanity under the conditions
of life.” [1089]
We could cite a number of other competent authorities to prove that the
present economic system exacts from those who direct production also,
intellectual efforts such as the nervous system cannot endure
indefinitely. [1090]
Third. Syphilis. Aside from the fact that this malady is very probably
the cause of general paralysis, [1091] it takes its place among the
important factors of degeneracy to this extent, that the children of
syphilitics are often degenerates. This fact being generally recognized
we shall not dwell on it. The celebrated German specialist in syphilis,
Blaschko, says of it: “Syphilis leads to the birth of children who are
mentally and physically stunted, and often crippled and imbecile.”
[1092]
This would not be the time to speak of syphilis as a cause of
degeneracy, if the extension of this malady were not intimately bound
up with prostitution, which is, in its turn, determined by the economic
environment. Dr. Blaschko says of it: “The principal source of venereal
infection of course is, and remains, sexual intercourse outside of
wedlock, especially prostitution.” [1093]
As a social cause of the great extension of syphilis it is well to
point out the profound ignorance of the extent and the danger of
venereal diseases, [1094] to which less attention is paid than to
others (hospitals not receiving patients affected by them, relief funds
not aiding those having syphilis, etc.). Like other diseases these have
the most harmful consequences for those who live under bad conditions.
[1095]
Fourth. Alcoholism. Alcoholism undoubtedly belongs to the very
important causes of degeneracy. There are few questions upon which
competent authors are as unanimous as they are upon this. There is a
wealth of material for quotation but we will limit ourselves to the
words of Professor Dallemagne, who, after quoting the opinion of such
authorities as Morel, Magnan, and others concludes by saying: “Alcohol
is an essential factor of degeneracy. It can by itself create all the
degenerate and unbalanced states, and this question appears definitely
decided.” [1096] Dr. Legrain gives the following figures upon the
consequences of chronic alcoholism of the parents upon the children.
[1097] Out of 215 families of alcoholics in four generations (814
individuals) there were found: 42% of alcoholics, 60.9% of degenerates,
13.9% morally insane, 22.7% had had convulsions, 20% were hysterical or
epileptic, and 19% were insane. [1098] These are striking figures, and
banish all doubt of the harmful influence of alcohol!
It must still further be observed, that the very frequent adulteration
of alcohol leads to especially harmful consequences; [1099] and that
alcohol exerts an especially harmful effect upon the ill-nourished.
[1100]
We have come now to the end of our remarks upon the social and economic
causes of degeneracy. Although they are plainly not the only ones, yet
it is certain that their part in the etiology of degeneracy is very
important, and even preponderating.
CHAPTER VII.
CONCLUSIONS.
What are the conclusions to be drawn from what has gone before? When we
sum up the results that we have obtained it becomes plain that economic
conditions occupy a much more important place in the etiology of crime
than most authors have given them.
First we have seen that the present economic system and its
consequences weaken the social feelings. The basis of the economic
system of our day being exchange, the economic interests of men are
necessarily found to be in opposition. This is a trait that capitalism
has in common with other modes of production. But its principal
characteristic is that the means of production are in the hands of a
few, and most men are altogether deprived of them. Consequently,
persons who do not possess the means of production are forced to sell
their labor to those who do, and these, in consequence of their
economic preponderance, force them to make the exchange for the mere
necessaries of life, and to work as much as their strength permits.
This state of things especially stifles men’s social instincts; it
develops, on the part of those with power, the spirit of domination,
and of insensibility to the ills of others, while it awakens jealousy
and servility on the part of those who depend upon them. Further the
contrary interests of those who have property, and the idle and
luxurious life of some of them, also contribute to the weakening of the
social instincts.
The material condition, and consequently the intellectual condition, of
the proletariat are also a reason why the moral plane of that class is
not high. The work of children brings them into contact with persons to
associate with whom is fatal to their morals. Long working hours and
monotonous labor brutalize those who are forced into them; bad housing
conditions contribute also to debase the moral sense, as do the
uncertainty of existence, and finally absolute poverty, the frequent
consequence of sickness and unemployment. Ignorance and lack of
training of any kind also contribute their quota. Most demoralizing of
all is the status of the lower proletariat.
The economic position of woman contributes also to the weakening of the
social instincts.
The present organization of the family has great importance as regards
criminality. It charges the legitimate parents with the care of the
education of the child; the community concerns itself with the matter
very little. It follows that a great number of children are brought up
by persons who are totally incapable of doing it properly. As regards
the children of the proletariat, there can be no question of the
education properly so-called, on account of the lack of means and the
forced absence of one or both of the parents. The school tends to
remedy this state of things, but the results do not go far enough. The
harmful consequences of the present organization of the family make
themselves felt especially in the case of the children of the lower
proletariat, orphans, and illegitimate children. For these the
community does but little, though their need of adequate help is the
greatest.
Prostitution, alcoholism, and militarism, which result, in the last
analysis, from the present social order, are phenomena that have
demoralizing consequences.
As to the different kinds of crime, we have shown that the very
important group of economic criminality finds its origin on the one
side in the absolute poverty and the cupidity brought about by the
present economic environment, and on the other in the moral abandonment
and bad education of the children of the poorer classes. Then,
professional criminals are principally recruited from the class of
occasional criminals, who, finding themselves rejected everywhere after
their liberation, fall lower and lower. The last group of economic
crimes (fraudulent bankruptcy, etc.) is so intimately connected with
our present mode of production, that it would not be possible to commit
it under another.
The relation between sexual crimes and economic conditions is less
direct; nevertheless these also give evidence of the decisive influence
of these conditions. We have called attention to the four following
points.
First, there is a direct connection between the crime of adultery and
the present organization of society, which requires that the legal
dissolution of a marriage should be impossible or very difficult.
Second, sexual crimes upon adults are committed especially by unmarried
men; and since the number of marriages depends in its turn upon the
economic situation, the connection is clear; and those who commit these
crimes are further almost exclusively illiterate, coarse, raised in an
environment almost without sexual morality, and regard the sexual life
from the wholly animal side.
Third, the causes of sexual crime upon children are partly the same as
those of which we have been speaking, with the addition of
prostitution.
Fourth, alcoholism greatly encourages sexual assaults.
As to the relation between crimes of vengeance and the present
constitution of society, we have noted that it produces conflicts
without number; statistics have shown that those who commit them are
almost without exception poor and uncivilized, and that alcoholism is
among the most important causes of these crimes.
Infanticide is caused in part by poverty, and in part by the opprobrium
incurred by the unmarried mother (an opprobrium resulting from the
social utility of marriage).
Political criminality comes solely from the economic system and its
consequences.
Finally, economic and social conditions are also important factors in
the etiology of degeneracy, which is in its turn a cause of crime.
Upon the basis of what has gone before, we have a right to say that the
part played by economic conditions in criminality is preponderant, even
decisive.
This conclusion is of the highest importance for the prevention of
crime. If it were principally the consequence of innate human qualities
(atavism, for example), the pessimistic conclusion that crime is a
phenomenon inseparably bound up with the social life would be well
founded. But the facts show that it is rather the optimistic conclusion
that we must draw, that where crime is the consequence of economic and
social conditions, we can combat it by changing those conditions.
However important crime may be as a social phenomenon, however terrible
may be the injuries and the evil that it brings upon humanity, the
development of society will not depend upon the question as to what are
the conditions which could restrain crime or make it disappear, if
possible; the evolution of society will proceed independently of this
question.
What is the direction that society will take under these continual
modifications? This is not the place to treat fully of this subject. In
my opinion the facts indicate quite clearly what the direction will be.
The productivity of labor has increased to an unheard of degree, and
will assuredly increase in the future. The concentration of the means
of production into the hands of a few progresses continually; in many
branches it has reached such a degree that the fundamental principle of
the present economic system, competition, is excluded, and has been
replaced by monopoly. On the other hand the working class is becoming
more and more organized, and the opinion is very generally held among
working-men that the causes of material and intellectual poverty can be
eliminated only by having the means of production held in common.
Supposing that this were actually realized, what would be the
consequences as regards criminality? Let us take up this question for a
moment. Although we can give only personal opinions as to the details
of such a society, the general outlines can be traced with certainty.
The chief difference between a society based upon the community of the
means of production and our own is that material poverty would be no
longer known. Thus one great part of economic criminality (as also one
part of infanticide) would be rendered impossible, and one of the
greatest demoralizing forces of our present society would be
eliminated. And then, in this way those social phenomena so productive
of crime, prostitution and alcoholism, would lose one of their
principal factors. Child labor and overdriving would no longer take
place, and bad housing, the source of much physical and moral evil,
would no longer exist.
With material poverty there would disappear also that intellectual
poverty which weighs so heavily upon the proletariat; culture would no
longer be the privilege of some, but a possession common to all. The
consequences of this upon criminality would be very important, for we
have seen that even in our present society with its numerous conflicts,
the members of the propertied classes, who have often but a veneer of
civilization, are almost never guilty of crimes of vengeance. There is
the more reason to admit that in a society where interests were not
opposed, and where civilization was universal, these crimes would be no
longer present, especially since alcoholism also proceeds in large part
from the intellectual poverty of the poorer classes. And what is true
of crimes of vengeance, is equally true of sexual crimes in so far as
they have the same etiology.
A large part of the economic criminality (and also prostitution to a
certain extent) has its origin in the cupidity excited by the present
economic environment. In a society based upon the community of the
means of production, great contrasts of fortune would, like commercial
capital, be lacking, and thus cupidity would find no food. These crimes
will not totally disappear so long as there has not been a
redistribution of property according to the maxim, “to each according
to his needs”, something that will probably be realized, but not in the
immediate future.
The changes in the position of woman which are taking place in our
present society, will lead, under this future mode of production, to
her economic independence, and consequently to her social independence
as well. It is accordingly probable that the criminality of woman will
increase in comparison with that of man during the transition period.
But the final result will be the disappearance of the harmful effects
of the economic and social preponderance of man.
As to the education of children under these new conditions it is
difficult to be definite. However, it is certain that the community
will concern itself seriously with their welfare. It will see to it
that the children whose parents cannot or will not be responsible for
them, are well cared for. By acting in this way it will remove one of
the most important causes of crime. There is no doubt that the
community will exercise also a strict control over the education of
children; it cannot be affirmed, however, that the time will come when
the children of a number of parents will be brought up together by
capable persons; this will depend principally upon the intensity that
the social sentiments may attain.
As soon as the interests of all are no longer opposed to each other, as
they are in our present society, there will no longer be a question
either of politics (“a fortiori” of political crimes) or of militarism.
Such a society will not only remove the causes which now make men
egoistic, but will awaken, on the contrary, a strong feeling of
altruism. We have seen that this was already the case with the
primitive peoples, where their economic interests were not in
opposition. In a larger measure this will be realized under a mode of
production in common, the interests of all being the same.
In such a society there can be no question of crime properly so called.
The eminent criminologist, Manouvrier, in treating of the prevention of
crime expresses himself thus: “The maxim to apply is, act so that every
man shall always have more interest in being useful to his fellows than
in harming them.” It is precisely in a society where the community of
the means of production has been realized that this maxim will obtain
its complete application. There will be crimes committed by
pathological individuals, but this will come rather within the sphere
of the physician than that of the judge. And then we may even reach a
state where these cases will decrease in large measure, since the
social causes of degeneracy will disappear, and procreation by
degenerates be checked through the increased knowledge of the laws of
heredity and the increasing sense of moral responsibility.
“It is society that prepares the crime”, says the true adage of
Quetelet. For all those who have reached this conclusion, and are not
insensible to the sufferings of humanity, this statement is sad, but
contains a ground of hope. It is sad, because society punishes severely
those who commit the crime which she has herself prepared. It contains
a ground of hope, since it promises to humanity the possibility of some
day delivering itself from one of its most terrible scourges.
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