Produced by Robert J. Hall
PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION
BY
THOMAS WOOD, A.M., LL.B.
THE BRADDOCK (PENNSYLVANIA) HIGH SCHOOL
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
NEW YORK CHICAGO
PREFACE
This book was begun as a result of the author's experience in teaching
some classes in English in the night preparatory department of
the Carnegie Technical Schools of Pittsburg. The pupils in those
classes were all adults, and needed only such a course as would
enable them to express themselves in clear and correct English.
English Grammar, with them, was not to be preliminary to the grammar
of another language, and composition was not to be studied beyond
the everyday needs of the practical man.
Great difficulty was experienced because of inability to secure a
text that was suited to the needs of the class. A book was needed
that would be simple, direct and dignified; that would cover grammar,
and the essential principles of sentence structure, choice of words,
and general composition; that would deal particularly with the sources
of frequent error, and would omit the non-essential points; and,
finally that would contain an abundance of exercises and practical
work.
It is with these ends in view that this book has been prepared. The
parts devoted to grammar have followed a plan varying widely from
that of most grammars, and an effort has been made to secure a more
sensible and effective treatment. The parts devoted to composition
contain brief expositions of only the essential principles of ordinary
composition. Especial stress has been laid upon letter-writing,
since this is believed to be one of the most practical fields for
actual composition work. Because such a style seemed best suited to
the general scheme and purpose of the book, the method of treatment
has at times been intentionally rather formal.
Abundant and varied exercises have been incorporated at frequent
intervals throughout the text. So far as was practicable the exercises
have been kept constructive in their nature, and upon critical
points have been made very extensive.
The author claims little credit except for the plan of the book
and for the labor that he has expended in developing the details of
that plan and in devising the various exercises. In the statement
of principles and in the working out of details great originality
would have been as undesirable as it was impossible. Therefore,
for these details the author has drawn from the great common stores
of learning upon the subjects discussed. No doubt many traces of
the books that he has used in study and in teaching may be found
in this volume. He has, at times, consciously adapted matter from
other texts; but, for the most part, such slight borrowings as
may be discovered have been made wholly unconsciously. Among the
books to which he is aware of heavy literary obligations are the
following excellent texts: Lockwood and Emerson's Composition and
Rhetoric, Sherwin Cody's Errors in Composition, A. H. Espenshade's
Composition and Rhetoric, Edwin C. Woolley's Handbook of Composition,
McLean, Blaisdell and Morrow's Steps in English, Huber Gray Buehler's
Practical Exercises in English, and Carl C. Marshall's Business
English.
To Messrs. Ginn and Company, publishers of Lockwood and Emerson's
Composition and Rhetoric, and to the Goodyear-Marshall Publishing
Company, publishers of Marshall's Business English, the author is
indebted for their kind permission to make a rather free adaptation
of certain parts of their texts.
Not a little gratitude does the author owe to those of his friends
who have encouraged and aided him in the preparation of his manuscript,
and to the careful criticisms and suggestions made by those persons
who examined the completed manuscript in behalf of his publishers.
Above all, a great debt of gratitude is owed to Mr. Grant Norris,
Superintendent of Schools, Braddock, Pennsylvania, for the encouragement
and painstaking aid he has given both in preparation of the manuscript
and in reading the proof of the book.
T.W.
BRADDOCK, PENNSYLVANIA.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I.--SENTENCES--PARTS OF SPEECH--ELEMENTS OF SENTENCE--PHRASES AND CLAUSES
II.--NOUNS
Common and Proper
Inflection Defined
Number
The Formation of Plurals
Compound Nouns
Case
The Formation of the Possessive Case
Gender
III.--PRONOUNS
Agreement with Antecedents
Person
Gender
Rules Governing Gender
Number
Compound Antecedents
Relative
Interrogative
Case Forms
Rules Governing Use of Cases
Compound Personal
Compound Relative
Adjective
Miscellaneous Cautions
IV.--ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
Comparison
Confusion of Adjectives and Adverbs
Improper Forms of Adjectives
Errors in Comparison
Singular and Plural Adjectives
Placing of Adverbs and Adjectives
Double Negatives
The Articles
V.--VERBS
Principal Parts
Name-form
Past Tense
Past Participle
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
Active and Passive Voice
Mode
Forms of the Subjunctive
Use of Indicative and Subjunctive
Agreement of Verb with its Subject
Rules Governing Agreement of the Verb
Miscellaneous Cautions
Use of _Shall_ and _Will_
Use of _Should_ and _Would_
Use of _May_ and _Might_, _Can_ and _Could_
Participles and Gerunds
Misuses of Participles and Gerunds
Infinitives
Sequence of Infinitive Tenses
Split Infinitives
Agreement of Verb in Clauses
Omission of Verb or Parts of Verb
Model Conjugations
_To Be_
_To See_
VI.--CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATIVE ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS,
AND PREPOSITIONS
Independent and Dependent Clauses
Case and Number of Relative and Interrogative Pronouns
Conjunctive or Relative Adverbs
Conjunctions
Placing of Correlatives
Prepositions
QUESTIONS FOR THE REVIEW OF GRAMMAR
A GENERAL EXERCISE ON GRAMMAR
VII.--SENTENCES
Loose
Periodic
Balanced
Sentence Length
The Essential Qualities of a Sentence
Unity
Coherence
Emphasis
Euphony
VIII.--CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION
Rules for Capitalization
Rules for Punctuation
IX.--THE PARAGRAPH
Length
Paragraphing of Speech
Indentation of the Paragraph
Essential Qualities of the Paragraph
Unity
Coherence
Emphasis
X.--LETTER-WRITING
Heading
Inside Address
Salutation
Body of the Letter
Close
Miscellaneous Directions
Outside Address
Correctly Written Letters
Notes in the Third Person
XI.--THE WHOLE COMPOSITION
Statement of Subject
The Outline
The Beginning
Essential Qualities of the Whole Composition
Unity
Coherence
The Ending
Illustrative Examples
Lincoln's _Gettysburg Speech_
Selection from _Cranford_
List of Books for Reading
XII.--WORDS--SPELLING--PRONUNCIATION
Words
Good Use
Offenses Against Good Use
Solecisms
Barbarisms
Improprieties
Idioms
Choice of Words
How to Improve One's Vocabulary
Spelling
Pronunciation
GLOSSARY OF MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS
PRACTICAL GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION
* * * * *
CHAPTER I
SENTENCES.--PARTS OF SPEECH.--ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.--PHRASES
AND CLAUSES
1. In thinking we arrange and associate ideas and objects together.
Words are the symbols of ideas or objects. A SENTENCE is a group
of words that expresses a single complete thought.
2. SENTENCES are of four kinds:
1. DECLARATIVE; a sentence that tells or declares something; as,
_That book is mine_.
2. IMPERATIVE; a sentence that expresses a command; as, _Bring me
that book_.
3. INTERROGATIVE; a sentence that asks a question; as, _Is that
book mine?_
4. EXCLAMATORY; a declarative, imperative, or interrogative sentence
that expresses violent emotion, such as terror, surprise, or anger;
as, _You shall take that book!_ or, _Can that book be mine?_
3. PARTS OF SPEECH. Words have different uses in sentences. According
to their uses, words are divided into classes called Parts of Speech.
The parts of speech are as follows:
1. NOUN; a word used as the name of something; as, _man, box,
Pittsburgh, Harry, silence, justice_.
2. PRONOUN; a word used instead of a noun; as, _I, he, it, that._
Nouns, pronouns, or groups of words that are used as nouns or pronouns,
are called by the general term, SUBSTANTIVES.
3. ADJECTIVE; a word used to limit or qualify the meaning of a noun
or a pronoun; as, _good, five, tall, many_.
The words _a, an_, and _the_ are words used to modify nouns or
pronouns. They are adjectives, but are usually called ARTICLES.
4. VERB; a word used to state something about some person or thing;
as, _do, see, think, make_.
5. ADVERB; a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective,
or another adverb; as, _very, slowly, clearly, often_.
6. PREPOSITION; a word used to join a substantive, as a modifier,
to some other preceding word, and to show the relation of the
substantive to that word; as, _by, in, between, beyond_.
7. CONJUNCTION; a word used to connect words, phrases, clauses,
and sentences; as, _and, but, if, although, or_.
8. INTERJECTION; a word used to express surprise or emotion; as,
_Oh! Alas! Hurrah! Bah!_
Sometimes a word adds nothing to the meaning of the sentence, but
helps to fill out its form or sound, and serves as a device to
alter its natural order. Such a word is called an EXPLETIVE. In
the following sentence _there_ is an expletive: _THERE are no such
books in print_.
4. A sentence is made up of distinct parts or elements. The essential
or PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS are the Subject and the Predicate.
The SUBJECT of a sentence is the part which mentions that about
which something is said. The PREDICATE is the part which states
that which is said about the subject. _Man walks_. In this sentence,
_man_ is the subject, and _walks_ is the predicate.
The subject may be simple or modified; that is, may consist of
the subject alone, or of the subject with its modifiers. The same
is true of the predicate. Thus, in the sentence, _Man walks_, there
is a simple subject and a simple predicate. In the sentence, _The
good man walks very rapidly_, there is a modified subject and a
modified predicate.
There may be, also, more than one subject connected with the same
predicate; as, _THE MAN AND THE WOMAN walk_. This is called a COMPOUND
SUBJECT. A COMPOUND PREDICATE consists of more than one predicate
used with the same subject; as, _The man BOTH WALKS AND RUNS_.
5. Besides the principal elements in a sentence, there are SUBORDINATE
ELEMENTS. These are the Attribute Complement, the Object Complement,
the Adjective Modifier, and the Adverbial Modifier.
Some verbs, to complete their sense, need to be followed by some
other word or group of words. These words which "complement," or
complete the meanings of verbs are called COMPLEMENTS.
The ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT completes the meaning of the verb by stating
some class, condition, or attribute of the subject; as, _My friend
is a STUDENT, I am WELL, The man is GOOD Student, well_, and _good_
complete the meanings of their respective verbs, by stating some
class, condition, or attribute of the subjects of the verbs.
The attribute complement usually follows the verb _be_ or its forms,
_is, are, was, will be_, etc. The attribute complement is usually a
noun, pronoun, or adjective, although it may be a phrase or clause
fulfilling the function of any of these parts of speech. It must
not be confused with an adverb or an adverbial modifier. In the
sentence, _He is THERE, there_ is an adverb, not an attribute
complement.
The verb used with an attribute complement, because such verb _joins_
the subject to its attribute, is called the COPULA ("to couple")
or COPULATIVE VERB.
Some verbs require an object to complete their meaning. This object
is called the OBJECT COMPLEMENT. In the sentence, _I carry a BOOK_,
the object, _book_, is required to complete the meaning of the
transitive verb _carry_; so, also in the sentences, _I hold the
HORSE_, and _I touch a DESK_, the objects _horse_ and _desk_ are
necessary to complete the meanings of their respective verbs. These
verbs that require objects to complete their meaning are called
Transitive Verbs.
ADJECTIVE and ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS may consist simply of adjectives
and adverbs, or of phrases and clauses used as adjectives or adverbs.
6. A PHRASE is a group of words that is used as a single part of
speech and that does not contain a subject and a predicate.
A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE, always used as either an adjective or an
adverbial modifier, consists of a preposition with its object and
the modifiers of the object; as, _He lives IN PITTSBURG, Mr. Smith
OF THIS PLACE is the manager OF THE MILL, The letter is IN THE
NEAREST DESK_.
There are also Verb-phrases. A VERB-PHRASE is a phrase that serves
as a verb; as, _I AM COMING, He SHALL BE TOLD, He OUGHT TO HAVE
BEEN TOLD_.
7. A CLAUSE is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate;
as, _The man THAT I SAW was tall_. The clause, _that I saw_, contains
both a subject, _I_, and a predicate, _saw_. This clause, since
it merely states something of minor importance in the sentence,
is called the SUBORDINATE CLAUSE. The PRINCIPAL CLAUSE, the one
making the most important assertion, is, _The man was tall_. Clauses
may be used as adjectives, as adverbs, and as nouns. A clause used
as a noun is called a SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSE. Examine the following
examples:
Adjective Clause: The book _that I want_ is a history.
Adverbial Clause: He came _when he had finished with the work_.
Noun Clause as subject: _That I am here_ is true.
Noun Clause as object: He said _that I was mistaken_.
8. Sentences, as to their composition, are classified as follows:
SIMPLE; a sentence consisting of a single statement; as, _The man
walks_.
COMPLEX; a sentence consisting of one principal clause and one or
more subordinate clauses; as, _The man that I saw is tall_.
COMPOUND; a sentence consisting of two or more clauses of equal
importance connected by conjunctions expressed or understood; as,
_The man is tall and walks rapidly_, and _Watch the little things;
they are important_.
EXERCISE I
_In this and in all following exercises, be able to give the reason
for everything you do and for every conclusion you reach. Only
intelligent and reasoning work is worth while.
In the following list of sentences:
(1) Determine the part of speech of every word.
(2) Determine the unmodified subject and the unmodified predicate;
and the modified subject and the modified predicate.
(3) Pick out every attribute complement and every object complement.
(4) Pick out every phrase and determine whether it is a prepositional
phrase or a verb-phrase. If it is a prepositional phrase, determine
whether it is used as an adjective or as an adverb.
(5) Determine the principal and the subordinate clauses. If they
are subordinate clauses, determine whether they are used as nouns,
adjectives, or adverbs.
(6) Classify every sentence as simple, complex, or compound._
1. Houses are built of wood, brick, stone, and other materials,
and are constructed in various styles.
2. The path of glory leads but to the grave.
3. We gladly accepted the offer which he made.
4. I am nearly ready, and shall soon join you.
5. There are few men who do not try to be honest.
6. Men may come, and men may go, but I go on forever.
7. He works hard, and rests little.
8. She is still no better, but we hope that there will be a change.
9. Let each speak for himself.
10. It was I who told him to go.
11. To live an honest life should be the aim of every one.
12. Who it really was no one knew, but all believed it to have been him.
13. In city and in country people think very differently.
14. To be or not to be, that is the question.
15. In truth, I think that I saw a brother of his in that place.
16. By a great effort he managed to make headway against the current.
17. Beyond this, I have nothing to say.
18. That we are never too old to learn is a true saying.
19. Full often wished he that the wind might rage.
20. Lucky is he who has been educated to bear his fate.
21. It is I whom you see.
22. The study of history is a study that demands a well-trained memory.
23. Beyond the city limits the trains run more rapidly than they do here.
24. Alas! I can travel no more.
25. A lamp that smokes is a torture to one who wants to study.
EXERCISE 2
(1) _Write a list of six examples of every part of speech._
(2) _Write eight sentences, each containing an attribute complement.
Use adjectives, nouns, and pronouns._
(3) _Write eight sentences, each containing an object complement._
(4) _Write five sentences, in each using some form of the verb TO
BE, followed by an adverbial modifier._