FOR JEWELLERS, CLOCK AND WATCH MAKERS AND MERCHANTS
By long established custom, watches and the higher grade of clocks form
part of the jeweller’s stock, and he sells a few other articles of
utility, such as purses and bags, but to all intents and purposes he
shares with the artist and art-dealer the distinction of making a living
by adding pleasure to the lives of others. The very word “jewelry”
carries, in its root form, the idea of joy; and when a Senwosri
princess, 43 centuries ago, smiled happily as she raised her brown arms
to fasten the clasp of a new necklace, the jeweller of Memphis on the
Nile no doubt took his little profit, as the jeweller of Memphis on the
Mississippi takes his to-day, all the more gladly for being, in the
oriental phrase, a “Distributor of delights.” Sour philosophers have
always sneered at women for loving jewels, and most of all for piercing
their ears and noses to vary its display, but the nose-ring that
overhangs a thick Nubian lip is an expression of the same charming
instinct that makes a child diversify the arrangement of her
daisychains. And jewelry plays its part in the higher emotions as well
as in the pretty vanities; witness the engagement ring, the marriage
ring and all the uses, described in the Britannica, of jewels as
religious symbols.
[Sidenote: Specimens Reproduced]
The article JEWELRY (Vol. 15, p. 364), by A. H. Smith, the official in
charge of the great jewel collection in the British Museum, contains
nearly a hundred illustrations, half of them on plate paper, which
include examples of every period and every variety of the jeweller’s
art, and these, with the illustrations in other articles mentioned in
this chapter, are so full of interest to the jeweller’s customers that
he ought really to keep his Britannica at his place of business rather
than at his house. It is, at any rate, amusing to recall that in a
speech made by the Editor-in-chief of the Britannica, on the occasion of
a banquet given to celebrate the completion of the new edition, he
remarked that when he had chanced to take home the proof sheets of this
article, to read them at night, he carefully kept them out of his wife’s
sight lest they might suggest too tempting possibilities. The article
divides modern jewelry into three classes:
_(1) objects in which gems and stones form the principal portions, and
in which the work in silver, platinum or gold is really only a means
for carrying out the design by fixing the gems or stones in the
position arranged by the designer, the metal employed being visible
only as a setting_;
_(2) when gold work plays an important part in the development of the
design, being itself ornamented by engraving (now rarely used) or
enamelling or both, the stones and gems being arranged in
subordination to the gold work in such positions as to give a
decorative effect to the whole_;
_(3) when gold or other metal is alone used, the design being wrought
out by hammering in repoussé, casting, engraving, chasing or by the
addition of filigree work, or when the surfaces are left absolutely
plain but polished and highly finished_.
[Sidenote: The “Personal Art” Movement]
The second of these three classes includes the work which has completely
revolutionized the theory of design, so far as the best class of trade
is concerned, since the Paris International Exposition of 1900 first
drew general attention to the exquisite creations of Lalique and his
school. L. C. Tiffany, in the United States, and Philippe Wolfers, in
Belgium, have done more than any designers other than the French to
extend this new movement; but in England, Germany, Austria, Russia and
Switzerland there has been a notable increase of individual effort and
purpose, and a recognition of the possibilities of personal art as at
any rate an important factor in the business. Side by side with this
development new standards have been established in mechanical work.
“Nearly every kind of gold chain now made is manufactured by machinery,
and nothing like the beauty of design or perfection of workmanship could
be obtained by hand at, probably, any cost.” The article, equivalent in
length to about 35 pages of this Guide, contains a full review,
amplified by the results of the most recent excavations (some of them
undertaken expressly for the archaeological purposes of this edition of
the Britannica) of the history of jewelry, Egyptian, Assyrian, Mycenean,
Greek, Etruscan, Roman, Merovingian, Oriental and Renaissance.
[Sidenote: Rings for Love and Murder]
RING (Vol. 23, p. 349), of which Prof. Middleton, long art director of
the South Kensington Museum, is the chief contributor, is another
copiously illustrated article. Among the curious items of information it
contains, there is the unromantic origin of the engagement ring (which
may be cited by the jeweller to prove that it should always be a costly
one), the ancient Romans regarding it as a pledge to assure the donor’s
fulfilment of his promise; the fact that the modern rheumatism ring had
its medieval forerunner in the rings, blessed by the sovereign, which
were worn as a preservative against cramp; and the description of the
old poison rings, which were of two kinds: those merely affording, in
the bezel, a secret receptacle so that the poison might be always at
hand for suicide, and those provided with a hollow point to which, on
touching a spring, the venom ran as in a snake’s fang, so that the
murderer could give a fatal scratch while shaking hands with his victim.
BROOCH (Vol. 4, p. 641) traces, with many illustrations of typical
specimens, the “fibula” or safety pin from its origin in Central Europe
during the Bronze Age, through the modifications which introduced the
bow shape, providing space for thicker folds of cloth, to the modern
ornament. The long brooch is not a new fashion, for silver brooches no
less than 15 inches in length have been found in Viking hoards of the
7th, 8th and 9th centuries. EAR-RING (Vol. 8, p. 798) describes ear
“ornaments” of the most grotesque size. In Borneo the hole in the ear
lobe is stretched to a calibre of 3¾ inches, but the Masai tribes in
equatorial Africa far outdo this, stretching the lobes, year after year,
until they can wear stone ear-plugs weighing 2 lbs. 14 ozs. each, with a
diameter of 4½ inches; and they thus achieve the supreme elegance of
making the two long flaps of flesh meet above their heads. It is also
curious to note the custom of some oriental tribes of wearing one
ear-ring only. BRACELET (Vol. 4, p. 359) describes the three distinct
models worn by the Israelites, all of which the Authorized Version calls
“bracelet,” although the original Hebrew has separate names for them.
Armlets have always been conspicuous in the regalia of Eastern kings,
and the pair captured at Delhi and taken to Persia by Nadir Shah in 1739
contain jewels valued at more than $5,000,000, including the famous “Sea
of Light” diamond, which, although it weighs only 186 carats as against
the 516½ of the largest fraction into which the Cullinan stone was cut,
is unique as possessing the finest lustre of any known specimen. The 24
plate illustrations in the article SCANDINAVIAN CIVILIZATION (Vol. 24,
p. 287), by Miss B. S. Phillpotts, show some exquisite designs of
clasps, collars and pins exhumed in Denmark, Norway and Sweden, and
supposed by some authorities to antedate the oldest Egyptian jewelry.
[Sidenote: Precious Metals]
The article GOLD (Vol. 12, p. 192) is a thorough workshop treatise, as
well as a detailed study of existing mines and of the influence their
production exerts upon the “price,” if it can be so called, of a metal
which is its own standard of value. SILVER (Vol. 25, p. 112) and
PLATINUM (Vol. 21, p. 805) are treated with similar comprehensiveness.
The articles ALLOYS (Vol. 1, p. 704), ASSAYING (Vol. 2, p. 776), METAL
(Vol. 18, p. 198), METALLOGRAPHY (Vol. 18, p. 202), and METALLURGY (Vol.
18, p. 203), all by noted authorities, are full of information useful to
the jeweller. METAL-WORK (Vol. 18, p. 205), fully illustrated,
incidentally touches upon the art of the silver- and gold-smith; and
this branch of the subject is also treated in such articles as PLATE
(Vol. 21, p. 789), with over 30 typical illustrations—a most interesting
historical account, by several well-known experts, of works in gold and
silver which belong to any class other than those of personal ornament
and coins; and DRINKING VESSELS (Vol. 8, p. 580), illustrated, by Dr.
Charles H. Read of the British Museum, which discusses gold and silver
cups. Mention must also be made of the description of American work in
precious metals before the time of Christopher Columbus, in the section
_Archaeology_ of the article AMERICA (Vol. 1, p. 812), by the late Dr.
O. T. Mason, of the National Museum, Washington; also of MEXICO,
_Ancient Civilization_ (Vol. 18, p. 335), by the famous ethnologists,
Dr. E. B. Tylor of Oxford and Dr. Walter Lehmann, of the Royal
Ethnographical Museum, Munich; EGYPT, _Ancient Art_ (Vol. 9, p. 73), by
W. M. Flinders Petrie; GREEK ART (Vol. 12, p. 470), illustrated, by Dr.
Percy Gardner, of Oxford; ROMAN ART, _Work in Precious Metals_ (Vol. 23,
p. 483), illustrated, by H. Stuart Jones, director of the British School
at Rome; JAPAN, _Art, Sculpture and Carving_ (Vol. 15, p. 176), by Capt.
Frank Brinkley, author of _A History of the Japanese People_; and CHINA,
_Bronzes_ (Vol. 6, p. 215), by C. J. Holmes, formerly Slade professor of
fine art at Oxford.
FILIGREE (Vol. 10, p. 343) describes the delicate jewel work of twisted
gold and silver threads, and also the “granulated” work which consists
of minute globules of gold soldered to form patterns on a metal surface.
In India the filigree worker has retained the patterns used by the
ancient Greeks and works in the same way they did. Wandering workmen are
given so much gold, coined or rough. This is weighed, heated and beaten
into wire, and worked in the courtyard or on the verandah of the
customer’s house. The worker reweighs the complete work when finished
and is paid at a specified rate for his labor. Repoussé (Vol. 23, p.
108), by M. H. Spielmann, editor _Magazine of Art_; CHASING (Vol. 5, p.
956) and INLAYING (Vol. 14, p. 574) are other articles dealing with
certain processes in jewel work. The jeweller also must not overlook two
superb articles, MEDAL (Vol. 18, p. 1), illustrated, by M. H. Spielmann,
and NUMISMATICS (Vol. 19, p. 869), which is by three specialists, and is
most fully illustrated by designs inviting practical use. ENAMEL (Vol.
9, p. 362), illustrated, by Alexander Fisher, author of _The Art of
Enamelling on Metals_, goes very fully and practically into this
interesting subject, which is further discussed in JAPAN, _Cloisonné
Enamel_ (Vol. 15, p. 189). MOSAIC (Vol. 18, p. 883), illustrated, by
Professor Middleton and H. Stuart Jones, deals in part with the
ornamentation of jewelry by this method. In BRAZING and SOLDERING (Vol.
4, p. 463) the composition of silver solder used for jewelry is
described, and in CEMENT there is an account of _Jeweller’s_ or
_Armenian Cement_ (Vol. 5, p. 659).
[Sidenote: Precious Stones]
The article GEM treats the subject in two sections, of which the first
(Vol. 11, p. 560), by F. W. Rudler, of the Museum of Practical Geology,
London, deals with _Mineralogy_ and _General Properties_. Here are
discussed hardness, specific gravity, crystaline forms and cleavage,
colour, refraction, chemical composition, etc., and there is an
interesting section on superstitions in regard to gems, the medical and
magical powers with which they were reputed to be endowed. These beliefs
are very remarkable, and it has even been suggested by archaeologists
that jewelry did not have its origin so much in a love for personal
decoration, as in the belief that the objects used possessed magical
virtue. The article MINERALOGY (Vol. 18, p. 509), by L. J. Spencer, of
the British Museum, and editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_, will be
found especially valuable for reference in the workshop. It gives, among
other things, the scale of hardness, and nomenclature and classification
of minerals. The crystal formation of gems as well as their optical
properties—characteristics by which the genuineness of precious stones
may be tested—are discussed and explained in the article CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
(Vol. 7, p. 569), with over 100 illustrations, also by L. J. Spencer.
The cutting of gem stones is treated under LAPIDARY AND GEM CUTTING
(Vol. 16, p. 195), by Dr. George F. Kunz, the famous gem expert to
Tiffany & Co., New York,—an article of uncommon historical interest and
practical value, in which diamond cutting is considered at much length.
The second section of the article GEM, _Gems in Art_ (Vol. 11, p. 562),
by Dr. A. S. Murray, the famous British archaeologist, and A. H. Smith,
gives an account of precious stones engraved with designs. The
illustrations show more than 90 examples, including Cretan and Mycenaean
intaglios, Greek, Phœnician and Etruscan scarabs and scarabæoids,
cameos, seals, Oriental, Christian, and modern gems. This subject is
further discussed in separate articles, such as SCARAB (Vol. 24, p.
301), by Dr. F. Ll. Griffith, the Egyptologist, an account of the
designs which, originating in Egypt during the Fourth Dynasty, have
exercised a lasting influence on the design and shape of gems; CAMEO
(Vol. 5, p. 104), INTAGLIO (Vol. 14, p. 680), SEALS (Vol. 24, p. 539),
illustrated, by Sir E. Maunde Thompson, formerly principal librarian,
British Museum, as well as in the articles on ancient and Oriental
civilizations, already mentioned.
[Sidenote: Synthetic Stones]
The artificial duplication of certain gems by chemical processes which
yield products identical in composition and physical properties with the
natural stones is a subject of growing importance to the jeweller, and
the latest developments are described in GEM, ARTIFICIAL (Vol. 11, p.
569), by Sir William Crookes. This famous chemist and authority on
precious stones does not hesitate to declare that although the
artificial diamonds so far produced have been microscopic in size,
scientists have now found the right method and that “there is no reason
to doubt that, working on a larger scale, larger diamonds will result.”
The artificial production of rubies, sapphires, Oriental emeralds,
amethysts, topazes and zircons is also discussed. Descriptions of the
several gem stones are found under their respective headings, for
example DIAMOND (Vol. 8, p. 158), illustrated, by H. A. Miers, principal
of the University of London, and former editor of the _Mineralogical
Magazine_. Here are given its scientific characters, its uses
(especially for faceting softer precious stones), distribution, and
mining, and the wonderful history of the most famous diamonds of the
world. RUBY (Vol. 23, p. 812), the most valued of gem stones, is often
called “Oriental ruby” to distinguish it from SPINEL (Vol. 25, p. 684),
an aluminate stone of inferior hardness, density and value. It is
interesting to note that many historic stones described as monster
rubies were really spinels. The great ruby set in the Maltese Cross in
front of the Imperial State Crown of England is a spinel. SAPPHIRE (Vol.
24, p. 201) was known to the Greeks as “hyacinthus,” and the present
name was formerly applied to lapis lazuli. ASTERIA or STAR STONE (Vol.
2, p. 792) tells how the luminous star comes to be seen in sapphires,
rubies and topazes. The name EMERALD (Vol. 9, p. 332) is used for a
number of stones, of which the most valued is not a true emerald at all;
see CORUNDUM (Vol. 7, p. 207). The same is true of the TOPAZ (Vol. 27,
p. 48), the more prized Oriental topaz being a yellow corundum, harder
and denser than the stone from which it takes its name. “Scotch” or
“Spanish” topazes are yellow or smoke-tinted quartz, or cairngorm. The
AMETHYST (Vol. 1, p. 852) is violet or purple quartz, and the sapphire
of a purple colour is often called an Oriental amethyst. The many
varieties of the beautiful ZIRCON (Vol. 28, p. 989), such as HYACINTH
(Vol. 14, p. 25) and JARGOON (Vol. 15, p. 276) are carefully described
and distinguished. These valuable articles on the precious stones have
been contributed by F. W. Rudler, of the Museum of Practical Geology,
London. PEARL (Vol. 21, p. 24) discusses the results of the latest
researches on the cause of pearl formation, and gives a graphic account
of pearl-fishing.
[Sidenote: Semi-Precious Stones]
The material in the Britannica on the semi-precious stones is as
complete. There are many articles, specified in the list at the end of
this chapter. ALEXANDRITE (Vol. 1, p. 576) is remarkable for its
property of appearing dark green by daylight, and red by candle-light,
which makes it especially popular in Russia where green and red are the
military colors; CHRYSOBERYL (Vol. 6, p. 320), of which alexandrite is a
variety; CHRYSOLITE (Vol. 6, p, 320), often mistaken for chrysoberyl;
PERIDOT (Vol. 21, p. 147), like chrysolite, a variety of olivine; BERYL
(Vol. 3, p. 817), much prized by the ancients as a gem stone, and of
which the EMERALD (see above) and the AQUAMARINE (Vol. 2, p. 237) are
the chief “precious” varieties; TOURMALINE (Vol. 27, p 103), the
remarkable stone of as much interest to the physicist as to the
jeweller, on account of its optical and electrical properties; and
RUBELLITE (Vol. 23, p. 804), its much prized red variety GARNET (Vol.
11, p. 470), together with ALMANDINE (Vol. 1, p. 712), which, when cut
with a convex face is known as carbuncle; CINNAMON-STONE (Vol. 6, p.
376), the light red garnet, so easily mistaken for a variety of zircon
(the article tells how to distinguish them); DEMANTOID (Vol. 7, p. 979),
the green garnet from the Urals, and PYROPE (Vol. 22, p. 695), usually
known as Bohemian garnet; JADE (Vol. 15, p. 122), which occupies in
China the highest place as a jewel, and whose many varieties are here
clearly distinguished; JET (Vol. 15, p. 358); HAEMATITE (Vol. 12, p.
804); MOONSTONE (Vol. 18, p. 807); CAT’S-EYE (Vol. 5, p. 537), a term
applied to several distinct minerals of which CROCIDOLITE (Vol. 7, p.
477) has recently become very popular; OPAL (Vol. 20, p. 120), an
article in which the brilliant flashes of colour in this stone are
explained; QUARTZ (Vol. 22, p. 715), with its many ornamental varieties
such as AGATE (Vol. 1, p. 368), AMETHYST (Vol. 1, p. 852), AVENTURINE
(Vol. 3, p. 54), BLOODSTONE (Vol. 4, p. 85), CAIRNGORM (Vol. 4, p. 952),
CARNELIAN (Vol. 5, p. 365), CHALCEDONY (Vol. 5, p. 803), CHRYSOPRASE
(Vol. 6, p. 320), HELIOTROPE (Vol. 13, p. 232), MOCHA STONE (Vol. 18, p.
637), ONYX (Vol. 20, p. 118), ROCK-CRYSTAL (Vol. 23, p. 433), SARD (Vol.
24, p. 209), and SARDONYX (Vol. 24, p. 2.18).
[Sidenote: Watches and Clocks]
The article WATCH (Vol. 28, p. 362), illustrated, by Lord Grimthorpe,
the great authority on watches and clocks, and Sir H. H. Cunynghame,
vice-president of the British Institute of Electrical Engineers, is full
of interest. There is a very valuable historical account beginning with
the invention of portable time pieces in the 15th century. The parts of
a modern watch are described, with details as to the mainspring,
different types of escapement, the balance-wheel and hair-spring,
compensation adjustments and secondary compensation. Methods of
correcting temperature errors are discussed, and a simple means for
demagnetizing a watch which has been near a dynamo is given. The proper
materials used for jewelled bearings are described in the articles
DIAMOND, CORUNDUM, etc. LUBRICANTS (Vol. 17, p. 88) contains a valuable
paragraph on the properties and preparation of the fluid oils used on
the spindles of watches and clocks.
The article CLOCK (Vol. 6, p. 536) is by the same distinguished
authorities as WATCH, with an additional section on _Decorative Aspects_
(p. 552), by James Penderel-Brodhurst. It is equivalent to 55 pages of
this Guide and is fully illustrated. Among the topics considered are the
earliest clocks and their gradual improvement; the essential components
of a clock; the mechanics of the pendulum; methods of compensation,
including the use of the new nickel-steel alloy—described in the article
INVAR (Vol. 14, p. 717)—the barometrical error, and methods of
counteraction; suspension of pendulums; balance, anchor, dead, pinwheel,
detached or free, and gravity escapements; the remontoire systems for
abolishing errors in the force driving the escapement; testing of
clocks; clock wheels; striking mechanism; the watchman’s clock, church
and turret clocks, electrical clocks, miscellaneous clocks, including
magical clocks and other curious designs. The section on _Decorative
Aspects_ tells about styles of cases and mountings, the origin and
development of the “grandfather” clock, etc. In connection with
long-period clocks, attention should be given to the new and ingenious,
if not commercially practical, device invented by the Hon. R. J. Strutt.
Electrified particles emitted by a radioactive substance separate two
strips of gold leaf, and these, falling together after the charge has
been conducted away upon contact with metal, are extended again, the
process being constantly repeated. If some way could be found to utilize
this motion to work an escapement, we should have a clock that would go
on indefinitely, since 1000 years must elapse before even half the small
amount of radium used has disappeared. A description of this so-called
“radium” clock will be found in PERPETUAL MOTION (Vol. 21, p. 181).
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL
INTEREST TO MANUFACTURERS OF AND DEALERS IN JEWELRY, CLOCKS, AND WATCHES
Agate
Aigrette
Aiguillette
Albite
Alexandrite
Alloys
Almandine
Amazon-stone
Amber
America, _Archaeology_
Amethyst
Andalusite
Anhydrite
Apatite
Apostle Spoons
Aquamarine
Arabesque
Arts and Crafts
Assaying
Asteria, or Star-stone
Aventurine
Axinite
Azurite
Bead
Benitoite
Beryl
Beryllonite
Biddery
Bloodstone
Bort
Bracelet
Brazing and Soldering
Britain, _Ornaments_
Bronzite
Brooch
Cairngorm
Cameo
Campani-Alimenis, M.
Carbonado
Carnelian
Cat’s-eye
Cellini, Benvenuto
Cement
Chain
Chalcedony
Chasing
Chessylite
China, _Art_
Chrysoberyl
Chrysolite
Chrysoprase
Cinnamon-stone
Clock
Collar
Congreve, Sir William
Coral
Corundum
Costume
Cressent, Charles
Crocidolite
Cross
Crown
Crystallography
Cyanite
Demantoid
Diallage
Diamond
Dioptase
Drinking Vessels
Dumortierite
Ear-ring
Egypt, _Ancient Art_
Electroplating
Emerald
Emery
Enamel
Epidote
Euclase
Felspar
Filigree
Finiguerra, Maso
Fluorescence
Fluor-spar
Franklin, Benjamin
Galileo Galilei
Garnet
Gem
Gem, Artificial
Gold
Gold beating
Göthite
Gouthière, Pierre
Greek Art
Grimthorpe, 1st Baron
Haematite
Hiddenite
Hyacinth, or Jacinth
Hypersthene
Inlaying
Intaglio
Invar
Iolite
Ivory
Jade
Japan, _Art_
Jargoon
Jasper
Jet
Jewelry
Knighthood and Chivalry
Kunzite
Labradorite
Lapidary and Gem Cutting
Lapis Lazuli
Leucite
Line-engraving
Lubricants
Malachite
Marot, Daniel
Meissonier, J. A.
Medal
Metal
Metallography
Metallurgy
Metal-Work
Mexico, _Ancient Civilization_
Microcline
Mineral Deposits
Mineralogy
Miniature
Mint
Mocha-stone
Monogram
Monteith
Moonstone
Morel-Ladeuil, Léonard
Mosaic
Nepheline
Niello
Numismatics
Oligoclase
Olivine
Onyx
Opal
Orthoclase
Palladium
Paste
Pearl
Peridot
Perpetual Motion
Phenacite
Phosphorescence
Plagioclase
Plate
Plated Ware
Platinum
Pollaiuolo
Prehnite
Pyrope
Pyroxene
Quartz
Regalia
Repoussé
Ring
Rock-crystal
Roman Art
Rubellite
Ruby
Sapphire
Sard
Sardonyx
Scandinavian Civilization
Scarab
Seals
Sheffield Plate
Silver
Sphene
Spinel
Spodumene
Staurolite
Sunstone
Tassie, James
Tiffany, C. L.
Time, Measurement of
Time, Standard
Topaz
Tourmaline
Turquoise
Variscite
Vesuvianite
Watch
Weighing Machines
Weights and Measures
Wyon, Thomas
Zircon
Zoisite