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THE
ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.
WITH A SHORT INTRODUCTION
TO THE
RELATIONSHIP OF LANGUAGES.
TEUTONIC NAMES.
BY R. MORRIS,
FORMERLY STUDENT OF BATTERSEA TRAINING COLLEGE.
Names have all some meaning when first imposed; and when
a place is named for the first time, by any people, they
apply to it some term—in early times generally descriptive
of its natural peculiarities, or something else, on account
of which it is remarkable, from their own language. When
we find therefore, that the old names of natural objects
and localities in a country belong, for the most part, to a
particular language, we may conclude with certainty that a
people speaking that language formerly occupied the country.
Of this the names they have so impressed are as sure a proof
as if they had left a distinct record of their existence in
words engraven on the rocks. Such old names of places often
long outlive both the people that bestowed them, and nearly
all the material monuments of their occupancy. The language,
as a vehicle of oral communication, may gradually be forgotten
and be heard no more where it was once in universal use,
and the old topographical nomenclature may still remain
unchanged.—_Pictorial History of England._
LONDON:
JUDD & GLASS, NEW BRIDGE STREET,
BLACKFRIARS, E.C.
LONDON:
PRINTED BY JUDD & GLASS, NEW BRIDGE STREET,
BLACKFRIARS, E.C.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
INTRODUCTION 5
WORKS CONSULTED 10
THE VALUE OF LOCAL NAMES 11
THE COMPOSITION OF LOCAL NAMES 13
DIVISION I.—DESCRIPTIVE ELEMENT.
(_A_) NAMES OF TRIBES, INDIVIDUALS, FAMILIES, AND GODS 14
(_a_) TRIBES 14
(_b_) FAMILIES 15
(_c_) INDIVIDUALS 17
(_d_) GODS 18
(_B_) NAMES OF ANIMALS 19
(_C_) NAMES OF TREES, PLANTS, &C. 27
(_D_) NAMES OF MINERALS 32
(_E_) NAMES OF QUALITIES 33
DIVISION II.—GENERAL ELEMENT.
(_A_) NAMES OF RIVERS, LAKES, &C. 35
(_B_) NAMES OF MOUNTAINS, HILLS, &C. 47
(_C_) NAMES OF VALLEYS, PLAINS, WOODS, &C. 53
(_D_) NAMES OF HABITATIONS 59
INTRODUCTION.
THE RELATIONSHIP OF LANGUAGES.
“Languages,” says the author of “The Cosmos,” “compared with each other,
and considered as objects of the natural history of the human mind,
being divided into families according to the analogy of their internal
structure, have become a rich source of historical knowledge. Products
of the mental powers, they lead us back, by the fundamental characters
of their organisation, to an obscure and otherwise unknown distance. The
comparative study of languages shows how races, or nations, now separated
by wide regions, are related to each other, and have proceeded from a
common seat; it discloses the directions and paths of ancient migrations;
in tracing out epochs of development, it recognises in the more or
less altered characters of the language, in the permanency of certain
forms, or the already advanced departure from them, which portion of the
race has preserved a language nearest to that of their former common
dwelling-place.”
The coincidences between the languages of the globe have been made the
subject of careful study by eminent scholars, who have established
_Comparative Philology_ upon the footing of a new science.
It has been found that mere verbal comparisons are utterly worthless
in determining either the formation of groups of languages or their
relations to one another. The dictionary of a nation may be borrowed,
for words are soon lost and easily replaced; but the grammar of a
language—that is to say, its syntax, conjugations, and declensions, the
formation of new words from certain primitive forms, and those relational
words which perform a similar function, as pronouns, numerals, and
particles—is as constant and invariable as the nation itself. Grammatical
analysis and comparison is therefore the only true method for the
classification of languages according to their radical affinity; mere
superficial resemblances of words prove nothing, nor have they any value
unless tested and confirmed by arguments drawn from grammatical structure.
On the evidence afforded by a searching grammatical analysis, the
languages of the greater part of Europe and Asia have been divided into
three great families, whose grammatical forms are perfectly clear and
distinct. They have been named INDO-EUROPEAN or ARIAN, SEMITIC, and
TURANIAN.
(A) THE INDO-EUROPEAN or ARIAN family of languages extends from the
mouth of the Ganges to the British Isles and the Northern extremity of
Scandinavia. The term Arian is derived from ARYA, the original name of
this family. It signifies _honourable_, or _of a good family_. In Asia we
find two great branches of this family:
I. _The Indian._ This branch includes the Sanskrit (the language of the
Vedas, the first literary monument of the Arian world), with its living
representatives, the Hindustani, Mahratti, Bengali, Guzerati, Singhalese,
&c.; the Prakrit and Pali idioms; the Siah-Posh (Kafir dialect), and the
language of the Gipsies.
II. _The Iranian_ or _Persian_. To this branch belong the Zend or Old
Persian (the language of the Zendavesta), with its representatives;
the language of the Achaemenians, written in the Cuneiform character;
the speech of Huzvaresh or Pehlevi; the Pazend or Parsi; and the
modern Persian. The following dialects, though not very important in a
philological view, belong to this class:—the Afghan, Bokhara, Kurdian,
Armenian, and Ossetian.
In Europe there are no less than six branches of the Arian family:
I. _The Celtic._ Though the Celts seem to have been the first
inhabitants of Europe, very few of their dialects are now spoken, having
been superseded by the Teutonic idioms.
Modern Celtic dialects are divided into two classes; (_a_) the Gallic or
Ancient British, including the Welsh (Cymric), Cornish, and Armorican
of Brittany; (_b_) the Galic, Gadhelic, or Erse, including the Irish
(Fenic), the Highland Scottish (Gaelic), and Manx, the dialect of the
Isle of Man.
II. _The Teutonic._ This branch is divided into three dialects; (_a_) the
High German, including the Old High German, the Middle High German, and
the Modern High German; (_b_) the Low German, including the Gothic, the
Anglo-Saxon and English, the Old Saxon and Platt-Deutsch, the Frisic, the
Dutch and Flemish; (_c_) the Scandinavian, including the Old Norsk, the
Icelandic, the Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish.
III. _The Italic._ To this class belong the Oscan, Umbrian, and Latin
dialects; the Old Provençal, and the Romance languages (Provençal and
French, Italian and Wallachian, Spanish and Portuguese) formed during the
decay of the Latin.
IV. _The Hellenic._ This branch includes the Greek and its dialects, the
Aeolic, Ionic, Doric, and Attic.
V. _The Albanian_; including the Geghian and the Toskian dialects spoken
in Illyria and Epirus.
VI. _The Slavonic_ or _Windic_ branch is divided into two dialects; (_a_)
the Lettic, including the Lithuanian, Old Prussian, and Lettish; (_b_)
the Slavonic Proper, which is again divided into two branches, termed the
Eastern and Western.
The Eastern dialect includes the Russian (Great, Little, and White
Russian), the Servian, Kroatian, and Slovenian; and the Bulgarian, or in
its oldest form, the Ecclesiastical Slavonic.
The Western dialect includes the Polish, the Bohemian, the Polabian, and
the Lusatian.
(B) THE SEMITIC Family (so called from Shem, one of the sons of Noah) is
not so widely extended as the Arian family, but the nations composing it
were the first to appear upon the theatre of history. It comprises the
following branches:—
I. _The Arabic_, which includes the Ethiopian or Abissinian and the
Maltese.
II. _The Chaldean_, which includes the Old Babylonian, the Chaldee of
Babylon and Mesopotamia, the Chaldee of Daniel and of the Targums, and
the Syrian (Aramaic).
III. _The Hebrew_, the language of Canaan, which includes the Phœnician
and Carthaginian.
IV. _The Berber dialects_, which are spoken in Morocco, Algiers, Tunis,
Tripoli, and Fez. The Haussa and Galla dialects are now considered as
Semitic idioms.
(C) THE TURANIAN family of languages is distinguished from the Arian and
Semitic in the total absence of inflection.
To express the variations for case, mood, &c., Turanian words undergo no
inflection; but an additional word is _glued_, as it were to the noun,
verb, &c., as the case may be, in order to express the relations of case,
mood, &c. Hence these have been termed _agglutinizing_ languages.
To connect the idea of plurality with the English word _boy_, we
merely inflect it, and obtain the word _boys_; but upon the principle
of agglutination, a syllable indicative of plurality must be affixed,
_e.g._, singular, _boy_; plural, _boy-crowd_. Thus the roots are never
obscured, while they admit of a _vocal harmony_ which is altogether
peculiar to this family of languages; _e.g._, (Turkish) _aghâ_, a lord,
becomes in the plural, _agha-lar_; _er_, a man becomes in the plural,
_er-ler_, and not _er-lar_, as in the former case.
The vowels of the agglutinized syllables, it is easily seen, must
harmonize with those of the roots; _e.g._, (Magyar) _kert_, a garden,
makes _kert-esz-nek_ to the gardener, and not _kert-asz-nak_.
There are two great divisions of this family:—
I. _The Northern or Ural-Altaic division_ includes (_a_) the Tungusian
dialects, spoken in Upper and Lower Tunguska, on the coast of Okhotsk,
and by the Mantchoos or Mandshus (in China); (_b_) the Mongolian
dialects, spoken in the North and South of Gobi, in Tibet and Tangut,
in the plains on each side of the Volga (by the Olöts or Kalmuks) and
by the Buriäts of Lake Baikal; (_c_) the Turkish dialects, spoken in
Derbend, Krimea, Antolia, and Rumelia; (the Yakuts, the Tatars or Turks
of Siberia, the Kirghis, the Bashkirs, the Kumians, the Nogais, and the
Karatschais, the Usbegs, Uigurs, and Turkomans, speak Turkish dialects);
(_d_) the Finnish dialects, spoken by the Hungarians, Lapps, Finns,
Esths, Voguls, Permians, &c.; (_e_) the dialects of the Samoiedes and
Ostiakes.
II. _The Southern division_ comprises the Tamul, the Bhotiya, and the
Malay.
The Caucasian dialects are degenerated branches of the Turanian family;
they include the idioms of the Georgians or Grusians, the Suans, the
Lazes, the Lesghi, the Mitsgeghi, and the Kerkessians and Abasians.
WORKS CONSULTED.
“Local Nomenclature of the Anglo-Saxons,” by H. Leo.
“Codex Diplomaticus Ævi Saxonici,” edited by Professor Kemble.
“The Germania of Tacitus,” edited by Dr. Latham.
Bosworth’s “Anglo-Saxon Dictionary.”
Meidinger’s “Comparative Dictionary of the Gothic Tongues.”
Jamieson’s “Scottish Dictionary.”
“The Saxons in England,” by Professor Kemble.
Worsaae’s “Danes and Norwegians in England.”
“The Northmen in Cumberland and Westmoreland,” by R. Ferguson.
Wright’s “Provincial Dictionary.”
THE ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES.
_Names of places_ in a great measure belong to the oldest and
most primitive evidences of language, and they are of the
highest importance in the history of nations and dialects.—_H.
Leo._
It cannot be doubted that _local names_, and those devoted
to distinguish the natural features of a country, possess an
inherent vitality which even the urgency of conquest is unable
to remove.—_Kemble._
The geography and history of a nation must be sought in
the language of the _name-givers_ of that country, or in
a translation of the language of the name-givers of that
country.—_Pococke._
Geographical nomenclature is a branch of geography generally
left to chance or caprice; and it will not be easy to find any
department so left, which has been more abused. Wherever names
exist, and where these names may have existed for a number of
ages, it appears something like sacrilege to disturb or change
them; such names, besides the sacredness of antiquity, are
often significant, and contain in themselves information as
to the migrations of the human race, and the former connexion
which existed between tribes now far separated. Names are
seldom vulgar or ridiculous, and they furnish a copious
fund of distributive terms, to obviate the confusion which
arises to geographical nomenclature in the repetition for the
hundredth time of rivers—Thames, Trent, and Tyne, &c.; and it
fortunately happens that in no country, however barbarous or
thinly peopled, are the great features of nature, as rivers and
mountains, without names; and the name of a river or mountain
may be appropriately applied also to the district in which it
occurs.—_Capt. Vetch._
“He who calls departed ages again into being,” says Niebuhr, “enjoys a
bliss like that of creating.” The study of words does this; it recalls
the past with all its associations, so that for a time it becomes a part
of the present. It cannot be otherwise, for every word rests upon some
_fact_; so that when we attempt to account for the meaning of a word, we
only go back to the fact upon which it rests. There is one class of words
which is very suggestive—we mean those _names_ which have been attached
for ages to places familiar to us from the days of our childhood, from
our pleasure excursions, or from our course of reading. The thoughtful
mind cannot remain long contented with names that convey no meaning
with them; there is always the desire to retain them in the memory by
some principle of association, and this leads to an inquiry concerning
their origin and history, or when and why they were imposed. The study
of place-names is one, then, of great interest to the historian and to
the teacher. The signification of a single name throws much light upon
the history of nations and their migrations. In point of fact, there is
often more dependence to be placed upon words than upon history; for,
says Halberstma, it pleases not the muse of history to speak but late,
and then in a very confused manner: yet she often deceives; and before
she comes to maturity she seldom distinctly tells us the truth. Language
never deceives, but speaks more distinctly, though removed to a higher
antiquity.
The object of the following pages is to supply teachers with the chief
_root_ or _key_-words which are necessary for the explanation of local
names in England, and such kindred forms as are to be met with in those
countries occupied by nations belonging to the same family, and usually
termed Teutonic. It is a well-known fact that many of the names of places
in England are also common to Germany. Verstegan, in his scarce work,
printed in 1605, very plainly alludes to it. “Thus the Saxons,” he says,
“who at first came unto the aid of the Britons, became about two hundred
years after, to be the possessors and sharers of the best part of the
Isle of Britain among themselves. And, as their language was altogether
different from that of the Britons, so left they very few cities, towns,
villages, passages, rivers, woods, fields, hills, or dales that they gave
not new names unto, such as in their own language were intelligible, and
either given by reason of the situation or nature of the place, or after
some place in some sort like unto it in Germany, from whence they came—as
the name of Oxford or Oxenford, on the river Thames, after the town of
the same name in Germany, situated on the Oder; our Hereford, near unto
Wales, after Hervford, in Westphalia. And so, in like manner, may be said
of Stafford, Swinford, Bradford, Norden, Newark, Bentham, Oxenbridge,
Buchurst, Scorethorpe, Holt, Mansfield, Swinefield, Daventry, Hampstead,
Radcliff, Rosendale, and a great number of places in our country, that
yet retain the names of places in Germany and the Netherlands (albeit the
ancient orthography may in some of them be a little varied), as here to
be reckoned up would be tedious.”
We have chosen English names as the basis of comparison because they
are more familiar, and, indeed, of more importance than any others.
Emerson, speaking of them, says—“The names are excellent; an atmosphere
of legendary melody spreads over the land. Older than all epics and
histories, which clothe a nation, this under-shirt sits close to the
body. What history, too, and what stores of primitive and savage
observation, it unfolds!”
The names of places in England, and among the Teutonic tribes generally,
are composed of two parts. The first member is a _descriptive_ word
referring to some particular historical circumstance, to personages, to
animals, vegetables, or minerals; or it may be merely an adjective. The
second member designates, by some _general_ and appropriate term, either
the natural features of the country, settlement, or neighbourhood to be
described—as hill, mountain, river, &c.—or some artificial constructions,
as town, borough, field, &c. The first member is generally prefixed
to distinguish places having similar positions—_e.g._, Staple-ford,
Notting-ham, New-ark, &c. Sometimes the names of places are represented
by a single word—_e.g._, Slough, Ford, Holt, Down, Berg, Furt, &c.
All places do not admit of explanation. Those ending with _Ing_ or having
after it Ham or Ton, are derived from the names of tribes, families, or
individuals. The subject is naturally divided into—
I.—_The Descriptive Element._
(_a_) Names of Personages (Historical or Mythical).
(_b_) Animals.
(_c_) Vegetables.
(_d_) Minerals.
(_e_) Adjectives.
II.—_The General Element._
(_a_) Water, River, Brook, &c.
(_b_) Mountain, Hill, &c.
(_c_) Valley, Plain, &c.
(_d_) Habitations.
DIVISION I.
DESCRIPTIVE ELEMENT.
(_A_) NAMES OF TRIBES, FAMILIES, INDIVIDUALS, AND GODS.
(_a_) _Tribes._
(1) GERMAN.—This name was not applied to the people of Germany by
themselves, but they received it from the Celts on account of their
terrible _war cry_. The root of the word is the Celtic verb _Gairmean_,
“to cry out.”
(2) DUTCH (_Deutsch_).—This term, which is now applied to the people
of Holland, is literally an adjective signifying “popular” (Diut-isc).
It was originally applied to the _language_ of the Teutonic people in
order to distinguish it from the Latin. The word TEUTONES, the Latin
form of the native word Theotisci, _Teutisci_, &c., is derived from the
Gothic root _Diut_, a “people or nation.” It occurs in the modern name
TEUT-o-berger.
The following tribes have left their names as an element of local
nomenclature:—
(3) ANGRIVARI, in ANGERN, ENGERN, ANGER-munde.
(4) ANGLES, in ANGLES-ey, ENG-land, ANGELN, HUNGER-ford (ANGLES-ford).
(5) ARAVISCI in the river RAAB, anciently ARABO.
(6) BURGUNDIANS, in BURGUNDY.
(7) CHERUSCI (_Crherstini_) in the HARTZ mountains, HARTZ-burg, and
HERZ-burg. The root seems to be the Gothic _Har_, _Haruc_, “a temple.” In
the poem of Beo-Wulf it occurs as the name of the great palatial hall of
Hrothgar.
(8) CAUCI, in CUX-haven.
(9) CATTI, in HESSE.
(10) EUDOSES, in EYD-er, EUD-ing, and DOSSE.
(11) FRISIANS, in FRIES-land, FRIS-by, and FRIS-thorpe.
(12) GOTHS, in GOTH-land, GOTHEN-burg, GOTH-a.
(13) LANGOBARDI, in LOMBARDY, BARDEN-gan, BARD-wick.
(14) MONAVI (_Menapi_), in MAN, MONA, and MENAI straits.
(15) SAXONS, in Es-SEX (East Saxons), Sus-SEX (South Saxons), Middle-SEX
(Middle Saxons), HOLSTEIN—_i.e._, Holt SASSEN, or Olt SASSEN, “Old
Settlers.”
The inhabitants of Holstein were called HOLSATI or Holzati, from the
Platt-Deutsch _Sitten_, _Satten_ “to sit.”
(16) SUIONES, SUEVI, in SWEDEN, SUABIA, ODER, at one time called SUEVUS,
and the VIADRUS, whose mouth is still called SWINE-mund.
(17) SUARDONES, in SCHWART-au.
(18) THURINGI, in THURINGIAN-wald.
(19) RUGII, in the island of RUGEN.
(20) LEMOVII, in the river LEBA.
(21) DULGIBINI, in the river DULMEN.
(22) SITONES, in SIGTUN, SITUN.
(_b_) _Families._
The names of families and individuals enter largely into the composition
of local names. They may be easily discovered by the particle ING before
HAM, TON, HALL, &c. Thus BIRMING-ham was originally the home of the
BEORMINGAS, the descendants of Beorm; BALDING-ham of the BAEDLINGAS;
BUCKING-ham of the BUCINGAS; LITTLING-ton was originally the enclosed
residence of the LYTHINGAS; ELVING-ton of the ELFINGAS, and KILLING-hall
the fortified residence of the CYLINGAS.
Professors Leo and Kemble have thrown much light on this subject; the
latter writer has furnished us with a valuable list of these family names
in his _Saxons in England_.
The following extract from the pen of Mr. Wright will be of some service
to the students of names:—
The family or clan did not always take its name from the
chief who obtained the allotment of land; it was often but
a branch of a much older family in the land from which the
settlement came. Hence we find patronymics in distant parts of
England, which would seem to indicate that different members
of the same original family had joined in various separate
expeditions to Britain; and it is still more curious that this
identity of name is found in districts peopled severally by
the different races, Angles, Saxons, or Jutes. This admits of
two explanations; it shows the close relationship between the
three races themselves, and it proves, probably, that when a
great chieftain of one race, an Angle, for instance, planned
an expedition to Britain, subordinate leaders from the other
Saxons, Jutes, or others, were ready to enlist among his
followers. Thus we find the BILLINGAS at BILLING-ham in Durham,
at BILLING-ley in Yorkshire, at BILLING-hay in Lincolnshire,
at BILLING-ton in the counties of Bedford, Stafford, and
Lancaster, as well as at other places, all within the district
occupied by the Angles. We find a settlement of the same family
at BILLING-hurst, in Sussex, and some of them appear to have
established themselves in the outskirts of London, and to have
given name to BILLINGS-gate. (There was a family of BILLUNG on
the Continent; and Hermann Billung was invested with the Duchy
of Saxony by Otto I. In 1106 the male line of this house became
extinct on the death of the last Billung, Duke Magnus, who
left two daughters, Eilike and Wulfhild; Wulfhild was married
to Henry of Bavaria, surnamed the Black, a descendant of the
Guelph family.) The BOSINGAS are found at BOSING-ham in Kent,
and again at the two BOSSINGTONS in Hampshire and Somerset.
The SCEARINGAS are found at SHARRING-ton, SHERING-ford, and
SHARRING-ton in Norfolk, SHEERING in Essex, at SCARRING-ton
in Nottinghamshire, and at SHEERING-ton in Buckingham and
Wiltshire. We have the HANINGAS at three places named
HANNING-ton in Northamptonshire, Herefordshire, and Wiltshire,
and also probably at HANNING-field in Essex. When we examine
further we find in these patronymics, names which belong to
the great families whose history is mixed up in the earliest
Teutonic mythology. The WAELSINGS, who are found at WALSING-ham
in Norfolk, at WOLSING-ham in Durham, and at WOOLSING-ton in
Northumberland, appear to have been offsets of the great family
of the VOLSUNGAR of the Edda, and the VOLSUNGEN of the old
German romances. The HARLINGS (Herelingas), who are found at
three places named HARLING-ton in Middlesex, Bedfordshire, and
Yorkshire, as well as at HARLING in Norfolk, are also connected
with the ancient Teutonic mythology, and their name is found
at HARLINGEN in Friesland. The SWAEFAS, a tribe who was known
to have dwelt on the borders of the Angles on the Continent,
appear to have given their name to SWAFF-ham in Norfolk. Mr.
Kemble, quoting other well known names from the mythic and
half mythic history of the continental Teutons, points out as
further instances, that the BRENTINGS of the northern romance
are found in England at BRENTING-ley in Leicestershire, and
at BRANTING-ham in Yorkshire. The SCYLDINGS and SCYLFINGS,
celebrated northern races, give their name to SKELDING,
and to two places named SKILLING-ton in Northumberland and
Dorsetshire. The ARDINGS, who are found at ARDING-ton in
Berkshire, and at ARDING-ley in Sussex, are, he says, the
AZDINGI, the royal race of the Visigoths and Vandals; and
the BANINGS of the Continent, over whom, when the curious
Anglo-Saxon fragment called the _Traveller’s Song_ was written,
a Prince named Becca ruled, are recognised in BANNING-ham in
Norfolk. The HELSINGS gave name to HELSING-ton in Westmoreland,
and to HELSING-land in Sweden; and we find the name of the
BLECINGAS as well in BLECKINGEN in Sweden as in BLETCHING-ton
in Oxfordshire and BLETCHING-ley in Surrey. In the GYTINGAS
found at GUYTING in Gloucestershire, we perhaps trace the
JUTUNGI of Germany; and another Alamannic tribe, the SCUDINGI,
are supposed to be traced in the SCYTINGS, who gave their name
to SHUTTING-ton in Warwickshire.—(_The Celt, the Roman, and the
Saxon._)
(_c_) _Individuals._
The names of persons, especially those of princes and great landowners,
constitute a very large element in local nomenclature. The name of ELLA
is found in ELLES-mere (ELLA’S-lake); and in ELLES-croft (the field of
ELLA); and that of his son CISSA is found in CHI-chester (CISSAN-ceaster,
the fortified residence of CISSA), and in CIS-bury, the city of CISSA.
CERDIC is remembered in CHAR-ford (CERDIC’S-ford), and in CHEARS-ley
(CERDIC’S-meadow). BEBBA, the Queen of Ida, has left her name in
BAM-borough (BEBBA’S city—Bebban-burg). The Christian prince OSWALD, who
was slain in battle, and fell at a particular place near Maserfield,
has left his name in OSWES-try, or OSWALD’S-tree. The name of the
Danish King CANUTE is found in KNUTS-ford (CANUTE’S-ford), CNUTS-delf
(CANUTE’S-ditch), and in CANEW-don (CANUTE’S-hill). Danish names are a
very important element of the local names in the North of England—_e.g._,
ORMS-kirk, WORMS-head, ORMES-by and UNST (Ormst), derive their names
from some Scandinavian leader Orm or Urm. The name of RAFN or RAVEN is
found in RAVEN-side (the seat or residence of RAVEN), and in RAVEN-stone
(the stone of RAVEN). ULLER has given his name to ULLERS-thorpe, HUBBA
to HUBBER-sty, and ULFR to ULLES-water and ULVER-stone. Numerous other
examples might be given of names of Danish origin, but many of them will
be noticed as we proceed.
The following places are derived from the names of the original
possessor—_e.g._,
AYMES-try, _Elmod’s_-tree.
EL-ton, _Elnod’s_-town.
PAD-stow, _Adel’s_-dwelling-place.
LEVER-ton, _Leofric’s_-town.
EPS-om (EBBIS-ham), _Epha’s_-home.
WOOFFER-ton, _Widferd’s_-town.
MALMS-bury, St. _Maidulph’s_-city.
WIL-ley, _Willaf’s_-meadow.
OFF-ham, _Offa’s_-home.
(_d_) _Names of Gods._
It is well known that the ancient Teutonic tribes were heathens, and that
in their original settlements they worshipped Odin, Thor, Tiw, &c., whose
names are still preserved, not only in the days of the week, but in the
names of numerous places.
WUOTAN, WODEN, or Odin, the presiding deity of the Northern nations,
has his name preserved in O-dean, WOODEN-dean, (ODIN’S-hollow),
WOODS-dale (ODIN’S-vale); WEDNES-bury and WAN-borough (ODIN’S-city);
WEDNES-field (ODIN’S-field); WAM-pool (ODIN’S-pool); WAM-brook
(ODIN’S-brook); WON-stone (ODIN’S-stone); WANS-ford (ODIN’S-ford);
WANS-beck (ODIN’S-rivulet); WAN-stead (ODIN’S-residence); WENS-ley-fold
(ODIN’S-meadow-enclosure); WANS-dike (ODIN’S-ditch); ODIN’S-wald
(ODIN’S-forest); ODEN-se (ODIN’S-lake.) The name of his wife, FRIGGA,
FREA, or FREYJA, occurs in FREYS-torp, in FRIDAY-thorpe, and FRAIS-thorpe
(FRIGGA’S-city.) We are reminded of THOR by such places as THOR-up and
THORS-torp (THOR’S-city); THORs-dal and TURS-dale (THOR’S-vale); TOR-ness
(THOR’S-promontory); THURS-by, and THURSO-by (THOR’S-town); THURDYS-toft
(THOR’S-field); TOR-boll (THOR’S-dwelling); Kirby-Thore (Church of THOR);
THURS-ley, and THUR-ley (THOR’S-meadow); THORS-aa (THOR’S-stream).
Thor was also known by the names of DONAR (THUNOR) and HAMAR,
which occurs in THUNDERS-field (THOR’S-field); and in THUNDERS-ley
(THOR’S-meadow); in HAMER-ton and HOMER-ton (THOR’S-town); HAMER-ton-kirk
(THOR’S-town-Church); HAMER-wick (THOR’S-marsh); and in HAMER-stein
(THOR’S-stone). The name of BALDER, the son of Odin, and god of light,
is still preserved in BALDERS-ley (the meadow of BALDER); BALDERS-dale
(BALDER’S-vale); BOLDRE-wood (BALDER’S-wood); and in BALDERS-haye
(BALDER’S-enclosure); that of BRAGE, the god of orators, in BRAG-naes
(BRAGE-naes, the promontory of BRAGE).
The god of war and of champions, TEU, TIW, or TYR, has his name conferred
upon TEWES-ley, and TEW-ing (the meadow of TEW), and upon TYE-hall and
TYE-farm.
LOK appears in LOX-wood, LOX-field, and in LOCK-ing.
SEATOR appears in SATTER-leigh, SATTER-thwaite, and in SATTER-land.
Perhaps local names are indebted to the fairy mythology. MAB, the
elf queen, occurs in MAB’S-hill, and the merry PUCK in PUCK-pool
Bay, POOCK-burne (PUCKE-ridge), POOCK-hill, and PUCKE-tye. GRIM-a, a
ghost, hag, or witch, is found in GRIMS-by, GRIMS-bury, GRIMMS-hoo,
GRIMS-how, and in GRIMS-ditch. It is the safest plan, however, in
tracing local names to their origin, to resort to such a mode for their
explanation only when we find ourselves unable to offer a more rational
etymology—that is to say, one in harmony with their natural or historical
associations.
(_B_) NAMES OF ANIMALS.
The names of animals which enter largely into geographical nomenclature
need little explanation; most of them, being familiar, may be easily
identified.
NATE, NET (Scandinavian) horned cattle; NEAT (English), occurs in
NATE-ly, NAT-land, and NATE-ly Scures.
The WILD BOAR, in Anglo-Saxon EVER (éofer, ebur, efer), is found in
EVER-shaw, the _wild boar’s_ field;
EVER-shot, EVERS-holt, the _wild boar’s_ wood;
EVERS-don, the _wild boar’s_ hill;
EVER-ton, the _wild boar’s_ town or enclosure.
EVER-leigh, EVER-ley, the _wild boar’s_ meadow.
EBER, the German form of this root, occurs in
EBER-stein, the _wild boar’s_ stone;
EBER-bach, the _wild boar’s_ stream;
EBERS-berg, the _wild boar’s_ hill;
EBER-ach, the _wild boar’s_ dwelling by the stream.
The BEAR (BAR, BARIN in German) no doubt was an inhabitant of the
following places:—
BAR-walde, the _bear’s_ forest;
BAR-uth, the _bear’s_ region;
BAREN-spring, the _bear’s_ spring;
BAREN-wald-a, the _bear’s_ forest by the stream;
BAREN-horst, the _bear’s_ thicket.
In the following places we find the name of the BADGER (BROC, BAW, BAUD,
BAG, BADGE, in Anglo-Saxon, and DACHS in German):—
BAG-shot,
BAG-borough,
BADGEN-don,
BADGE-worth,
BAGIN-thorpe,
BAUGH-hurst,
BAWS-ley,
BAW-burgh,
BAUD-rip,
BAUDS-ly,
BROCK-ley, the _badger’s_ meadow;
BROX-bourne, the _badger’s_ stream;
BROX-ton, BROC-ton, the _badger’s_ town;
BROCK-thorp, the _badger’s_ village;
BROCK-holes, the _badger’s_ caves;
BROCK-les-by, the _badger’s_ abode of the spring;
BROCK-dish, the _badger’s_ ditch;
BROC-den, the _badger’s_ hollow;
DACH-stein, the _badger’s_ stone;
DACHS-berg, the _badger’s_ hill.
The BEAVER (in German, BIBER), occurs in
BEVER-ley, the _beaver’s_ meadow;
BEVER-born, the _beaver’s_ stream;
BIBER-ach, BIBR-a, the _beaver’s_ abode on the stream.
The Dutch form of the root BEVER occurs in BEVER-en (in the province
of East Flanders), and in BEVER-n (in the duchy of Brunswick), both
signifying the _beaver’s_ river isle.
The BUCK (BUCCA, in Anglo-Saxon) may be traced in
BUCKEN-ham, the _buck’s_ home;
BUCK-den, the _buck’s_ hollow;
BICK-leigh, the _buck’s_ meadow;
BOCK-field, the _buck’s_ field;
BU-cup, the _buck’s_ hollow;
BUCK-low, the _buck’s_ hill;
BOK-hurst, the _buck’s_ forest;
BUCK-land, the _buck’s_ district;
BICKN-or, the _buck’s_ border;
BUC-kle, the _buck’s_ spring.
The low German form is BUCK, the High German, BOCK—_e.g._,
BOCEN-em, BOCCEN-heim, BOCK-um, the _buck’s_ home;
BOC-holt, the _buck’s_ wood.
The COW (Cu, Cy) may be found in
COWS-ley, COW-ley, COW-leaze, CUERD-ley, the _cow’s_ meadow;
KAY-land, _cow_ district;
CO-dale, the _cow’s_ vale;
COS-grove, the _cow’s_ grove;
CO-ton, COW-ton, the _cow’s_ town;
CO-stock, COW-fold, the _cow’s_ fence or enclosure.
The OX may be traced in
OXN-ead;
OX-ton, the town of the _ox_;
OX-ley, the meadow of the _ox_;
OX-ford, the ford of the _ox_;
OX-fold, the enclosure of the _ox_;
OCHSEN-werder, the island of the _ox_;
OXN-ey, the island of the _ox_;
OX-stones, the heights of the _ox_;
OXEN-hope, the shelter of the _ox_;
OCHSEN-furt, the ford of the _ox_;
OCHSEN-kopf, the summit of the _ox_.
The CALF (CIELF) occurs in
KELVE-don, the _calf’s_ hill;
CALVER-ley, the _calf’s_ meadow.
The HART (HEORT), in German HIRSCH, is found in
HART-fold, the _hart’s_ enclosure;
HERT-ford, HART-ford, the _hart’s_ ford;
HART-ing, the _hart’s_ meadow;
HARTS-bath, the _hart’s_ bathing place;
HART-burn, the _hart’s_ stream;
HARTEN-stein, the _hart’s_ stone;
HIRSCH-au, the _hart’s_ meadow;
HIRSCH-berg, the _hart’s_ hill;
HIRSCH-horn, the _hart’s_ angle;
HIRSCH-feld, the _hart’s_ field.
The KID (in Anglo-Saxon TIC, TYCH, and in German ZIEGE), appears in
KID-land,
KID-sty,
KIDDER-minster,
TICE-hurst, the _kid’s_ forest;
TITCHEN-worth, the _kid’s_ farm;
TITCH-borne, the _kid’s_ stream;
TICK-ton, the _kid’s_ town;
TITCH-marsh, the _kid’s_ marsh;
TICKEN-ham, the _kid’s_ home;
ZIEGEN-hayn, the _kid’s_ wood;
ZIEGEN-hals, the _kid’s_ castle;
ZIEGEN-ruck, the _kid’s_ ridge.
In STAGS-den and STAGS-bath we see the name of the STAG; in DUR-ness,
DEER-hurst, DEAR-ham, DYR-have, DAR-field, DERE-ham, we find some form of
the modern word DEER, with a more general signification. Like its Gothic
and German cognates, it denoted any wild animal.
The GOAT (GAET) occurs as an element in the formation of the following
names:—
GOAD-land, GAT-acre, the _goat’s_ field;
GAT-ford, the _goat’s_ ford;
GAT-combe, the _goat’s_ valley;
GEIS-mar;
GEISEN-hein;
GEIS-ingen;
YAT-ton, the _goat’s_ town.
The HARE (HARA) is found in
HARE-stane, the _hare’s_ stone;
HAR-pole, the _hare’s_ pool;
HAR-bottle, the _hare’s_ dwelling;
HAR-combe, the _hare’s_ valley.
The German form, HASE, is found in
HAS-lach, the _hare’s_ lake;
HAS-selt, the _hare’s_ seat;
HASS-furt, the _hare’s_ ford;
HASSE-field, the _hare’s_ field and plain.
The HORSE occurs under the forms HORS, HEST (Scandinavian) and
ROSS—_e.g._—
HORS-ley and ROS-ley, the _horse’s_ meadow;
HORSEN-don, the _horse’s_ hill;
ROSS-thwaite, the _horse’s_ path;
HORS-ham, the _horse’s_ home;
HEST Fell, the _horse’s_ rock or hill;
HES-ket, the _horse’s_ hut;
HEST-holme, the _horse’s_ island;
HORSE-lease, the _horse’s_ meadow;
HORSE-ford, the _horse’s_ ford;
ROSS-heim, the _horse’s_ home;
ROSS-bach, the _horse’s_ stream;
ROSS-lau, the _horse’s_ meadow;
HESTEN Field, the _horse’s_ ridge.
The SHEEP (SCEP) occurs in
SHIP-ley, the _sheep’s_ meadow;
SHIP-ton, the _sheep’s_ town;
SHIP-ham, the _sheep’s_ home;
SHIP-wash, the _sheep’s_ ford;
SHIP-lake, the _sheep’s_ stream.
The same root is found in SHAP-wick and SHAP-moor, SHEPPER-ton and
SHEPP-ey; SKIP-ton, SKIP-sea, and SCOP-wick.
The German form is SCHAF, which is found in
SCHAF-berg, the _sheep’s_ hill;
SCHAF-hausen, the _sheep’s_ house or dwelling;
SCHAF-en, the _sheep’s_ isle;
SCHAF-stadt, the _sheep’s_ place.
The English WETHER (WEDER) is found in
WETHER-den,
WETHER-ley,
WEDER-ley,
WETHER-al,
WETHERS-field, &c.
The LAMB in
LAMB-hurst,
LAMBER-hurst,
LAMB-ton,
LAM-brook, &c.
We find the Scandinavian forms for SHEEP (SAUDR and FAAR), in
SOUTER-fell, SOUDEN-hill, the _sheep’s_ hill;
FAR-leigh, FARS-ley, the _sheep’s_ meadow;
FAIR-field, the _sheep’s_ field;
SOUTER-gate, the _sheep’s_ street;
FAIR-ford, the _sheep’s_ ford;
FAIR-leigh, the _sheep’s_ meadow;
FAR-a, FAR-oe, the _sheep’s_ island.
SOW (SUGU) may be traced in
SUG-ley, the _sow’s_ meadow;
SO-ham, SUERS-ham, the _sow’s_ home;
SUG-gate, the _sow’s_ street;
SOWER-by, the _sow’s_ town.
SWINE in
SWIN-burn, SWYN-bourne, the _swine’s_ stream;
SWIN-hope, the _swine’s_ shelter;
SWINES-co, SWINES-cot, the _swine’s_ hut;
SCHWEIN-a, the _swine’s_ abode by the stream;
SCHWEIN-furt, the _swine’s_ ford;
SCHWEINS-berg, the _swine’s_ hill.
GRIS (Scandinavian) wild swine, gives name to
GRIS-dale, the _wild swine’s_ vale;
Mun-GRIS-dale, the monks’ _wild swine’s_ vale.
We may trace the WOLF in
WOOLVER-hampton, the _wolf’s_ home-town;
WOOLVIS-ton, the _wolf’s_ town;
WOOL-hope, WOLF’S-hope, the _wolf’s_ shelter;
WOLN-ey, the _wolf’s_ island;
WOOLVER-den, the _wolf’s_ hollow;
WOOL-mer, the _wolf’s_ lake;
WOLF-ham-cote, the _wolf’s_ home hut;
WOOL-pit the _wolf’s_ pit;
WOOLS-ton, the _wolf’s_ town;
WOOL-wich, the _wolf’s_ bay;
WOL-an, the _wolf’s_ meadow;
WOLF-ach, the _wolf’s_ abode by the stream;
WOLF-hagen, the _wolf’s_ enclosure;
WOLF-stein, the _wolf’s_ stone;
WOLFEN-buttel, the _wolf’s_ dwelling.
The FOX gives name to FOX-hole, FOX-hunt, Car-FOX, &c.; but TOD, another
name for this animal, occurs in
TOD-bere, the forest of the _fox_;
TOD-hurst;
TOD-burn, the stream of the _fox_;
TOD-mor-den, the marshy hollow of the _fox_;
TOD-wick, &c.
The dog, HOUND or HUND, is found in
HOUNDS-borough, the _hound’s_ city;
HOUNS-low, the _hound’s_ hill;
HUND-holm, the _hound’s_ island;
HUN-wyl, the _hound’s_ well;
HUN-ley, HUNS-ley, the _hound’s_ town;
HUN-feld, the _hound’s_ field;
HUNS-rucken, HUNDS-ruck, the _hound’s_ ridge;
HUND-loch, the _hound’s_ hole.
The SQUIRREL (DRAY) is the root of
DRA-cot, DRAY-cot, the _squirrel’s_ hut;
DRAY-ton, the _squirrel’s_ town.
WANT-ley, WANTIS-den, and WANT-age, derive their name from WANT, WANAT,
the _mole_.
The names of _Birds_ are sometimes to be met with in local nomenclature;
among the most important are the following:—
The EAGLE, ARL (German) in
ARLS-heim,
ARL-berg,
EAGLES-cliffe, the _eagle’s_ rock;
EAGLE’S-hay, the _eagle’s_ field;
AYLES-bury, the _eagle’s_ city;
AYLE-stone, the _eagle’s_ stone;
EAGL-ey, the _eagle’s_ river isle.
We find some trace of the Scandinavian name for the eagle (ARI, ARIN,
ERN, ORN) in
ARNES-by, the _eagle’s_ town;
EARN-ley, AR-ley, the _eagle’s_ meadow;
EARS-dale, the _eagle’s_ vale;
ARN-old, the _eagle’s_ wood;
ARN-heim, the _eagle’s_ home;
ARNS-berg, the _eagle’s_ hill;
ARNS-walde, ARENS-walde, the _eagle’s_ wood or forest;
ARN-stadt, the _eagle’s_ town;
ARENS-burg, the _eagle’s_ city;
AREN-berg-thal, the _eagle’s_ mountain valley;
ARR-öe, the _eagle’s_ isle;
AR-schot, the _eagle’s_ wood or field;
AREND-see, the _eagle’s_ lake.
The DAW, in
DAW-ley,
DEW-bury,
DEW-sall.
The OWL, in
UL-combe,
ULLEN-hall,
OWLS-bury, the _owl’s_ city;
OWL-ton, the _owl’s_ town;
EULEN-gebirge, the _owl’s_ mountains;
UL-ey, UGL-ey, the _owl’s_ river island.
The CROW (CRAWE, Anglo-Saxon; KRAKA, Scandinavian) in
CRACKEN-dale,
CROUGH-ton,
CREAKE,
CROW-hurst, the _crow’s_ forest;
CROW-land, the _crow’s_ district;
CROW-borough, the _crow’s_ city;
CRAW-ley, the _crow’s_ meadow;
CRAYKE, the _crow’s_ region;
CRAKE-hall, CRAKE-hill, the _crow’s_ hill;
CRACKEN-thorp, the _crow’s_ village;
KRA-winkel, the _crow’s_ angle;
KRE-feld, the _crow’s_ field.
The CRANE, in
CRAN-brook, the _crane’s_ brook;
CRAN-field, the _crane’s_ field;
CRAN-ham, the _crane’s_ home;
CRAN-bourne, the _crane’s_ stream;
CRAN-ach, the _crane’s_ dwelling by the stream;
CRANEN-burg, the _crane’s_ city.
The Scandinavian TRANA, a _crane_, is perhaps found in
TRAN-well, the _crane’s_ spring;
TRAN-mere, the _crane’s_ lake.
The SWAN, in
SWAN-cot, the _swan’s_ hut;
SWAN-more, the _swan’s_ moor;
SCHWAN-den, the _swan’s_ ravine;
SCHWANE-beck, the _swan’s_ rivulet.
The DOVE (CULVER), in
CULVER-hayes, the _dove’s_ field.
The WREN, in
WREN-hurst, the _wren’s_ thicket;
WREN-thorpe, the _wren’s_ village.
The HEN (HAEN), in
HEN-stead,
HEN-baun,
HEN-don, the _hen’s_ hill;
HEN-ley, the _hen’s_ meadow;
HINTON, the _hen’s_ town.
The GOOSE, in
GAS-garth, the enclosure of the _geese_;
GOS-forth, the ford of the _geese_;
GAS-dale, the vale of the _geese_.
The word FOWL, which occurs in numerous places, had originally a much
wider meaning than at present. Any _flying_ creature, was a bird; and in
this sense we find it in
FOULS-ham, FUL-ham, the _bird’s_ home;
FULL-wood, the _bird’s_ wood;
FOULN-ey, FUGL-oe, the _bird’s_ island;
VOGELS-berg, the _bird’s_ hill.
The names of _Fish_ seem rather scarce; we find
FISH-bourn, the stream, abounding in _fish_;
FISHER-gate, _fish_ street;
FISHER-ton, _fish_ town;
FISH-guard, _fish_ enclosure;
FISH-toft, _fish_ field;
FISH-field, _fish_ field;
FISCH-back, _fish_ rivulet;
FISK-um-foss, the waterfall of the _fish_ dwelling.
The SALMON (LAX) occurs in
LAX-ey,
LAX-field,
LAX-ay, _salmon_ river;
LAX-voe, _salmon_ bay;
LAKE-fiord, _salmon_ firth.
The TROUT (TRUHT) is found in
TROUTS-dale,
TROUT-beck, the _trout_ rivulet.
The EEL may be traced in
AAL-borg, _eel_ city;
AAL-en, _eel_ island;
AAL-st, _eel_ district;
AAL-rust, _eel_ torrent.
The FROG and TOAD are perhaps the only _reptiles_ we find in place-names.
They evidently give names to
FROG-hill, FROG-more, the _frog’s_ moor;
FROX-feld, the _frog’s_ field;
FROX-ton, the _frog’s_ town;
FRISKN-ey, the _frog’s_ island;
TAD-ley,
TAD-low.
The Scandinavian term for the reptile is PADDA, which occurs in
PAD-gate, _frog_ street;
PADDON-Beck, _frog_ stream;
PADDY-gill, _frog_ rivulet; &c.
The _insect_ WIGGA, WIEGA, a _beetle_, is perhaps found in
WIG-more, the _beetle’s_ moor;
WIGGEN-holt, the _beetle’s_ wood;
WIG-sell, the _beetle’s_ seat;
WIG-ton, WIGS-ton, WIGGIN-ton, the _beetle’s_ town;
WIG-toft, the _beetle’s_ field.
In German, the name of the beetle is KAFER, cognate with the En-CHAFER,
which occurs in
KAFER-loh, the _beetle’s_ meadow;
KAFERN-burg, the _beetle’s_ city.
(_C_) THE NAMES OF TREES, PLANTS, &c.
_Trees_ performed no unimportant part in the division of land among the
Teutonic nations; they were used as land marks and boundaries, and county
courts were held under them.
The word TREE occurs very often in the names of places, and is no doubt
connected with some historical circumstance: _e.g._—
Oswes-TRY,
Coven-TRY,
Dodin-TREE,
Web-TREE,
Grey-TREE,
Els-TREE, &c.
The OAK (AC) is found in
AC-ton, the _oak_ town;
ACK-worth, the _oak_ farm;
AUCK-land, the _oak_ district;
AIKE-Beck-Mouth, the mouth of the _oak_ rivulet;
OAK-leigh, OCK-ley, OAK-ley, WOK-ing, the _oak_ meadow;
AS-kew (AKE-skeugh), the _oak_ knoll;
AX-holme, the _oak_ island;
EX-fold, the _oak_ enclosure;
EX-twistle, the _oak_ borders;
OKE-hanger-mere, the _oak_ meadow-lake;
OAK-ham, the _oak_ dwelling;
OCK-brook, the _oak_ brook;
UCK-field, the _oak_ plain;
Bald-OCK, the bare _oak_;
Mart-OCK, the market _oak_;
EICH-horn, the _oak_ height;
EICHS-feld, the _oak_ field;
EICH-stadt, the _oak_ town.
The ASH (AESC) occurs in
ASH-stead, _ash_ dwelling;
AS-cot, _ash_ hut;
ASH-don, ASHEN-don, ASH-down, _ash_ hill;
ASH-combe, ES-combe, _ash_ valley;
ESH-gill, _ash_ rivulet;
ASH-ling, _ash_ heath;
ASH-by, ASH-ton, ASTON, _ash_ town;
ASH-well, _ash_ spring;
ASH-borne, _ash_ stream;
AS-hurst, _ash_ thicket;
ASH-fold, _ash_ enclosure.
The Scandinavian form occurs in
ASK-rigg, _ash_ ridge;
ASK-ern, _ash_ dwelling;
ASKER-sund, _ash_ sound;
ASK-han, ASK-heim, _ash_ home.
The German form is found in
ESCHERS-leben, ASCHERS-leben, _ash_ field or level;
AS-perg, _ash_ hill;
ESCHEN-bach, _ash_ stream;
ESCH-wege, _ash_ way;
ESCH-weiler, _ash_ dwelling;
AS-sens, AS-sen, _ash_ dwelling;
ASSEN-heim, _ash_ home.
The ALDER is found in
ALDER-bury, _alder_ city;
ALDER-ley, _alder_ meadow;
ALDER-minster, _alder_ church;
ALLER-dale, _alder_ vale;
ALLER-by, _alder_ town;
ALDERS-haugh, _alder_ hill;
ALDER-mas-ton, _alder_ marsh town;
ALDEN-ham, _alder_ home;
ALDER-shot, _alder_ wood;
ALLI-thwaite, _alder_ path;
ALLER-ton, OWLER-ton, ELLER-ton, _alder_ town;
ELLE-ray, _alder_ corner;
ELL-feld, _alder_ field;
ELL-bogen, _alder_ bending;
ELL-rich, _alder_ district;
ELL-wangen, _alder_ meadow;
ERL-ach, _alder_ dwelling on the stream;
ERL-angen, ERL-au, _alder_ meadow.
The BROOM gives name to
BROM-ton, _broom_ town;
BROM-borough, _broom_ city;
BROM-ley, _broom_ meadow;
BROM-yard, _broom_ enclosure;
BROM-hurst, _broom_ forest;
BROMS-wold, _broom_ wood;
BROM-berg, _broom_ hill;
BRAM-field, _broom_ field;
BRAM-with, _broom_ wood;
BRAM-shot, _broom_ wood;
BRAM-ber, _broom_ pasture;
BRAM-cote, _broom_ hut.
The BEECH may be traced in
BOCK-am, _beech_ home;
BUCH-au, _beech_ meadow;
BUCH-holz, _beech_ wood;
BUCH-horn, _beech_ corner;
BUCHS-weiler, _beech_ dwelling.
The BIRCH gives name to
BARK-by;
BARK-ham;
BARK-brough;
BARK-ey;
BIRK-stall;
BERKE-ley, _birch_ meadow;
BIRKEN-shaw, _birch_ field;
BERK-hamp-stead, _birch_ homestead;
BARK-by, _birch_ town;
BIRKEN-field, _birch_ field;
BJORK-ö, _birch_ island;
BIRK-thwaite, _birch_ path.
The APPLE is found in
APPLE-ton, APPLE-by, _apple_ town;
APPULDUR-combe, APPULDRE-combe, _apple_ valley;
APPLE-shaw, _apple_ field or wood;
APPLE-dore, APPLE-thwaite, _apple_ path.
The HAZEL occurs in
HAZEL-ton;
HAZE-leigh;
HAZEL-badge;
HASLE-mere;
HAZLE-wood, _hazel_ wood;
HASEL-bury, _hazel_ city;
HASLE-don, _hazel_ hill;
HASLE-wall, _hazel_ bank;
HAYSEL-dean, _hazel_ hollow;
HAZLE-shaw, _hazel_ wood;
HASSEL-feld, _hazel_ field.
The LIME-tree (LINDE) occurs in
LIND-field, _lime_ field;
LIND-ridge, _lime_ ridge;
LIND-hurst, _lime_ forest;
LIND-au, the _lime_ meadow;
LINDEN-fels, _lime_ hills;
LINDES-berg, _lime_ hill;
Hohen-LINDEN, the high _lime_ tree.
The MAPLE-tree is found in
MAPPER-ley;
MAPLE-stead;
MAPPER-ton, _maple_ town;
MAPPOW-der, _maple_ dwelling;
MAPLE-hurst, _maple_ forest;
MAPUL-beck, _maple_ rivulet.
The PINE occurs in
PINE-low;
PIN-hoe, _pine_ hill;
PINE-hurst, _pine_ thicket; &c.
The THORN gives name to
THORN-waste, _thorn_ level;
THORN-bury, _thorn_ city;
THORN-ey, _thorn_ island;
THORN-ham, _thorn_ home;
THORN-ton, _thorn_ city;
Pightles-THORNE, the enclosure by the _thorn_;
Moster-TON (Mortes-TORNE), slaughter _thorn_.
The German form, DORN, occurs in
DORN-burg, the _thorn_ city;
DORN-holz-hausen, _thorn_ wood-dwelling;
DORN-han, _thorn_ field;
DORN-stetten, _thorn_ town.
The WILLOW (WELIG) may be traced in
WILLOUGH-by, WILLOUGH-ton, _willow_ town;
WITHE-ridge, _willow_ ridge;
WITH-ern, _willow_ dwelling;
WITHY-sike, _willow_ brook;
WITHY-ham, _willow_ home;
WEID-a, _willow_ water dwelling;
WEID-en, _willow_ district;
WEIDEN-au, _willow_ meadow.
SAUCH, SOUGH, SAY, a _willow_, is the root of Nick-SOUGH, SAW-ley,
SAIGH-ton, and SAUG-hall.
The YEW appears in
U-ford,
UF-ton,
U-ton,
IW-erne,
IW-ade,
EW-hurst, _yew_ forest;
EW-den, _yew_ hollow;
EWAN-rigg, _yew_ ridge;
IW-ern, _yew_ dwelling;
The VIEWS, the _yews_;
EIBEN-stock, _yew_ enclosure.
The BRIER occurs in
BRIER-den,
BRIAR-cliff,
BRIER-ley, _briar_ meadow;
BRE-wood, _briar_ wood.
The FERN gives name to
FURN-ham, FARN-ham, _fern_ home;
FERN-ton, _fern_ town;
FARNS-ley, _fern_ meadow;
FARN-borough, _fern_ city.
The FURZE (FYRS), WHIN, Scandinavian, occurs in
WHIN-berg,
WHIN-fell,
WHIN-brig-dale;
WHINN-ey-nab,
FURZ-leigh, the _furzy_ meadow;
FURZ-brook, the _furzy_ brook;
FURZ-moor-gate, the _furzy_ moor-street.
FLAX (LIN) appears in
LIN-gards, _flax_ enclosure;
LIN-thwaite, _flax_ path;
LIN-ton, _flax_ town;
LIN-dale, _flax_ vale.
GRASS (GAERS, and SPROT) is found in
YEARS-ley,
GRAT-ton,
GRETN-a,
SPROT-ton,
SPRAT-ton,
SPROUGH-ton,
SPROS-ton,
GRAS-mere, _grass_ lake;
GAR-grave, _grass_ grove;
GRAS-garth, _grass_ enclosure;
GARS-ton, _grass_ field;
GAR-stang, _grass_ pool;
GARS-dale, _grass_ vale;
GRAS-croft, _grass_ field;
GRASS-by, _grass_ town;
GRAS-brook, _grass_ brook;
GARS-by, the enclosed _grass_ town.
CRESS (NASTURTIUM) occurs in