You can correlate this work with geography by giving the distribution or

range of the different kinds of trees. Indicate the limit of

distribution northward, southward, eastward, westward; also the regions

in which the species is most abundant. The common manuals of botany will

help you in this work; or you may consult the many excellent special

books on trees.

In teaching nature-study, remember that a great part of its value lies

in the enthusiasm and zeal with which you handle it. Try, also, to

develop the æsthetic sense of the pupil; but do not teach mere

sentiment.]

[Illustration]

Only the growing and open season is thought to be attractive in the

country. The winter is bare and cheerless. The trees are naked. The

flowers are under the snow. The birds have flown. The only bright and

cheery spot is the winter fireside. But even there the farmer has so

much time that he does not know what to do with it. Only those who have

little time, appreciate its value.

But the winter is not lifeless and charmless. It is only dormant. The

external world fails to interest us because we have not been trained to

see and know it; and also because the rigorous weather and the snow

prevent us from going afield. In the spring, summer, and fall, the hours

are full to overflowing with life and interest. On every hand we are in

contact with nature. If the farmer's winter is to be more enjoyable the

farmer must have more points of contact with the winter world. One of

the best and most direct of these points of sympathy is an interest in

the winter aspects of trees.

[Illustration: _Fig. 203. Small-fruited Shagbark Hickory._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 204. Pignut Hickory. This and Fig. 203 are from

"Lessons with Plants."_]

a. THE STRUCTURE OF THE TREE-TOP.

In the summer time we distinguish the kinds of trees chiefly by means of

the shape and the foliage. In winter the foliage is gone; but the shape

remains, and the framework of the tree is also conspicuous. Trees are as

distinct in winter as in summer; and in some respects their characters

are more apparent and pronounced.

Observe the outline of a tree against the dull winter sky. It does not

matter what kind of tree it is. Note its height, shape, and size of top,

how many branches there are, how the branches are arranged on the main

trunk, the direction of the branches, whether the twigs are few or many,

crooked or straight.

[Illustration: _Fig. 205. Slippery Elm. The expression is stiff and

hard._]

Having observed these points in any tree, compare one kind of tree with

another and note how they differ in these features. Compare an apple

tree with an elm, an elm with a maple, a basswood with a pine, a poplar

with a beech, a pear tree with a peach tree.

Having made comparisons between very dissimilar trees, compare those

which are much alike, as the different kinds of maples, of elms, of

oaks, of poplars. As your powers of observation become trained, compare

the different varieties of the same kind of fruit trees, if there are

good orchards in the vicinity. The different varieties of pears afford

excellent contrasts. Contrast the Bartlett with the Flemish Beauty, the

Kieffer with the Seckel. In apples, compare the Baldwin with the Spy,

the King with the Twenty Ounce. The sweet and sour cherries show marked

differences in method of branching. Fruit men can tell many varieties

apart in winter. How?

Two common hickories are shown in Figs. 203 and 204. How do they differ?

Do they differ in length of trunk? General method of branching?

Direction of branches? Character of twig growth? Straightness or

crookedness of branches?

Contrast the slippery elm (Fig. 205) and the common or American elm

(Fig. 211). The former has a crotchy or forked growth, and long, stiff,

wide-spreading branches. The latter is more vase-like in shape. The

branches are willowy and graceful, with a tendency to weep.

Compare the oaks. The white and scarlet oaks have short trunks when they

grow in fields, and the main branches are comparatively few and make

bold angles and curves. The swamp white oak (Fig. 206), however, has a

more continuous trunk, with many comparatively small, horizontal, and

tortuous branches.

[Illustration: _Fig. 206. Swamp White Oak._]

With Fig. 206 compare the pepperidge (Fig. 207). This is one of the most

unusual and interesting of all our native trees. It grows in swales. It

has a very tough-grained wood. The autumn foliage is deep red and

handsome. The peculiarities of the tree are the continuation of the

trunk to near the summit, and the many lateral, short, deflected,

tortuous branches.

Consider the structure of the sassafras in Fig. 208. The great branches

stand off nearly at right angles to the trunk, and are bushy and twiggy

at the ends. Each large branch if cut off at its base and stood upright

would look like an independent tree, so tree-like are its branches.

Observe how much more bushy the sassafras is than any of the other trees

already figured. Compare it in the method of branching and the

twigginess with the slippery elm (Fig. 205).

[Illustration: _Fig. 207. Pepperidge or Sour Gum. The oddest of New York

trees._]

But there is still greater brushiness in the thorn-apple (Fig. 209). In

twigginess Figs. 208 and 209 are very unlike, however. Pick out the

differences. Observe the very short and spur-like twigs in the

thorn-apple; also notice how soon the trunk is lost in the branches.

With all the foregoing pictures compare the steeple-like form of the

Lombardy poplar (Fig. 210). The tree is frequent along roadsides and

about yards. What is its structure? Observe it as it stands against the

winter sky. There is nothing else in our northern landscape so straight

and spire-like. If you know a beech tree standing in a field, contrast

it with the Lombardy poplar. These two trees represent extremes of

vertical and of horizontal branching.

Aside from the general structure of the tree-top, the pupil will become

interested in the winter color of the tree and in the character of the

bark. How does the bark differ between elms and maples, oaks and

chestnuts, birches and beeches, hickories and walnuts? Why does the bark

separate in ridges or peel off in strips? Is it not associated with the

increase in diameter of the trunk? The method of breaking of the bark

is different and peculiar for each kind of tree.

Look at these things; and think about them.

THE EXPRESSION OF THE TREE.

Consciously or unconsciously, we think of trees much as we think of

persons. They suggest thoughts and feelings which are also attributes of

people. A tree is weeping, gay, restful, spirited, quiet, sombre. That

is, trees have expression.

[Illustration: _Fig. 208. Sassafras. Type of a bushy-topped tree._]

The expression resides in the observer, however, not in the tree.

Therefore, the more the person is trained to observe and to reflect,

the more sensitive his mind to the things about him, and the more

meaning the trees have. No one loves nature who does not love trees. We

love them for what they are, wholly aside from their uses in

fruit-bearing or shade-giving. A knowledge and love of trees binds one

close to the external world.

[Illustration: _Fig. 209. Thorn-apple. One of the most picturesque

objects in the winter landscape._]

How shall one increase his love of trees? First, by knowing them. He

learns their attributes and names. Knowing them in winter, as already

suggested, is one of the ways of becoming acquainted. Second, by

endeavoring to determine what thought or feeling they chiefly express.

The slippery elm is stiff and hard. The American elm is soft and

graceful. The Lombardy poplar is prim and precise. The oak is rugged,

stern, and bold. The pepperidge is dejected. The long white branches of

a leaning buttonwood standing against a distant forest, suggest some

spectre hurrying away from the haunts of men.

Trees which have very strong expressions, or which are much unlike

others, are said to have character. They are peculiar. Of such trees are

oaks, pepperidges, Lombardy poplars, button woods, old apple trees.

[Illustration: _Fig. 210. Group of Lombardy Poplars. From Bulletin 68._]

A tree with very strong characters is said to be picturesque. That is,

it is such an object as an artist delights to put into a picture. Trees

which are very unsymmetrical, or knotty, gnarled, or crooked, are

usually picturesque. Of all common trees, none is more picturesque than

an old apple tree. Observe its gnarled and crooked branches, and the

irregular spaces in its top.

Encourage the pupil to extend his observation to all the trees about

him, especially to such as are common and familiar. Teach him to observe

the growths of bushes and trees in the fence-rows which lie on his way

to school; and to observe carefully and critically. How do gooseberry

bushes differ from currant bushes, and raspberries from blackberries?

Observe the lilac bush and the snowballs. How is the snow held on the

different kinds of evergreens--as the pines, spruces, arbor-vitæ? See

how the fruit-spurs on pears and plums stand out against the sky.

(Consult Leaflet No. XXXI, "Four Apple Twigs.") Are there any bright

colors of branch and twig to relieve the bareness of the snow? Do you

see any warmth of color in the swales where the willows and osiers are?

Do you see old plumes of grass and weeds standing above the snow? Do

they bring up any visions of summer and brooks and woods?

[Illustration]

LEAFLET XXX.

ONE WAY OF DRAWING TREES IN THEIR WINTER ASPECT.[41]

BY C. W. FURLONG.

[41] Teacher's Leaflet, No. 12, January, 1899.

The few suggestions which are set forth in these pages are based upon

two assumptions:--first, that the teacher has some knowledge of the most

salient principles of elementary perspective; and second, that she has a

love for all things beautiful. It is feasible to deal here not to any

extent with art in either its abstract or its concrete form, but only

with drawing.

Drawing, in its simplest analysis, is the ability to record objects as

they appear to the normal eye.

Art is more complicated. It includes many elements, a few of which are

composition, expression of movement, and action. The very thought,

feeling, and refinement of the artist must be expressed in his work. He

must tell not only what he sees, but also what he feels. He interprets

nature through his own moods.

There are no outlines in nature. The boundaries, shapes, and character

of various forms are determined by the difference of their color values,

and the contrasts of light and shade. Yet an outline drawing is the

simplest means of representing form and proportion. Although inadequate

in many respects, this somewhat conventional rendering is important to

the beginner, for it is necessary that the child be taught to observe

forms and proportions correctly; and these impressions may be recorded

most simply and definitely by outline drawings. Michael Angelo

emphasized its importance in these words: "The science of drawing or of

outline is the essence of painting and all the fine arts, and the root

of all the sciences."

To a great extent, one may show in an outline drawing the character and

texture of surfaces. Our main object should be to train the boys and

girls to observe in order to acquire a correctness of perception, for

"education amongst us consists too much in telling, not enough in

training."

[Illustration: _Fig. 211. The American Elm, one of the most typical of

vase-form trees._]

One of the greatest difficulties is to impress upon the minds of

beginners the fact that they must think while they look and draw. Insist

upon the pupil's looking repeatedly at the object. It is better to

observe for five minutes and draw for one, than to observe for one and

draw for five.

Make the drawing lesson more interesting by telling the class something

about the object which they are to draw, involving in the story facts

that will impress upon their minds some of the most salient

characteristics of the object. Encourage the children to discuss the

object, drawing out facts for their own observation. Certain kinds of

trees, like certain races of people, have a general similarity, yet

every single tree has an individuality of its own.

Apply a few essential questions that will help to determine at least the

kind of tree it is, the race to which it belongs; for first we must get

its general character, seeing its big proportions and shape; and later

must search for its individualities.

Is it tall for its greatest width?

How far does the trunk extend before dividing?

At what height do the lowest branches arise?

What is their general direction?

Do they appear to radiate from the trunk?

How do they appear to radiate from the trunk?

How do the main branches compare in size with the trunk?

Are they crooked or straight?

The manner of branch growth must be studied carefully.

We see in our elm (Fig. 211) that the trunk divides at about a fourth of

its height into several main branches, while in the case of the

pepperidge (Fig. 207) the trunk extends to the very top of the tree, the

branches being small in proportion to the trunk, not varying much in

size, and taking an oblique downward direction. Notice the weird

expression of these trees with their crookedly bent tops, one side of

each trunk being almost devoid of branches.

The trunk of the sassafras (Fig. 208) continues nearly to the top of

this tree, while the large branches, though unsymmetrical, give it a

well-balanced appearance.

Again in our picture of the thorn-apple (Fig. 209), we are at once

impressed with its irregular form, the branches on the left taking a

more oblique direction than those of the other side, the trunk dividing

a little short of half the height of the tree.

For an example, let our subject be an elm tree (Fig. 211); our drawing

to be rendered in outline.

[Illustration: _Fig. 212. Blocking-in the elm tree (Fig. 211). The first

work which the artist does when he draws the tree._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 213. Working in the details with sharp lines. The

original pencil sketch is not followed exactly._]

_Material._--Almost any good drawing paper, white or buff in color, will

answer our purpose; 9x12 is a good size. Our pencil should be of medium

grade lead (F. or HB.) of any standard make, Kohinoor preferred.

If procurable, we should have a light drawing board 17x22 inches (here

is an opportunity for the carpenters) to place the paper on, otherwise a

very stiff piece of cardboard; or a large geography book might answer.

It is best, however, to fasten our paper, which we cannot do in using

the book. For fastening the paper use four thumb tacks for the corners.

A Faber or multiplex pencil eraser is needed; also a sponge eraser with

which to remove the light lines and clean the drawing before lining it

in.

_Our position._--Our point of view will depend upon our subject, but it

is not well to be so near as to necessitate raising the head in order to

see the top of the tree. If we take longer than one sitting for our

drawing (which I do not think advisable, as we must not choose too

complicated a subject), we must mark our position in order to obtain

again the same point of view.

_Position of the drawing-board._--Our paper must be placed on the board

with its edges parallel to those of the board. The drawing-board should

be held perpendicular, or nearly so, to the direction in which it is

seen, for if the board is tilted far backward, it will be fore-shortened

and our tree will probably have been drawn longer than it should be.

_How to look._--The tendency of the beginner is to see and draw too much

in detail. It is most essential that we look first for the large shapes,

the greatest dimensions; next for the smaller ones; last for detail. It

is not well for the pupils to work too close to their drawings. They

should occasionally sit well back in their seats or get up and stand

behind the seats to obtain the general effect of their drawing, to see

that the big shapes are right and that the character of the tree has not

been lost.

As an aid to placing our drawing so as best to fill the space it has to

occupy, we may use what the French call a _cherche-motif_, the English,

a finder. This is nothing more than a small piece of stiff paper or

cardboard about 5x8 inches, in which is cut a small rectangular opening

about 3/4x1 inch; the size and proportion may vary somewhat. We may look

through this opening, the card acting as a frame to our picture. This

will help us to decide whether our subject will look better placed the

horizontal or the vertical way of the paper and how much of the subject

to include and where to place it in that space. We may include more or

less in the finder by varying its distance from the eye.

Now, I am sure we should not place ourselves within a dozen yards of our

tree if we wished to get its general effect; therefore, we must have

plenty of foreground in our drawing. We must give the eye a chance to

look, allowing plenty of space between the lowest point of our drawing

and the lower edge of our paper.

As the height of tree we are to draw (Fig. 211) is greater than its

greatest width, we find that it will fill the space best if placed the

vertical way of the paper. After indicating the extreme height and width

by four light marks, before carrying the drawing further we must test

these proportions by comparing the width with the height, always testing

the shorter dimension into the longer, viz.:

_To test the drawing._--Close one eye. The pencil may be used to test

the drawing by holding it in front of you at arm's length (as in Fig.

214) perpendicular to the direction in which the object is seen; also

revolving it in a plane perpendicular to the direction in which the

object is seen, in order to compare one dimension with another. For

example, hold your pencil horizontally at arm's length so that its blunt

end covers the outermost left-hand point of the elm. Slide your thumb

along the pencil till it covers the extreme right-hand point; retain

that measurement (keeping the same position in your chair, pencil always

at arm's length); revolve the pencil in the same plane until it

coincides with the height of the elm, at the same time lowering it so

that the end of the thumb covers the lowest point of the tree; note

carefully the point that the blunt end covers; raise the pencil so that

the end of the thumb covers that point, noting again where the blunt end

occurs and notice how many times, and how much over, the width goes into

the height. In our elm (Fig. 211) we find that the width goes about once

and six-sevenths into the height, or a little short of twice. If the

latter statement is preferred, we must bear in mind the proportion left

over.

[Illustration: _Fig. 214. How to test the drawing._]

Do not use the scale side of a ruler or marks on the pencil or object

used in order to test the proportions, and never transfer measurements

from the object used in testing to your paper. A scale or other

mechanical means should not be used in free-hand drawing. The teacher

should have a spool of black thread and should give a piece about 2 feet

6 inches long to each pupil. An eraser, a knife, or some small article

may be attached to one end of the thread. By holding the weighted thread

as a plumb-line in front of us, we have an absolutely vertical line; so

by having it intersect a desired point of our tree we may obtain the

relative positions to the right and left of other points above and below

this intersected point.

_Blocking-in._--We may conceive of the general shape of our elm by

looking at it with half closed eyes. It appears in silhouette. Now

imagine lines joining its outermost points; this will give the general

mass or shape of our tree. Now if we represent the outermost points

contained in these lines by sketching lightly these "blocking-in" lines,

as they are called, we obtain the general shape of the elm (Fig. 212).

We must emphasize the fact that these blocking-in lines are to be

sketched in lightly by holding the pencil near the blunt end, using a

free-arm motion. Now before going farther we again test these new points

to see if they occupy their correct positions in relation to the height

and width. Do not, however, transfer the measurements from the pencil to

the paper. This test is only to obtain the proportion of one dimension

to another. Having tested these smaller dimensions we may draw lightly

the main branches.

After having indicated their general direction and character of growth,

we may indicate some of the smaller branches and twigs (Fig. 213). All

this work should be carried out without erasing; all corrections should

be made by slightly darker lines.

Let us now sharpen our pencils to a good point and go over the drawing

with a fine dark line, carefully studying the character and spirit of

the tree. Now erase the lighter and superfluous lines, as the dark lines

remain distinct enough to indicate our drawing.

_Lining-in._--We may now take our pencil nearer the point and proceed to

line-in the drawing, going over it with a definite, consistent line. If

desirable, we may accent and bring out certain parts of the tree more

strongly than others by darker or shade lines and short, strong markings

called accents. These are especially effective at the junction and

underside of branches, and where one wishes to give the object a

nearer appearance. A soft, broad, grey line may be obtained by using a

softer pencil (B) and the drawing given variety by breaking lines here

and there. We should be cautious in using them, however; but lack of

space does not permit further discussion of the subject of accented

outlines.

[Illustration: _Fig. 215. The outline drawing complete, and the first

pencil marks erased._]

Allow the pupils to make short ten- or fifteen-minute "time sketches" of

trees. In these it is the spirit and general effect of the tree that we

must strive for. Above all, we must allow our little draughtsmen to give

their own interpretation of the tree. A helpful suggestion as to

proportion, etc., would be in place, but we must allow their

individuality to have as much play as possible.

The suggestions given on these pages are necessary for the beginner.

Some of them are hard facts; but it lies with the teacher to develop the

æsthetic and artistic qualities lying dormant in the pupil, ready to be

moulded and started in the right direction.

If you have confined the pupils to the flat copy, break away from it;

allow them to create. Let them see the beautiful things all about them.

They will respond. Let them draw from nature and still life. Train them

to observe.

The early summer days, just before school closes, with their bright

sunlight and strong shadows, make many subjects interesting as

light-and-shade drawings. Fall, with its brilliant coloring, gives us a

chance to use the color-box, while the early winter twilights will bring

many an interesting silhouette before our boys and girls, and next day

during the drawing hour these impressions may be carried out in pen and

ink.

The most successful teacher will be the one of sympathetic nature whose

love reaches out to the boys and girls, as well as to all things

beautiful. The most successful teacher will be the one who endeavors to

place the children where they may view nature sympathetically and in the

most intimate relationship.

LEAFLET XXXI.

FOUR APPLE TWIGS.[42]

BY L. H. BAILEY.

[42] Teachers' Leaflet No. 3, March, 1897.

[Illustration]

As I walked through an apple orchard the other day for the first time

since the long winter had set in, I was struck by the many different

shapes and sizes of the limbs as I saw them against the blue-gray of the

February sky. I cut four of them in passing, and as I walked back to the

house I wondered why the twigs were all so different; and I found myself

guessing whether there would be any apples next summer.

I have had pictures made of these four little apple limbs. Let us look

them over and see whether they have any story to tell of how they grew

and what they have set out to do.

I.

One of these twigs (Fig. 216) was taken from a strong young tree which,

I remember, bore its first good crop of apples last year. This simple

twig is plainly of two years' growth, for the "ring" between the old and

new wood is seen at B. That is, the main stem from the base up to B grew

in 1895, and the part from B to the tip grew in 1896. But the buds upon

these two parts look very unlike. Let us see what these differences

mean.

We must now picture to ourselves how this shoot from B to 10 looked last

summer while it was growing. The shoot bore leaves. Where? There was one

just below each bud; or, to be more exact, one bud developed just above

each leaf. These buds did not put out leaves. They grew to their present

size and then stopped. The leaves fell.

What are these buds of the tip shoot preparing to do in 1897? We can

answer this question by going back just one year and seeing what the

buds on the lower (or older) part of the shoot did in 1896. On that part

(below B) the buds seem to have increased in size. Therefore, they must

have grown larger last year. There were no leaves borne below these

buds in 1896, but a cluster of leaves came out of each little bud in the

spring. As these leaves expanded and grew, the little bud grew on; that

is, each bud grew into a tiny branch, and when fall came each of these

branches had a bud on its end to continue the growth in the year to

come. What we took to be simple buds at 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, are, therefore,

little branches.

But the strangest part of this wonderful little twig has not yet been

seen,--the branches are of different sizes, and three of them (7, 8, 9)

have so far outstripped the others that they seem to be of a different

kind. It should be noticed, too, that the very lowermost bud (at 1)

never grew at all, but remained perfectly dormant during the entire year

1896. It will be seen, then, that the dormant bud and the smallest

branches are on the lower part of the shoot, and the three strong

branches are at the very tip of the last year's growth.

If, now, we picture the twig as it looked in the fall of 1895, we shall

see that it consisted of a single shoot, terminating at B. It had a

large terminal bud (like those at 7, 8, 9, 10), and this bud pushed on

into a branch in 1896, while three other buds near the tip did the same

thing.

[Illustration: _Fig. 216.--A two-year-old shoot from a young apple tree.

Half size._]

Why did some of these branches grow to be larger than others? "Simply

because they were upon the strongest part of the shoot, or that part

where the greatest growth naturally takes place," some one will answer.

But this really does not answer the question, for we want to know why

this part of the shoot is strongest. Probably the real reason is that

there is more sunlight and more room on this outward or upward end. In

1897,--if this shoot had been spared--each of these four largest twigs

(7, 8, 9, 10) would have done the same thing as the parent twig did in

1896: each would have pushed on from its end, and one or two or three

other strong branches would probably have started from the strong

side-buds near the tips, the very lowest buds would, no doubt, have

remained perfectly inactive or dormant for lack of opportunity, and the

intermediate buds would have made short branches like 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. In

other words, the tree always tries to grow onward from its tips, and

these tip shoots eventually become strong branches, unless some of them

die in the struggle for existence. What, now, becomes of the little

branches lower down?

II.

From another apple tree I took the twig shown in Fig. 217. We see at

once that it is very unlike the other one. It seems to be two years old,

one year's growth extending from the base up to 7, and the last year's

growth extending from 7 to 8; but we shall see upon looking closer that

this is not so. The short branchlets at 3, 4, 5, 7 are very different

from those in Fig. 216. They seem to be broken off. The fact is that the

broken ends show were apples were borne in 1896. The branchlets that

bore them, therefore, must have grown in 1895, while the main branch,

from 1 to 7, grew in 1894. It is plain, from the looks of the buds, that

the shoot from 7 to 8 grew last year, 1896.

[Illustration: _Fig. 217. A three-year-old shoot and the fruit-spurs.

Half size._]

Starting from the base, then, we have the main twig growing in 1894; the

small side branches growing in 1895; these little branches bearing

apples in 1896; and the terminal shoot also growing in 1896. Why was

there no terminal shoot growing in 1895? Simply because its tip

developed a fruit-bud (at 7) and therefore could not send out a branch;

for there are two kinds of buds,--the small, pointed leaf-bud and the

thick, blunt fruit-bud. If the branchlets 3, 4, 5, 7 are two years old,

the dormant buds--1, 2--must be of the same age. That is, for two long

years these little buds have been waiting (if I may use the expression)

for some bug to eat off the buds and leaves above, or some accident to

break the shoot beyond them, so that they might have a chance to grow;

but they have waited in vain.

We have now found, therefore, that the little side shoots upon apple

twigs often become fruit-branches or fruit-spurs, while the more

ambitious branches above them are making a great display of stem and

leaves.

[Illustration: _Fig. 218.--A fruit-spur which has borne six apples. Half

size._]

But will these fruit-spurs bear fruit again in 1897? No. The bearing of

an apple is hard work, and these spurs did not have enough vitality left

to make fruit-buds for the next year; but as they must perpetuate

themselves, they have sent out small side buds which will bear a cluster

of leaves and grow into another little spur in 1897, and in that year

these new spurs will make fruit-buds for bearing in 1898. The side bud

is plainly seen on spur 5, also on spur 4, whilst spur 7 has sown a

seed, so to speak, in the bud at 6. It is plain, therefore, why the tree

bears every other year.

III.

There was one tree in the orchard from which the farmer had not picked

his apples. Perhaps the apples were not worth picking. At any rate, the

dried apples, shriveled and brown, are still hanging on the twigs, and

even the birds do not seem to care for them. I broke off one of these

twigs (Fig. 218). Let us see how many apples this interesting twig has

borne. We can tell by the square-cut scars. An apple was once borne at

1, another at 2, another at 4, another at 5, another at 6, and another

at 7,--and at 7 there will be a scar when the apple falls. Six apples

this modest shoot has borne! And I wonder how many of them got ripe, or

how many were taken by the worms, or how many were eaten by the little

boys and girls on their way to school!

A peculiar thing happened when the fruit was growing at 2. Two side buds

started out, instead of one, and both of them grew the next year. But

one of the little branchlets fell sick and died, or a bug nipped off its

end, or it starved to death; and its memory is preserved by the little

stick standing up at 3. The other branchlet thrived, and eventually bore

apples at 4, 5, 6, and 7.

I have said that these fruit-spurs bear only every other year; then, if

this branch has borne six apples consecutively, it must be twelve years

old. The truth is that it is about twenty years old, for some years it

failed to bear; but the age cannot be traced out in the picture,

although any little boy or girl with bright eyes could soon learn to

trace out yearly rings on the shoot itself.

IV.

The last shoot that I got that day has a whole volume of history in it,

and I cannot begin to tell its story unless I should write a small book.

But we will trace out its birthdays and see how many apples it has

borne. It is shown in Fig. 219, and because it is so long I have had to

break it into several pieces to get it on the page. It begins at A, and

is continued at B, C, D, E, and F.

Let us count the yearly rings and see how old the whole limb is. These

rings are at 28, 26, D, 12, 1,--five of them; and as the shoot grew one

year before it made any ring, and another year made no increase in

length--as we shall presently see--the whole branch must be seven years

old. That is, the limb probably started in 1890.[43] Let us begin, then,

at A, and follow it out.

[43] It is really impossible to tell whether the shoot started from the

limb A in 1889 or 1890, without knowing the age of A; for the spur may

have developed its blossom bud at the end in either the first or second

year of its life. That is, young fruit-spurs sometimes make a blossom

bud the very year they start, but they oftener "stand still" the second

year and delay the blossom bud until that time.

1890. Started as a spur from the main branch, A, and grew to 1.

1891. Apple borne at 1. This apple did not mature, however, as we can

readily see by the smallness of the scar. In this year, two side buds

developed to continue the spur the next year.

[Illustration: _Fig. 219. A seven-year-old apple twig and its curious

history. (Half size.)_]

1892. Ceased to be a fruit-spur, and made a strong growth on to 12. For

some reason, it had a good chance to grow. Perhaps the farmer pruned the

tree, and thereby gave the shoot an opportunity; or perhaps he plowed

and fertilized the land.

In the meantime, one of the side buds grew to 3, and the other to 7, and

each made a fruit-bud at its end.

1893. Shoot grew lustily,--on to D.

The fruit-bud at 3 bore an apple, which probably matured, as shown by

the scar 2. Two side buds were formed beneath this apple, to continue

the spur next year.

The fruit-bud at 7 bloomed, but the apple fell early, as shown by the

small scar. Two side buds were formed.

The buds upon the main shoot--1 to 12--all remained dormant.

1894. Shoot grew from D to beyond E.

Side bud of 2 grew to 4, and made a fruit-bud on its end; the other side

bud grew on to 5, and there made a fruit-bud.

Side bud of 7 grew on to 10, and the other one to 8, each ending in a

fruit-bud.

Buds on old shoot--1 to 12--still remained dormant.

Some of the buds on the 1893 growth--12 to D,--remained dormant; but

some of them made fruit-spurs,--14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23.

1895. Shoot grew from beyond E to 28.

Flowers were borne at 4 and 5; but at 4 the fruit fell early, for the

five or six scars of the flowers can be seen, showing that no one of

them developed more strongly than the other; that is, none of the

flowers "set." A fairly good fruit was probably borne at 5. At the base

of each, a bud started to continue the spur next year.

Upon the other spur, flowers were borne both at 8 and 10. At 10 none of

the flowers set fruit, but a side bud developed. At 8 the fruit

partially matured, and a side bud was also developed.

The buds upon the old stem from 1 to 12 still remained dormant.

Some of the spurs on the 1893 growth--12 to D--developed fruit-buds for

bearing in 1896.

Some of the buds on the 1894 growth--D to beyond E--remained dormant,

but others developed into small fruit-spurs. One of these buds, near the

top of the 1894 growth, threw out a long shoot, starting from E; and

the bud at 26 also endeavored to make a long branch, but failed.

1896. Main shoot grew from 28 to the end.

The side bud below 4 (where the fruit was borne the year before) barely

lived, not elongating, as seen above 3. This branch of the spur is

becoming weak and will never bear again. The side bud of 5, however,

made a fairly good spur and developed a fruit-bud at its end, as seen at

6.

The side bud of 10 grew somewhat, making the very short spur 11. This

branchlet is also getting weak. The bud of 8, however, developed a

strong spur at 9. Both 11 and 9 bear fruit-buds, but that on 11 is

probably too weak ever to bear fruit again. In fact, the entire spurs,

from 1 to 6 and 1 to 9, are too weak to be of much account for

fruit-bearing.

This year several of the spurs along the 1893 growth--12 to D--bore

flowers. Flowers were borne from two buds on the first one (at 13 and

14), but none of the flowers "set." One of the little apples that died

last June still clings to the spur at 14. A side bud (15) formed to

continue the spur in 1897. Flowers were borne at 16, 20, 21, and 23, but

no apples developed. Upon 16 and 20 the flowers died soon after they

opened, as seen by the remains of them. Upon 23, one of the flowers set

an apple, but the apple soon died. The spurs 17 and 18 are so weak that

they have never made fruit-buds, and they are now nearly dead. The spurs

19 and 22 have behaved differently. Like the others, they grew in 1894

and would have made terminal fruit-buds in 1895, and would have borne

fruit in 1896; but the terminal buds were broken off in the fall or

winter of 1894, so that two side buds developed in 1895, and each of

these developed a fruit-bud at its end in 1896 in the spur 19, but only

one of them developed such a bud in 22. Upon these spurs, therefore, the

bearing year has been changed.

Upon the growth of 1894--D to beyond E--only three spurs have developed,

nos. 24, 25, 26. These started out in 1895, and two of them--25 and

26--have made large fat buds which are evidently fruit-buds. The shoot

at E grew on to EE, and all the buds on its lower two-year-old portion

remained dormant.

On the 1895 growth--from beyond E to 28--all the buds remained dormant

save one, and this one--27--made only a very feeble attempt to grow into

a spur.

The buds upon the 1892 growth--1 to 12--are still dormant and waiting

for an opportunity to grow.

What an eventful history this apple twig has had! And yet in all the

seven years of its life, after having made fifteen efforts to bear

fruit, it has not produced a single good apple! The fault, therefore,

does not lie in the shoot. It has done the best it could. The trouble

has been that the farmer either did not give the tree enough food to

enable it to support the fruit, or did not prune the tree so as to give

the twig light and room, or allowed apple-scab or some other disease to

kill the young apples as they were forming. I am wondering, therefore,

whether, when trees fail to bear, it is not quite as often the fault of

the farmer as it is of the trees?

LEAFLET XXXII.

THE BURST OF SPRING.[44]

BY L. H. BAILEY.

[44] Nature-Study Quarterly No. 4, Leaflet 17, March, 1900.

[Illustration]

Spring is coming! The buds will burst and the birds will sing!

How do the buds burst? Watch them as the spring opens; or, if you are

impatient, cut long twigs and place them in bottles of water in a

living-room, and the buds will swell. First, notice what the winter buds

are like,--that they are spherical, or oblong, or conical bodies lying

close to the limb and tightly covered with scales. Notice that there is

a mark or scar beneath the bud, showing where a leaf was borne.

It is excellent practice to collect winter twigs of different kinds of

trees and bushes, and to compare the form and color of the shoots, and

the size, shape, color, and make-up of the buds. Lay the twigs side by

side on the table and notice how one differs from the other. What part

of the twig grew last year? Notice the "ring" at the base of the last

year's growth. After all the differences are noted, put the twigs in

water, as you would a bouquet. Sometimes flowers and leaves will appear.

If the twigs are two or three feet long, the buds are more likely to

grow, for then there is sufficient supply of food in them. Change the

water frequently, and cut off the lower ends of the twigs so that a

fresh surface will be exposed to the water. It will be two to five weeks

before the buds open, depending mostly on the kind of plant.

Mark one bud on a maple, or apple, or lilac, or other plant, by tying a

string about the twig. Look at it carefully from day to day: observe how

it opens, and what comes out of it.

The pupil should know that a winter twig has interest.

* * * * *

The bud may be peach or apricot. Soon the bud begins to swell at its

top. The scales open. A white lining appears. This lining soon protrudes

(Fig. 220). Soon the lining opens. We see that it is a flower. Or

perhaps the peach bud sends out a green shoot rather than a flower.

There must be two kinds of peach and apricot buds,--a flower-bud and a

leaf-bud. Can you tell them apart? The flower-bud is thicker and

rounder. Usually one stands on either side of a leaf-bud. But the

leaf-bud may stand alone. Find one: any peach tree or apricot tree will

have leaf-buds, but all may not have flower-buds. As the bud expands and

the flower or leaf appears, notice that the bud-scales fall away. Do

these scales leave scars? And do not these scars, standing together,

make the "ring" which marks the beginning of the new growth?

[Illustration: _Fig. 220. Opening of an apricot bud._]

* * * * *

Observe a pear bud. Notice that the scales elongate as the bud swells.

You can see the white bases of the scales, marking the new growth (Fig.

221). If it is a leaf-bud the scales may become three-fourths of an inch

long before they fall. But sooner or later, they are cast, and their

places are marked by scars. If it is a flower-bud, notice that several

flowers come out of it. In the apricot and peach, there is only one

flower in each bud. Each of these little pear flowers is closed up like

a bud and elevates itself on a stalk before it opens: and this stalk

becomes the stem of the pear fruit. But this pear flower-bud contains

leaves as well as flowers. Fig. 222 shows what comes out of a pear bud.

This, then, is a mixed flower-bud,--it contains both leaves and flowers.

The apricot and the peach bear true or simple flower-buds.

[Illustration: _Fig. 221. Opening of a pear bud._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 222. What came out of a pear bud._]

* * * * *

Watch apple buds. The scales do not elongate as in the pear, but the

flower-buds are mixed. Fig. 223 shows the expanding cluster from an

apple flower-bud. Four flowers will open; and there are six leaves. If

the buds are made to open in the house on severed twigs, the leaves do

not grow so large before the flowers expand, for the twig does not

contain sufficient food. Fig. 224 is a photograph of an apple twig which

I had in my window one winter's day.

[Illustration: _Fig. 223. Opening of an apple bud._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 224. Apple flowers in midwinter._]

* * * * *

Examine a hickory twig. The illustration (Fig. 225) shows the "ring"

marking the beginning of the annual growth. See the large leaf-scars.

Notice that the terminal bud is much the largest. It is the one which

will grow. The other buds will remain dormant unless they are forced

into growth by the death of the terminal bud or by other unusual

circumstances. Notice that buds differ in size on shoots of all plants;

consider that not all the buds are to grow: there is a struggle for

existence. When the hickory bud expands, some of the scales fall away;

but some of the inner parts enlarge into leaf-like bodies, as shown in

Fig. 226. In some hickories these bodies become two or three inches long

before they fall. Hickories open very late in the season. The Norway

maple, commonly planted on lawns, behaves in a similar way. Observe the

sugar maple.

* * * * *

[Illustration: _Fig. 225. Shoot of a hickory._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 226. The opening of a hickory bud._]

A twig of the common elm is shown in Fig. 227. Notice the "ring." See

the two kinds of buds. We suspect that the three larger ones are

flower-buds. With the very first warm days--before the robin has built

her nest--these three buds will burst; soon the red-brown tassels will

hang on the leafless twigs. Each tassel is a flower. Several flowers

come from each bud. We see them in Fig. 228; and the leaf-buds have

elongated somewhat. Watch for the fruits or seeds that blow about the

walks so early in spring; and note how the leaves come out.

[Illustration: _Fig. 227. Twig of elm._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 228. Blossoms of the elm._]

* * * * *

With the first breath of spring, the "pussy willows" come. And what are

the "pussies"? They are clusters of flowers. So snugly are the little

flowers wrapped in wool, that the "pussies" are silken-soft as they

begin to expand. Fig. 229 is a willow shoot. Find one when the buds

first begin to burst. Notice the big brown-black scale that covers the

bud as a shield and falls when the "pussy" first begins to appear.

* * * * *

And now what is a winter bud? It is a miniature shoot or flower, resting

for the time, and snugly wrapped for the long winter. It was made last

season. It is ready to leap into growth the moment the warm rain of

spring wakens it. A good hand lens will show the embryo branch, if a

section is made of the bud.

This bud is not only ready-formed but is ready-fed. The winter shoots

contain starch. On a cut surface of a dormant twig, apply a drop of

tincture of iodine; note the bluish color, which is indicative of

starch. This starch is insoluble; but with the first awakening of life,

it changes into sugar, which is soluble and is transferred to the

growing part. The burst of spring is made possible by means of this

stored food. Notice the azalea in the florist's window (Fig. 230). The

large flower-buds were formed the year before, and it is a short

operation to "force" them into bloom. The flowers come in advance of the

leaves; therefore these leaves could not have made the food required for

the bloom. The blooming of the apple twig (Fig. 224) in the winter shows

that the food is in the twig and buds. Once I drew a branch of a tree

into a room and fastened it there. It made leaves and began to grow

while the tree to which it was attached was perfectly dormant (Fig.

231).

[Illustration: _Fig. 230. Bloom of azalea._]

* * * * *

[Illustration: _Fig. 229. The opening of a pussy willow._]

Not only are the buds ready-formed and ready-fed, but they are covered.

Snugly is the tender, growing part protected. Pull away the scales of a

winter bud one by one. Observe how closely they are placed. Often the

chinks are filled with a packing of wool, or are sealed with varnish.

Dip the bud in water: then see whether the water permeates the

covering. The chief value of the bud covering is not to protect from

freezing, as commonly supposed, but to prevent the soft growing parts

from drying out.

The plants are waiting for spring. They are ready.

[Illustration: _Fig. 231. Branch of a tree bearing leaves inside a

window, when the tree itself is dormant._]

LEAFLET XXXIII.

EVERGREENS AND HOW THEY SHED THEIR LEAVES.[45]

BY H. P. GOULD.

[45] Teacher's Leaflet No. 13, February, 1899.

[Sidenote: _Note to the teacher._--This leaflet has two particular

objects: to teach how evergreens shed their leaves, and to enable you to

distinguish a few of the evergreens which are most commonly met. These

studies (and those suggested in Leaflet No. XXIX) should be the means of

adding much cheer to the winter. Encourage pupils to make collections of

cones, to observe when they shed their seeds, and how long (how many

seasons) they remain attached to the branch. Remember that mere

identification of the kinds of trees is not the highest type of

nature-study.

Cones are good subjects for free-hand drawing. Beginners should draw

them in outline, omitting the shading. Encourage pupils to draw single

leaf-clusters of the different pines, cautioning them to show the right

number of leaves in each case.]

[Illustration]

Cone-bearing evergreens are familiar to everyone; yet this familiarity

is usually with the trees as entire objects. We do not often stop to

analyze a tree in order to find out what gives it its characteristic

appearance or to see what makes it look as it does.

We shall often find, if we stop to look, that much of the character of a

tree,--that is, its general appearance or the way in which it impresses

us,--is due to the leaves and to their arrangement on the branches. This

is true of many of the evergreen trees.

Why are certain kinds of trees called evergreen in distinction from

those which are said to be deciduous? The reason is obvious. One kind is

always green from the presence of foliage, while the other sheds all of

its leaves every season. The evergreen trees, like the pines and the

spruces and the firs, always appear to be well covered with foliage;

hence it does not often occur to us that these trees shed their leaves.

And yet perhaps we can recall happy hours when we used to play beneath

some large pine tree where the ground was carpeted with pine "needles."

The falling of the leaves of the maple trees or the oaks is a familiar

sight, but who has seen the spruce leaves fall, and who can tell when

the pine needles drop?

That the evergreen trees do shed their foliage, as truly as the maples

and the elms do, we will not question, for we can see the fallen leaves

under any tree. Look up into the top of a spruce or pine. See that the

interior is bare of foliage. The leaves are towards the ends of the

branches, where they receive sunlight. Yet the branches which are now in

the interior once bore leaves, for we can see the leaf-scars.

[Illustration: _Fig. 232. Shoot of the common white pine, one-third

natural size._]

It will be interesting to find out something about the leaves of our

common evergreens. Let us look at some of them.

THE WHITE PINE.

In Fig. 232 is shown a white pine branch. Notice that the leaves are

borne in bunches or clusters of five. Each bunch of leaves is produced

in the axil (or angle) of a minute scale-like body, but this scale can

best be seen and studied on the very young growth. It has been worn away

or broken from the older growth by the wind and the rain and the other

forces of nature.

Another strange fact should be well observed. The leaves of the maples

and other deciduous trees are borne only on the present season's

growth; but this is not the case in the pines, and kindred trees. If we

trace back the growth of the past two or three years, we may find that

there are as many leaves on the wood that is two years old as there are

on the last season's growth; and in many cases we can find leaves on the

part of the branch that is three years old. This means that the pine

leaves or needles are two and sometimes three years old when they fall.

The Fig. 232 shows the falling of the leaves from the different years'

growth. The part of the branch between the tip and A is the last

season's growth; between A and B it is two years old; the part between B

and C is three years old. The part that grew four seasons ago--beyond

C--has no leaves.

[Illustration: _Fig. 233. Cone of white pine. It has shed its seeds.

Half natural size._]

The different seasons' growth is indicated not by distinct "rings" as in

the case of deciduous trees, but by the branching. Each whorl of

branches about a limb represents the end of a season's growth. A young

pine tree, or the younger limbs of an old tree, shows this character

very plainly.

Do the leaves of the pines and of the other evergreen trees fall at the

end of the growing season, as the leaves of most of the deciduous trees

do? Or do they gradually become lifeless and fall at any season, from

the force of the wind and other natural forces? Tie a large sheet of

cloth in the top of some evergreen tree, in such a way as to form a

receptacle to catch the leaves. Do you catch leaves in winter as well as

in summer? Do you find leaves on the snow?

As there are several different kinds of pines, we must picture carefully

in our minds the foliage of the white pine, for it is different from

that of any others. The leaves are soft and very slender, and from three

to four inches long. The base of each cluster of leaves is at first

surrounded by a small sheath. A scar is left when the leaves drop and

these scars can often be seen on parts of the branches that are eight or

ten years old. Do the leaves of other kinds of trees make a scar when

they fall?

The white pine cones, in which the seeds are borne, are conspicuous

objects. They are five or six inches long and slightly curved. It will

be interesting to find out whether the seeds ripen the same year in

which they are formed. Perhaps a cone still containing seeds can be

secured. Carefully tear it apart and see where the seeds are attached.

Red squirrels sometimes eat the pine seeds. A white pine cone, which has

shed its seeds, is shown in Fig. 233.

[Illustration: _Fig. 234. Shoot of common pitch pine. One-half natural

size._]

This kind of pine is found widely scattered in New England, New York,

and westward to Minnesota and Iowa and along the Alleghany Mountains as

far south as Georgia; also in some parts of Canada. It is a valuable

lumber tree.

THE PITCH PINE.

This kind of pine is very different, in many respects, from the white

pine. Let us find some of the differences. Instead of having leaves in

bunches of five, it has them in clusters of three, and the base of each

cluster is inclosed by a scaly sheath which does not fall away as in the

case of the white pine; neither does the little scale-like body upon the

branch, in the axil of which the leaf-cluster is borne, fall away, but

it may be found just below the leaf, and even on branches that are

several years old. Sometimes a sheath is found with only two leaves. We

shall want to know, too, how old the leaves are when they fall. Do they

remain on the tree longer than the white pine leaves do?

[Illustration: _Fig. 235. Cone of pitch pine. One-half natural size._]

Again, instead of being soft and slender as the white pine leaves are,

we shall find that these leaves are rigid and thick in comparison, and

stand out straight from the branches. The shape of the leaves is also

distinct from that of the white pine needles. See whether you can find

any other differences.

A pitch pine branch is shown in Fig. 234. The part between the tip and A

is the past season's growth. Observe the foliage on the part that is two

years old. Part of it has fallen. We often find it on growth which is

older than this; but in this specimen there are no leaves on the

three-year wood.

[Illustration: _Fig. 236. Pitch pine. One-third natural size._]

The cone of the pitch pine is very unlike that of the white pine. Fig.

235 gives a good idea of one that has shed its seeds. Compare this with

Fig. 233; or, better, examine the two kinds of cones side by side. The

pitch pine cones are sometimes borne in clusters of two or more and

they persist,--that is, remain on the tree for several years after the

seeds have ripened and scattered.

Notice how the new cones are borne with reference to last season's

growth. Are they attached to the tip of a branchlet? Or are they closely

attached to the side of a branch? Figs. 236 and 237 will help us answer

this question. The little cones in Fig. 237 near the tip of the twig,

are just beginning to form.

[Illustration: _Fig. 237. Pitch pine, showing young cones. Half natural

size._]

The pitch pine usually grows in sandy or rocky soil and is found in the

United States along the Atlantic coast to Virginia, along the mountains

to Georgia, westward to Western New York, Eastern Ohio, Kentucky, and

Eastern Tennessee. It has little value as timber, because it does not

grow large enough.

SCOTCH AND AUSTRIAN PINES.

In the same manner other pines may be studied. Fig. 238 shows a cone and

a bit of foliage of the Scotch pine, and Fig. 239 the Austrian pine.

These cones grew the past season and are not yet mature. After they

ripen and shed the seeds which they contain, they will look somewhat

like the cone in Fig 235. The Scotch pine has short and blue-green

needles. The Austrian pine is coarser, and has long dark-green needles.

There are but two leaves in a cluster on these kinds of pines and we

shall find that the sheath which incloses the base of the leaf-cluster

is more conspicuous than in either the white or the pitch pine. Do the

leaves persist in the Scotch and Austrian pines longer than they do in

the others we have examined? Study the cones of these and other pines.

[Illustration: _Fig. 238. Scotch pine. Half natural size._]

The Scotch and Austrian pines are not native to this country, but are

much grown for ornament. They can be found in almost any park and in

many other places where ornamental trees are grown.

THE NORWAY SPRUCE.

The leaves of spruce trees are borne very differently from those of the

pines. Instead of being in clusters of two or more, they are single and

without a sheath at the base; neither are there scale-like bodies on the

branches where the leaves are borne. Notice, too, that the leaves have a

very short stem or petiole.

The leaves of the Norway spruce are about one inch long, although the

length varies more or less in different parts of the tree and in

different trees. They are rather stiff and rigid and sharp-pointed. In a

general way, the leaves are four-sided, though indistinctly so.

It will be interesting to study the position which the leaves take on

the branches. A hasty glance might give us the impression that the

leaves are not produced on the under side of the branches; but a more

careful examination will convince us that there are nearly as many on

the under side as on the upper. The leaves are all pointing outward from

the branch and as nearly upward as is possible. In other words, the

leaves grow toward the light.

[Illustration: _Fig. 239. Austrian pine. One-third natural size._]

We must not forget to see how long the leaves of the Norway spruce

persist and to find out when the leaf-scars disappear. We can find

leaves that must surely be six or seven years old and sometimes we can

find them even older than this. The leaf scars, too, remain a long time.

The falling of the leaves is illustrated in Fig. 240. It shows the

extremities of a limb which is eight years old. The part between the tip

and A is last season's growth; between A and B it is two years old; and

beyond B is a part that grew three seasons ago. The section beyond C is

six years old; from C to D is seven years of age. The four years' growth

of this limb not shown in the drawing was as densely covered with

foliage as is the part shown in the upper figure; but there are not many

leaves between C and D (seven years old) and none on the eight-year-old

wood (except those on the branchlets, and these are younger).

The cone of the Norway spruce is nearly as long as that of the white

pine, but it is not so rough and coarse as the white pine cone is. The

cones are usually borne on the tips of small branchlets, although

occasionally one is borne in the manner shown in Fig. 241. The cones

usually fall the first winter.

[Illustration: _Fig. 240. Twig of the common Norway spruce. Half natural

size._]

The Norway spruce is not a native of this country, but like the Scotch

and Austrian pines, it was introduced from Europe and is grown very

widely as an ornamental tree. It is the commonest evergreen in yards and

parks.

THE BLACK SPRUCE AND ITS KIN.

There are several different kinds of spruces which we find growing in

our forests and swamps, and sometimes these are planted for ornament. A

sprig of foliage and a cone of one of these,--the black spruce,--is

shown in Fig. 242. The foliage is not very unlike that of the Norway

spruce, but the cones are very small in comparison. They are about one

inch long, though they vary considerably in size. Before they open they

are oval or plum-shaped; but when mature and the scales of the cone have

expanded, they are nearly globular. They are often borne in clusters, as

well as singly, and persist for many years after the seeds have fallen.

The position of the cones will depend upon their age. When young they

point upward, but they gradually turn downward.

In general appearance the white spruce resembles the black very closely.

The leaves of the white spruce have a whitish or dusty looking tinge of

color and when crushed or bruised give forth a peculiar, disagreeable

odor. The cones vary in length from an inch to two inches, and in shape

are more cylindrical or finger-shaped than the cone of the black spruce.

The foliage of the red spruce lacks the whitish tinge of color of the

white spruce and the cones, which are from one inch to two inches in

length, are obovate in shape--that is, the widest place is through the

upper part of the cone, and from this point it gradually tapers to the

tip. They seldom persist longer than the second summer.

The leaves of all these different kinds of spruces vary greatly in

length, thickness, and sharpness of point, according to the part of the

tree on which they grow, and their surroundings. The shedding of the

leaves on these or other spruces can be determined as easily as in the

Norway spruce.

[Illustration: _Fig. 241. Cone of Norway spruce. Half size._]

These three spruces like a cold climate and grow in many sections of the

northern United States and Canada and farther south in the mountains.

They are sometimes all found growing together, but the black spruce

likes best the damp, cold swamps, while the others grow best on the

drier and better drained lands. The black spruce is commonest. The red

spruce is least known.

THE BALSAM FIR.

This is another evergreen tree which grows naturally in the cold, damp

grounds of the northern United States and Canada, and to some extent in

the eastern states as far south as West Virginia.

The foliage is borne in much the same manner as that of the spruces; yet

there are interesting differences in the characters of these two kinds

of leaves. Perhaps the most noticeable difference is in the shape; and

the color of the fir leaves will attract our attention because the under

side is a silvery color, while the upper side is green. What is the

nature of the tip of the leaf and how does it compare with the pines and

spruces in this respect? Does the leaf have a stem or petiole or is it

attached directly to the branch without any stem? How are the leaves

shed?

[Illustration: _Fig. 242.--Black spruce. Half natural size._]

The cones are about three inches long and present a rather delicate

appearance. It will be interesting to determine the position of the

cones, that is, the direction in which they point, and to learn whether

it is the same when they are young as it is after they have matured.

The grayish colored bark of the trunk and limbs bears many "blisters"

from which Canada balsam is obtained.

THE HEMLOCK.

A hemlock twig is an interesting object. It may have many characters in

common with the spruce and fir; yet the impression which we get from it,

or from a large hemlock tree, is entirely distinct. The arrangement of

the leaves and the gracefulness of the drooping branchlets are most

pleasing. We are led to examine it more closely. We notice that the

leaves appear to be borne in two more or less regular rows,--one on

each side of the branch or twig; but in reality they come from all sides

of the branch, and it is the position which the leaves assume that gives

this two-rowed appearance.

The leaves have a short stalk or petiole, and this stalk rests along the

side of the branchlet in such a direction that the leaves are placed in

single rows on either side of the branch. The petioles of the leaves are

nearly parallel with the branch while the leaves often make a decided

angle with the petiole. This fact can best be brought out by carefully

examining a small twig.

While we are noting the arrangement of the leaves on the branchlets, we

should also notice the points of similarity and difference between these

leaves and those of the spruces and firs. We shall find that there is

more in common, at least so far as shape and color are concerned,

between the hemlock and the fir than between the hemlock and the spruce.

[Illustration: _Fig. 243. Spray of the hemlock. Two-thirds natural

size._]

The small, delicate cones, borne on the tips of the branchlets, will

also attract our attention (Fig. 243.) We may wonder at their small

size, for they are only about three-quarters of an inch long, and very

delicate; yet a second glance at the tree will impress us with the

number of cones which the tree bears, and we conclude that, although the

cones may be small, yet there are so many of them that there will be no

lack of seeds.

It is more difficult to trace the age of a hemlock limb than of many

other kinds of trees, yet we can easily determine that many of the

leaves are several years old when they fall.

The bark of the hemlock is used in tanning hides for leather. The tree

is much used for lumber. Where does it grow?

THE ARBOR-VITÆ.

One might almost wonder, at first sight, if the arbor-vitæ (often, but

wrongly, called the white cedar) has any leaves at all. It does possess

them, however, but they are very different in size and shape from any of

the others that we have examined. They are small scale-like bodies,

closely pressed together along the sides of the branchlets, in four

rows. Leaves pressed to the branches in this manner are said to be

"appressed." The leaves of the arbor-vitæ are so close together that

they overlap one another. The leaves are of two distinct shapes,

sometimes known as the surface leaves and the flank leaves. The former

are located on what appears to be the flattened surface of the

branchlets, while the latter are on the sides or edges. See Fig. 244.

[Illustration: _Fig. 244. The Arbor-vitæ. Nearly full size._]

If we carefully look at the leaves, we shall notice a raised spot near

the point or tip. This is said to be a resin gland. This gland can be

seen more plainly on the surface leaves that are two years old.

Most of the leaves persist for at least two and sometimes three years;

but even older ones can be found. These older leaves, however, exist not

as green, active leaves, but merely as dried and lifeless scales. These

lifeless leaves are probably detached from the branches by the forces of

nature.

The cones are even smaller than the hemlock cones. They are borne in the

axils of the leaves in the same manner as the branchlets and are not

conspicuous unless one is close to the tree.

The arbor-vitæ is much planted for hedges and screens, as well as for

other ornamental purposes. There are many horticultural varieties. The

tree is abundant in a wild state in New York.

SUMMARY OF THE KINDS OF COMMON EVERGREENS.

_The white pine_ (Pinus Strobus).--Leaves in clusters of five, soft and

slender; cones five or six inches long, slightly curved; bark smooth

except on the trunks and larger limbs of old trees, where it is

fissured.

_The pitch pine_ (Pinus rigida).--Leaves in clusters of three, from

three to four inches long, rather rigid; cones two to three inches long,

often in clusters of two or more but frequently borne singly, persisting

long after the seeds have been shed; bark more or less rough on the

young growth and deeply fissured on the trunks of old trees.

_The Scotch pine_ (Pinus sylvestris).--Leaves usually in clusters of

two, from two to four inches long, rigid, of a bluish-green hue when

seen in a large mass on the tree; cones two to three inches long and the

scales tipped with a beak or prickle.

_The Austrian pine_ (Pinus Austriaca).--Leaves in clusters of two, five

or six inches long and somewhat rigid, dark green in color, and

persisting for four or five years; cones about three inches long,

conical in shape; and scales not beaked or pointed as in the Scotch

pine.

_The Norway spruce_ (Picea excelsa).--Leaves borne singly, about one

inch long, dark green, four-sided; cones about six inches long, and

composed of thin scales, and usually borne on the tips of branchlets.

The small branches mostly drooping.

_The black spruce_ (Picea nigra).--In general appearance, this is not

very unlike the Norway spruce, but the small branches stand out more

horizontally and the cones are only one or one and one-half inches long,

recurving on short branches. The cones persist for several years after

shedding the seed.

_The white spruce_ (Picea alba).--Leaves about one inch long, having a

glaucous or whitish tinge; twigs stout and rigid, of a pale

greenish-white color; cones from one to two and one-half inches long,

more or less cylindrical or "finger-shaped," and easily crushed when

dry.

_The red spruce_ (Picea rubra).--The foliage lacks the whitish tinge of

the white spruce and is of a dark or dark yellowish color; twigs stouter

than those of the black spruce and not so much inclined to droop; cones

about one inch long, obovate, and usually falling by the second summer.

_The hemlock_ (Tsuga Canadensis).--Leaves about one-half inch long, flat

with rounded point, green on the upper side, whitish beneath, and borne

on short appressed petioles; cones about three-quarters of an inch long,

oval or egg-shaped, and borne on the ends of small branchlets and often

persisting for some time.

_The balsam fir_ (Abies balsamea).--Leaves narrow, less than one inch

long, borne singly, very numerous and standing out from the branchlets

in much the way of the spruce; cones about three inches long,

cylindrical, composed of thin scales, and standing upright on the

branches, or recurved; bark smooth, light green with whitish tinge.

_The arbor-vitæ_ (Thuya occidentalis).--Leaves very small, scale-like,

and over-lapping one another in four rows, adhering closely to the

branchlets; the cones oblong and small,--a half-inch or less in

length,--and composed of but few scales.

LEAFLET XXXIV.

THE CLOVERS AND THEIR KIN.[46]

BY ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK.

The pedigree of honey does not concern the bee,

A clover any time to him is aristocracy.

--EMILY DICKINSON.

[46] Home Nature-Study Course, Vol. V, No. 8, May, 1904.

[Illustration: _White clover._]

There is a deep-seated prejudice that usefulness and beauty do not

belong together;--a prejudice based obviously on human selfishness, for

if a thing is useful to us we emphasize that quality so much that we

forget to look for its beauty. Thus it is that the clover suffers great

injustice; it has for centuries been a most valuable forage crop, and,

therefore, we forget to note its beauty, or to regard it as an object

worthy of æsthetic attention. This is a pitiful fact; but it cheats us

more than it does the clover, for the clover blossoms not for us, but

for the bees and butterflies as well as for itself. As I remember the

scenes which have impressed me most, I find among them three in which

clover was the special attraction. One was a well-cultivated thrifty

orchard carpeted with the brilliant red of the crimson clover in bloom.

One was a great field of alfalfa spread near the shore of the Great Salt

Lake, which met our eyes as we came through the pass in the Wasatch

Mountains after days of travel in dust-colored lands; the brilliant

green of that alfalfa field in the evening sunlight refreshed our eyes

as the draught of cold water refreshes the parched throat of the

traveller in a desert. And another was a gently undulating field in our

own State stretching away like a sea to the west, covered with the

purple foam of the red clover in blossom; and the fragrance of that

field settled like a benediction over the acres that margined it. But we

do not need landscapes to teach us the beauty of clover. Just one clover

blossom studied carefully and looked at with clear-seeing eyes, reveals

each floweret beautiful in color, interesting in form, and perfect in

its mechanism for securing pollination.

The clover is especially renowned for its partnerships with members of

the animal kingdom. It readily forms a partnership with man, thriftily

growing in his pastures and meadows, while he distributes its seed. For

ages it has been a special partner of the bees, giving them honey for

carrying its pollen. Below the ground it has formed a mysterious

partnership with microbes, and the clover seems to be getting the best

of the bargain.

For many years clover was regarded as a crop helpful to the soil, and

one reason given was the great length of the roots. Thus the roots of

red clover often reach the depth of several feet, even in heavy soil,

which they thus aerate and drain, especially when they decay and leave

channels. But this is only half the story; for a long time people had

noted that on clover roots were little swollen places or nodules, which

were supposed to have come from some disease or insect injury. The

scientists became interested in the supposed disease, and they finally

ascertained that these nodules are filled with bacteria, which are the

underground partners of the clovers and other legumes. These bacteria

are able to fix the free nitrogen of the air, and make it available for

plant-food. As nitrogen is the most expensive of the fertilizers, any

agency which can extract it from the free air for the use of plants is

indeed a valuable aid to the farmer. Thus it is that in the modern

agriculture, clover or some other legume is put on the land once in

three or four years in the regular rotation of crops, and it brings back

to the soil the nitrogen which other crops have exhausted. An

interesting fact about the partnership between the root bacteria and the

clover-like plants is that the plants do not flourish without this

partnership, and investigators have devised a method by which these

bacteria may be scattered in the soil on which some kinds of clover are

to be planted, and thus aid in growing a crop. This method is to-day

being used for the introduction of alfalfa here in New York State. But

the use of clover as a fertilizer is not limited to its root factory for

capturing nitrogen; its leaves break down quickly and readily yield the

rich food material of which they are composed, so that the farmer who

plows under his second-crop clover instead of harvesting it, adds

greatly to the fertility of his farm.

The members of three distinct genera are popularly called clovers: The

True Clovers (_Trifolium_), of which six or seven species are found in

New York State, and more than sixty species are found in the United

States. The Medics (_Medicago_), of which four species are found here.

The Melilots (_Melilotus_), or sweet clovers, of which we have two

species.

THE TRUE CLOVERS. (_Trifolium._)

[Illustration: _Fig. 245. The common red clover._]

_The Red Clover (Fig. 245). (Trifolium pratense._[47])--This beautiful

dweller in our fields came to us from Europe, and it is also a native of

Asia. It is the clover most widely cultivated in New York State for

fodder, and is one of our most important crops. Clover hay often being a

standard of excellence by which other hay is measured. The export of

clover seed from the United States has sometimes reached the worth of

two million dollars per year, and this great industry is supposed to be

carried on with the aid of that other partner of the red clover, the

bumblebee. Bumblebees had to be imported into Australia before clover

seed could be produced there. The whole question of the relation of the

bumblebee to the pollination of clover no doubt needs to be re-studied,

for recent observations have led to the contesting of prevailing

opinions. It has been supposed that the failure of the clover seed crop

in some places is due to the destruction of bumblebees; whether this is

true or not, we are certain that bumblebees visit clover blooms, and the

teacher can observe for himself.

[47] Pronounced _Trifol' -ium praten' -se_, the second or specific name

with three syllables.

There is a more perennial form of red clover, known as variety

_perenne_. It is distinguished from the common form of red clover by its

taller growth and mostly less hairy herbage, and by the fact that the

flower-head is usually somewhat stalked. Some persons regard it as a

hybrid of red and zig-zag clover.

_Zig-Zag Clover. (T. medium.)_--This is another species of red clover,

resembling the one just discussed, except that its flower-head rises on

a long stalk above the upper leaves, while the red clover has the

flower-head set close to these leaves. The color of the blossom is

darker than in red clover, and the flower-head is looser. The stems of

the zig-zag clover are likely to be bent at angles and thus it gets its

name. It is a question whether this species is really grown on farms. It

is probable that some or all of the clover that passes under this name

is _Trifolium pratense_ var. _perenne_. At all events, the zig-zag

clover seems to be imperfectly understood by botanists and others.

_Crimson Clover--Scarlet Clover (Fig. 246). (T. incarnatum.)_--While

this beautiful clover grows as a weed in the southern parts of our

State, it has only recently begun to play an important part in our

horticulture. It is an annual, and its home is the Mediterranean region

of Europe. It thrives best in loose, sandy soils, and in our State is

chiefly used as a cover-crop for orchards, and to plow under as a

fertilizer. It usually has bright, crimson flowers, arranged in a long,

pointed head, and its brilliant green fan-shaped leaves make it the most

artistically decorative of all our clovers.

[Illustration: _Fig. 246. Crimson clover._]

_Buffalo Clover (Fig. 247). (T. reflexum.)_--This is sometimes taken for

a variety of the red clover, but only a glance is needed to distinguish

it. While the head is perhaps an inch in diameter the flowerets are not

directed upward and set close as in the red clover, but each floweret is

on a little stalk, and is bent abruptly backward. The flowers are not

pink. The standard is red, while the wings and keel are nearly white.

The leaves are blunt at the tip. It grows in meadows in western New York

and westward. This species is native to this country.

_Alsike Clover. (T. hybridum.)_--This is a perennial and grows in low

meadows and waste places from Nova Scotia to Idaho. It was introduced

from Europe. It is especially valuable in wet meadows, where the red

clover would be drowned. The blossoms of the alsike look like those of

the white clover except that they are a little larger and are pink; but

the long branching mostly upright stems are very different in habit from

the creeping stems of the white clover; the blossoms are very fragrant.

[Illustration: _Fig. 247. Three clovers, respectively, Buffalo, Yellow,

and Rabbit-foot clover._]

_The White Clover. (T. repens.)_--This beautiful little clover, whose

leaves make a rug for our feet in every possible place, is well known to

us all. It is the clover best beloved by honey-bees, and the person who

does not know the distinct flavor of white clover honey has lost

something out of life. While in hard soil the white clover lasts only

two or three years, on rich, moist lands it is a true perennial. While

it was probably a native in the northern part of America, yet it is

truly cosmopolitan and may be found in almost all regions of the

temperate zones. Very likely the common stock of it is an introduction

from Europe. By many this is considered to be the original shamrock.

_The Yellow, or Hop Clover (Fig. 247). (T. agrarium.)_--This friendly

little plant, filling waste places with brilliant green leaves and small

yellow flower-heads, is not considered a clover by those who are not

observant. But if the flowerets in the small, dense heads are examined,

they will be seen to resemble very closely those of the other clovers.

The stems are many-branched and often grow a foot or more in height. The

flowers are numerous, and on fading turn brown, and resemble the fruit

of a pigmy hop vine, whence the name. Its leaves are much more pointed

than those of the medics, with which it might be confused because of its

yellow flowers.

_Low Hop Clover, or Hop Trefoil. (T. procumbens.)_--This resembles the

above species, except that it is smaller and also more spreading, and

the stems and leaves are more downy.

_The Least Hop Clover. (T. dubium.)_--This may be readily distinguished

from the above species by the fact that its yellow flowerets occur from

three to ten in a head. This is said by some to be the true shamrock,

although the white clover is also called the shamrock.

_The Rabbit-Foot, or Stone Clover (Fig. 247). (T. arvense.)_--This is

another clover not easily recognized as such. It grows a foot or more in

height and has erect branches. The leaflets are narrow and all arise

from the same point. The flowerets occur in long, dense heads. The calyx

is very silky, and the lobes are longer than the white corollas, thus

giving the flower-head a soft, hairy look, something like the early

stages of the blossom of the pussy willow. Because of its appearance it

is often called "pussy clover."

THE MEDICS. (_Medicago._)

_Alfalfa (Fig. 248). (Medicago sativa.)_--This is the veteran of all the

clovers, for it has been under cultivation for twenty centuries. It is a

native of the valleys of western Asia. In America it was first

introduced into Mexico with the Spanish invasion. It was brought from

Chile to California in 1854, where it has since been the most important

hay crop. In fact, there is no better hay than that made from alfalfa.

It was probably introduced into the Atlantic States from southern

Europe, and has grown as a weed for many years in certain localities in

New England and the Middle States; only recently has it been considered

a practicable crop for this climate, although it was grown in Jefferson

Co., N. Y., in 1791. Its special value is that it is a true perennial,

and may be cut three times or more during a season, and when once

established it withstands hot, dry weather. It is of marvelous value to

the semi-arid regions. The alfalfa flower is blue or violet, and grows

in a loose raceme. The plant grows tall and its stems are many branched.

This and all these medics are introduced from Europe.

_Black or Hop Medic. (M. lupulina.)_--This would hardly be called a

clover by the novice. The long stems lie along the ground, and the tiny

yellow flower-heads do not much resemble the clover blossom. It is a

common weed in waste places in our State. It is perennial.

_The Toothed Medic. (M. denticulata.)_--Instead of having the yellow

flowerets in a dense head, this species has them in pairs or perhaps

fours, or sometimes more. It is widely distributed as a weed, and is

also introduced as a pasture plant for early grazing. It is of little

value as hay.

_The Spotted Medic. (M. Arabica.)_--This very much resembles the

preceding species except that the leaves are likely to have on them

conspicuous dark spots near the center. Like the preceding species it is

an annual and a weed, and has also been introduced as a plant for early

grazing. This and the toothed medic are known to farmers under the name

of bur-clover. The reason for this name is found in the seed-pod, which

is twisted in a spiral and has an outer margin of curved prickles.

[Illustration: _Fig. 248. Alfalfa, foliage and flowers._]

THE MELILOTS, OR SWEET CLOVERS. (_Melilotus._)

In driving or walking along the country roads, we may find ourselves

suddenly immersed in a wave of delightful fragrance, and if we look for

the source we may find this friendly plant flourishing in the most

forbidding of soils. Growing as a weed, it brings sweet perfume to us,

and at the same time nitrogen, aeration and drainage to the hopeless

soil, making rich those places where other weeds have not the temerity

to attempt to grow. When the soil is generous, the sweet clover often

grows very tall, sometimes as high as ten feet. It is a cheerful,

adaptable and beneficial plant, and I never see it without giving it a

welcome, which, I am sorry to say, I cannot always grant to other

roadside wayfarers. The sweet clovers are European.

_The White Sweet Clover (M. alba)_ is sometimes called Bokhara clover

and has white flowers (Fig. 249).

_The Yellow Sweet Clover (M. officinalis)_ has yellow blossoms. It has

interesting old English names, such as Balsam Flowers, King's Clover and

Heartwort.

[Illustration: _Fig. 249. White sweet clover._]

QUESTIONS ON THE CLOVERS.

_Two general kinds of types of studies are to be made of the clovers:

identification studies, whereby you will come to know the kinds of

clover; life history studies, whereby you will come to know under what

conditions the plants live and thrive. The latter is the more important,

but the former usually precedes it, for one is better able to discover

and discuss the biological questions when he is acquainted with the

species. The following questions will bring out some of the important

biological aspects:_

1. How many of the true clovers, the medics, and the sweet clovers do

you know?

2. Send me properly labelled pressed specimens of the leaves and

blossoms of the clovers that you have been able to find.

3. Dig a root of red clover and find the nodules on it. Please describe

them.

4. What methods does the U. S. Department of Agriculture employ to

inoculate the soil with bacteria so that alfalfa may grow?

5. How do clover roots protect the land from the effects of heavy rains?

6. How do the clover plants conserve the moisture in the soil?

7. How does this conservation of moisture aid the farmer and orchardist?

8. What is a cover-crop, and what are its uses?

9. Why do farmers sow red clover with grass seed?

10. How do the habits of the stems of white clover differ from those of

other clovers?

11. Why is white clover so desirable for lawns?

12. Compare the floweret of the red clover with the sweet pea blossom

and describe the resemblance.

13. Study a head of white clover from the time it opens until it is

brown, and tell what changes take place in it day by day.

14. What has happened to the flowerets that are bent downward around the

stalk?

15. Watch one of these flowerets deflect, and describe the process.

16. How many flowerets do you find in a head of red clover? Of white

clover? Of alsike?

17. Which flowerets open first in a head of red clover?

18. Describe a clover seed. Describe a seed of alfalfa.

19. What insects do you find visiting the red clover blossoms? The white

clover blossoms?

ALFALFA, OR LUCERNE.[48]

[48] Home Nature-Study Course, New Series, Vol. I, No. 1, October, 1904.

The alfalfa plant is just now coming into great prominence in New York

State. Every teacher, particularly in the rural schools, will need to

know the plant and to have some information about it.

_What alfalfa is._--It is a clover-like plant. It is perennial. It has

violet-purple flowers. The leaves have three narrow leaflets. It sends

up many stiff stems, 2 to 3 feet high. The roots go straight down to

great depths.

_Why it is important._--It is an excellent cattle food, and

cattle-raising for dairy purposes is the leading special agricultural

industry in New York State. In fact, New York leads all the States in

the value of its dairy products. Any plant that is more nutritious and

more productive of pasture and hay than the familiar clovers and grasses

will add immensely to the dairy industry, and therefore to the wealth of

the State. Alfalfa is such a plant. It gives three cuttings of hay year

after year in New York State, thereby yielding twice as much as clover

does. In the production of digestible nutrients per acre ranks above

clover as 24 ranks above 10. When once established it withstands

droughts, for the roots grow deep.

Alfalfa is South European. It was early introduced into North America.

It first came into prominence in the semi-arid West because of its

drought-resisting qualities, and now it has added millions of dollars to

the wealth of the nation. Gradually it is working its way into the East.

It is discussed in the agricultural press and before farmers'

institutes. Last year the College of Agriculture offered to send a small

packet of seeds to such school children in New York State as wanted to

grow a little garden plat of it. About 5,000 children were supplied. The

teacher must now learn what alfalfa is.

In nearly every rural community, sufficient alfalfa can be found for

school purposes. In many places it has run wild along roadsides.

On these plants make the following observations:

1. Under what conditions have you found alfalfa growing? How did the

plant come to grow there,--sown, or run wild?

2. Describe the form of the root. How does the root branch?

3. Do you find the little tubercles or nodules on the roots? On what

part of the roots? How large? How numerous?

4. The crown of the plant (at the surface of the ground),--describe it,

and how the tops and the roots start from it.

5. The stems,--how many from each crown, whether erect or prostrate, how

they branch.

6. The leaves,--simple or compound? Form? Edges entire or fine toothed?

Do the leaves "sleep" at night, as those of clover do?

7. Do you find any distinct spots on the leaves? What do you think is

the cause of them?

8. Flowers,--how borne (whether singly or in clusters), color, form,

resemblance to any other flowers you may know. Do they vary in color?

9. If possible, find the seed-pods and seeds, and describe.

10. Make inquiries as to whether alfalfa is becoming well known in your

vicinity.

_Agricultural Account of Alfalfa._

You may be asked some practical questions about alfalfa; therefore we

give you a brief agricultural account of it. If you desire further

information, write to the College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y., for

Bulletin 221, "Alfalfa in New York."

Alfalfa is grown mostly for hay. It is not adapted to pasture, because

the new growth springs from the crown at the surface of the ground, and

if this is destroyed the growth will not be renewed vigorously. New York

is a hay-producing State. Grain feeds can be grown more cheaply in the

West. It is of great importance to the State, therefore, if a better

hay-producing plant can be found. We have seen that New York leads the

States in dairy cattle. Other livestock also is abundant. Last year more

than half a million horses and mules were fed in the State.

Success has not attended efforts to grow alfalfa in all parts of New

York. This is due to two principal reasons: (1) farmers have not known

the plant and its habits well enough to give it the care and treatment

it demands; (2) the soils of many localities, because of their physical

condition or composition, are not suitable for the plant.

The alfalfa seedling is not a strong plant. It cannot compete with weeds

nor overcome adverse conditions of moisture; it cannot adapt itself to

conditions resulting from poor preparation of land, and it is not

vigorous in its ability to get food from any source. Care must be given

to the preparation of the land in order that sufficient moisture may be

supplied during the early stages of growth and that there may be an

abundance of quickly available plant-food. After growth has started,

alfalfa has the power to get some of its nitrogen from the air through

the nodules which grow upon its roots; yet during the early stages of

growth it is essential that the soil be supplied with all elements of

plant-food in available form.

While alfalfa requires an abundance of moisture for its best growth and

development, yet it will not grow in soils that hold water for any

considerable length of time. Such soils are usually those with an

impervious subsoil or hard-pan, or those of clay or silt structure which

retain free water to the exclusion of air. Therefore, it is important

that alfalfa soils be well and uniformly drained, either by natural

conditions or by underground drains. One other essential of prime

importance is that the soil be neutral or alkaline in its reaction; in

other words, that it contain no free acid. Limestone or blue-grass soils

are ideal in this regard for alfalfa. If acid is present, the difficulty

may be corrected either wholly or in part by the application of 500 to

2,000 pounds of lime per acre.

As in most other legumes (members of the family Leguminosæ, including

peas, beans, clovers), there is a peculiar relationship existing between

the plant and excrescences or nodules upon its roots. These nodules are

essential to the normal growth and development of the plant. They

contain bacteria, and these bacteria have the power of "fixing" or

appropriating the free atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. Legumes are

"nitrogen-gatherers," whereas most other plants secure their nitrogen

only from decomposing organic matter. Failure to have the soil

inoculated with the proper bacteria for alfalfa is the cause for many

failures with the crop. In most instances when the plants do not make

satisfactory growth, or have a yellow, dwarfed appearance, the trouble

can be traced to the absence of these bacteria from the soil, and hence

to a lack of nodules on the roots. The relationship existing between the

plant and the organism is one of mutual benefit. Each kind of leguminous

plant seems to have its characteristic bacterium, which grows on no

other plant, although this question is not thoroughly settled.

Farmers are becoming aware of this requisite in alfalfa culture and

usually supply it in two different ways. The older method is to take the

surface soil from an old alfalfa field, where the plants have grown well

and where nodules are to be found on the roots, and to sow it on the

land to be seeded at the rate of one hundred or more pounds per acre. In

this way the soil becomes inoculated with the bacteria, and as the young

plants spring into growth the bacteria develop on the roots. Another

method is to inoculate the seed before sowing with artificial cultures

of the bacteria. Both of these methods are usually successful, and if

soil conditions are right the chances for failure are few.

Alfalfa should be cut when it opens into flower. At this time the stems

and leaves contain their highest percentage of nutrients, the leaves do

not so easily fall off in curing, and the stems are not so woody.

Besides these reasons, if cutting be delayed until after flowering, the

plant may not spring quickly into subsequent growth.

Disease does not spare the alfalfa plant. Both leaves and roots are

attacked, the leaf spot being serious. The parasitic dodder is a serious

enemy in some parts of New York State.

LEAFLET XXXV.

HOW PLANTS LIVE TOGETHER.[49]

BY L. H. BAILEY.

[49] Nature-Study Quarterly No. 6: Leaflet 19, October, 1900.

[Illustration]

To the general observer, plants seem to be distributed in a promiscuous

and haphazard way, without law or order. This is because he does not see

and consider.

The world is now full of plants. Every plant puts forth its supreme

effort to multiply its kind. The result is an intense struggle for an

opportunity to live.

Seeds are scattered in profusion, but only the few can grow. The many do

not find the proper conditions. They fall on stony ground. In Fig. 250

this loss is shown. The trunk of an elm tree stands in the background.

The covering of the ground, except about the very base of the tree, is a

mat of elm seedlings. There are thousands of them in the space shown in

the picture, so many that they make a sod-like covering which shows

little detail in the photograph. Not one of these thousands will ever

make a tree.

[Illustration: _Fig. 250. A carpet of young elms, all of which must

perish._]

Since there is intense competition for every foot of the earth's surface

that is capable of raising plants, it follows that every spot will

probably have many kinds of plant inhabitants. Plants must live

together. They associate; they become adapted or accustomed to each

other. Some can live in shade; they thrive in the forest, where

sun-loving plants perish. Others prefer the sun, and thereby live

together. There are plant societies.

[Illustration: _Fig. 251. A plant society waiting for the spring._]

[Illustration: _Fig. 252. Weak, narrow-leaved grasses grow in the

cat-tail forest._]

Every distinct or separate area has its own plant society. There is one

association for the hard-tramped dooryard,--knot-weed and broad-leaved

plantain with interspersed grass and dandelions; one for the

fence-row,--briars and choke-cherries and hiding weeds; one for the dry

open field,--wire-grass and mullein and scattered docks; one for the

slattern roadside,--sweet clover, ragweed, burdock; one for the meadow

swale,--smartweed and pitchforks; one for the barnyard,--rank pigweeds

and sprawling barn-grass; one for the dripping rock-cliff,--delicate

bluebells and hanging ferns and grasses. Indefinitely might these

categories be extended. We all know the plant societies, but we have not

considered them.

In every plant society there is one dominant note. It is the

individuality of one kind of plant which grows most abundantly or

overtops the others. Certain plant-forms come to mind when one thinks of

willows, others when he thinks of an apple orchard, still others when he

thinks of a beech forest. The farmer may associate "pussly" with

cabbages and beets, but not with wheat and oats. He associates cockle

with wheat, but not with oats or corn. We all associate dandelions with

grassy areas, but not with burdock or forests.

It is impossible to open one's eyes out-of-doors, outside the paved

streets of cities, without seeing a plant society. A lawn is a plant

society. It may contain only grass, or it may contain weeds hidden away

in the sward. What weeds remain in the lawn? Only those which can

withstand the mowing. What are they? Let a bit of lawn grow as it will

for a month, and see what there is in it. A swale, a dry hillside, a

forest of beech, a forest of oak, a forest of hemlock or pine, a weedy

yard, a tangled fence-row, a brook-side, a deep quiet swamp, a lake

shore, a railroad, a river bank, a meadow, a pasture, a dusty

roadway,--each has its characteristic plants. Even in the winter, one

may see these societies,--the tall plants still asserting themselves,

others of less aspiring stature, and others snuggling just under the

snow (Fig. 251).

[Illustration: _Fig. 253. The wild grape covers the treetop, and the

children play in the bower. The grape is searching for light._]

Often these societies are in the nature of overgrowth and

undergrowth--one society living beneath another. Of such are forest

societies. Few woods are so dark that some plants do not grow on the

ground, unless they are evergreen or coniferous woods. Even in humbler

communities, the overgrowth and undergrowth are usually apparent if one

looks closely. Separate the cat-tails in the dense swamp and see the

weak and narrow-leaved grasses growing between (Fig. 252). Note the

clover, young grasses, and other plants between the grass in the meadow:

the farmer says that his meadow has good "bottom."

Some plants even grow on top of other plants. It is their way of getting

light. Of such are the climbers. Note the mantle which the wild grape

throws over the trees (Fig. 253). Often the supporting tree is smothered

and killed.

When an area is newly cleared, many plants rush for it. Quickly it is

covered with ambitious growths,--pokeweeds, fireweeds, thistles, briars,

nettles. Often each plant occupies large places alone, making clumps or

patches. These patches are plant colonies,--made up mostly of one

species or kind (Fig. 254). But as the struggle tightens, other plants

insinuate themselves into the colony and it is broken up; a mixed

population results. Sometimes these colonies are broken up by the shade

of trees and tall bushes which have come up near them, for all neglected

areas, in this part of the world, tend to return to forest if they are

not mown, pastured or burned. Mown and pastured areas run into grass,

for the grass withstands the cutting and grazing. In burned areas the

struggle begins anew when the fire has passed.

[Illustration: _Fig. 254. A colony of clotbur._]

Plant societies are easy to study for the school. The study of them

appeals to the desire for exploration and adventure, and adds zest to

the excursion. Go to a swale, swamp, roadside, forest, weedy field, or

other place, and ask the pupil to note: (1) that the flora of the place

is unlike that of places with different physical features; (2) that

these particular plants grow together because they can all survive

under similar conditions; (3) what these conditions are,--whether sun,

shade, dry soil, wet soil, sand, clay, rock; (4) what particular plant

is most abundant or gives character to the society.

[Illustration: _Fig. 255. Two plant societies,--the close-bitten sward

and the rushy pond._]

Study one society thoroughly. Make lists of the kinds of plants and of

the relative numbers of each. If the names of the plants are not known,

call them by numbers; make dried specimens of them for reference. When

another society is visited, repeat these observations, and compare one

society with another.

[Illustration: _Fig. 256. The edge of the road. Trees and bushes crowd

the drive-way, and a ribbon of grass and weeds has pushed itself to the

very margin._]

_Ask every plant why it grows there._

LEAFLET XXXVI.

PLANTING A PLANT.[50]

BY L. H. BAILEY.

[50] Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 8: Leaflet 21, January, 1901.

[Illustration]

Most persons are interested in plants, even though they do not know it.

They enjoy the green verdure, the brilliant flower, the graceful form.

They are interested in plants in general. I wish that every person were

interested in some plant in particular. There is a pleasure in the

companionship, merely because the plant is a living and a growing thing.

It expresses power, vitality. It is a complete, self-sufficient

organism. It makes its way in the world. It is alive.

The companionship with a plant, as with a bird or an insect, means more

than the feeling for the plant itself. It means that the person has

interest in something real and genuine. It takes him out-of-doors. It

invites him to the field. It is suggestive. It inculcates a habit of

meditation and reflection. It enables one to discover himself.

I wish that every child in New York State had a plant of his own, and

were attached to it. Why cannot the teacher suggest this idea to the

pupils? It may be enough to have only one plant the first year,

particularly if the pupil is young. It matters little what the plant is.

The important thing is that it shall be alive. Every plant is

interesting in its way. A good pigweed is much more satisfactory than a

poor rosebush. The pupil should grow the plant from the beginning. He

should not buy it ready grown, for then it is not his, even though he

own it.

It is well to begin with some plant that grows quickly and matures

early. One is ambitious in spring, but his enthusiasm may wither and die

in the burning days of summer. If possible, grow the plant in the free

open ground; if this is not feasible, grow it in a pot or box or tin

can. Take advantage of the early spring enthusiasm. Choose hardy and

vigorous plants: sow the seeds when the "spirit moves."

If a pupil is interested in kitchen-garden vegetables, recommend lettuce

and radish, or a potato. If in flowers, suggest sweet pea, bachelor's

button or blue-bottle, annual phlox, candytuft, China aster. If in

fruits, suggest strawberry.

* * * * *

We desire to inaugurate a general movement for the planting of plants.

The school ground should be planted. Private yards should be planted.

Roadsides should be planted. In some cities and villages there are

committees or other organizations whose object it is to encourage the

planting of public and private places. Sometimes this organization is

connected with the school interest, sometimes with a local horticultural

or agricultural society, sometimes with a business men's organization.

There should be such a committee in every village and town. We wish that

the teachers might help in this work, for they would not only be lending

their aid to planting, but also be interesting their pupils in some

concrete and useful work, and teaching them the value of public spirit.

Arbor Day should be more than a mere ceremonial. It should be a means of

awakening interest in definite plans for the adornment of the

neighborhood and of directing the attention of the children

nature-ward.

LEAFLET XXXVII.

CUTTINGS AND CUTTINGS.[51]

BY L. H. BAILEY.

[51] Nature-Study Quarterly No. 3: Leaflet 16, January, 1900.

[Illustration]

Perhaps no subject connected with the growing of plants awakens so much

popular wonder and inquiry as their propagation by means of cuttings and

grafts. We assume that propagation by means of seeds is the natural way,

and therefore do not wonder, notwithstanding that it is wonderful. We

assume that propagation by cuttings is wholly unnatural, and therefore

never cease to wonder, notwithstanding that this is less wonderful than

the other. To common minds, common things are not wonderful. Mere

commonplace familiarity takes away the charm, for such minds have no

desire of inquiry. The well trained mind goes beneath the surface, and

wonders at everything; and this wonder, grown old and wise, is the

spirit of science.

A plant does not have a definite number of parts, as an animal does. It

may have ten branches or fifty. Each of these branches may do what every

other branch does--produce leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds. It is not so

with the higher animals, for in them each part may do something which

some other part cannot do: if the part is a leg, it runs; if an ear, it

hears. Each part serves the whole animal; and it cannot reproduce the

animal. But in the plant, each branch lives for itself: it grows on the

parent stock; or, if it is removed, it may grow in the soil. And if it

grow in the soil, it is relieved of competition with other branches and

grows bigger: it makes what we call a plant.

Having thus bewildered my reader, I may say that a bit of a plant stuck

into the ground stands a chance of growing; and this bit is a cutting.

Plants have preferences, however, as to the kind of bit which shall be

used; but there is no way of telling what this preference is except by

trying. In some instances this preference has not been discovered, and

we may say that the plant cannot be propagated by cuttings. Most plants

prefer that the cuttings be made of the soft or growing wood, of which

the "slips" of geraniums and coleus are examples. Others grow equally

well from cuttings of the hard or mature wood, as currants and grapes;

and in some instances this mature wood may be of roots, as in the

blackberry. Somewhat different principles underlie the handling of these

two kinds of cuttings; and these principles we may now consider. We

shall find it excellent practice to set the pupils to making cuttings

now and then. If we can do nothing more, we can make cuttings of

potatoes, as the farmer does; and we can plant them in a box in the

window.

[Illustration: _Fig. 257. Geranium cutting. One-half natural size._]

THE SOFTWOOD CUTTING.

The softwood cutting is made from tissue which is still growing, or at

least from that which is not dormant. It must not be allowed to wilt. It

must, therefore, be protected from direct sunlight and dry air until it

is well established; and if it has many leaves, some of them should be

removed, or at least cut in two in order to reduce the evaporating

surface. Keep the soil uniformly moist; and avoid soils which contain

much decaying organic matter, for these soils are breeding places of

fungi which attack the soft cutting and cause it to "damp off."

For most plants, the proper age of maturity of wood for the making of

cuttings may be determined by giving the twig a quick bend; if it snaps

and hangs by the bark, it is in proper condition; if it bends without

breaking it is too young and soft or too old; if it splinters, it is too

old and woody.

[Illustration: _Fig. 258. Carnation cutting. Natural size._]

The tips of strong upright shoots usually make the best cuttings.

Preferably each cutting should have a joint or node near its base; and

if the internodes are short, it may comprise two or three joints. Allow

one to three leaves to remain at the top. If these leaves are large,

cut them in two.

Insert the cutting half or more its length in clean sand or gravel.

Press the earth firmly about it. Throw a newspaper over the bed to

exclude the light--if the sun strikes it--and to prevent too rapid

evaporation. See that the soil is moist clear through, not on top only.

[Illustration: _Fig. 259. Rose cutting. More than one-half natural

size._]

Mason's sand is good earth in which to start cuttings. Or fine

gravel--sifted of most of its earthy matter--may be used. If the

cuttings are to be grown in a window, put three or four inches of the

earth in a shallow box or a pan. A soap box cut in two lengthwise, so

that it makes a box four or five inches deep--like a gardener's flat--is

excellent.

[Illustration: _Fig. 260. Cutting-bed, showing carnations and roses._]

If the box does not receive direct sunlight, it may be covered with a

pane of glass to prevent evaporation; and then the children may see the

plants more readily. But take care that the air is not kept too close,

else the damping-off fungi may attack the cuttings and they will rot at

the surface of the ground. See that the pane is raised a little at one

end to afford ventilation; and if water collects in drops on the under

side of the glass, remove the pane for a time. Cuttings of common

plants, as geranium, coleus, fuchsia, carnation, should be kept in a

living-room temperature.

The pictures are better than words. The line across them shows where the

soil comes. There are softwood cuttings of the geranium (Fig. 257), the

carnation (Fig. 258), and the rose (Fig. 259); and there is a gardener's

cutting bed (Fig. 260) with cuttings of carnations and roses.

Be patient. As long as the cuttings look bright and green, they are

safe. It may be a month before roots form. When roots have formed, the

plants will begin to make new leaves at the tip. Then they may be

transplanted into other boxes or into pots. The verbena in Fig. 261 is

just ready for transplanting. Each child will want a plant.

[Illustration: _Fig. 261. Verbena cutting ready for transplanting.

Two-thirds natural size._]

It is not always easy to find growing shoots from which to make the

cuttings. The best practice is to cut back some old plant severely, then

keep it warm and well watered, and thereby force it to throw out new

shoots. The old geranium plant from the window garden, or the one taken

up from the lawn bed, may be served this way. See Fig. 262. This may

seem hard treatment, but that is all the old plant is good for; it has

passed its usefulness for bloom. The best plants of the geranium and the

coleus and many window plants are those which are not more than one year

old. The cuttings that are made in January, February, or March will give

compact blooming plants for the next winter; and thereafter new ones

take their place.

Some plants may be propagated by means of cuttings of leaves. The Rex

begonias or "beefsteak geraniums" are the commonest examples. The large,

nearly mature leaf is divided into triangular pieces, each piece

containing at its point a bit of the leaf-base (top of the leaf-stalk).

This kind of cutting is shown in Fig. 263. This base is sometimes split

(as at o) by gardeners to hasten the formation of roots. Only the tip of

the cutting is stuck into the sand; otherwise it is treated like other

softwood cuttings.

THE HARDWOOD CUTTING.

Many plants grow readily from cuttings of ripe or dormant wood. The

willows cast their branchlets in snow and wind, and these, falling in

pleasant places propagate their kind; and thus the river sides and the

lake shores become willow-crowned.

Grapes, currants, gooseberries, poplars readily take root from the

hardwood. Fig. 264 shows a currant cutting. It has only one bud above

the ground.

[Illustration: _Fig. 262. Old geranium plant cut back to make it throw

out shoots from which cuttings can be made._]

The best results are attained when the cuttings are made in the fall,

and then buried until spring in sand in the cellar. They are not idle

while they rest. The lower end calluses or heals, and the roots form

more readily when the cutting is planted in the spring. But if the

children are interested, take cuttings at any time in winter, plant them

in a deep box in the window, and watch. They will need no shading or

special care.

When plants of any variety are scarce, the cuttings may be shorter.

Sometimes they are reduced to a single "eye" or bud, with an inch or two

of wood attached; and these single-eye cuttings are planted much as one

plants seeds.

[Illustration: _Fig. 263. Begonia leaf cutting. Natural size._]

THE GRAFT.

If the cutting were planted in a plant rather than in the soil, we

should have a graft; and the graft might grow. In this case, the cutting

would not make roots, but it would grow fast to the other plant, and the

twain would become one. When the cutting is inserted in a plant it is no

longer called a cutting, but a cion; and the plant in which it is

inserted is called the stock. The completed thing--the cion growing in

the stock--is a graft.

[Illustration: _Fig. 264. Currant cutting. One-third natural size._]

Plants are particular as to their companions, when it comes to such

close relationships as these. They choose the stocks upon which they

will grow; but we can find out what their choice is only by making the

experiment. There are queer things about it. The pear grows well on the

quince, but the quince does not grow so well on the pear. The pear grows

on some of the hawthorns, but it is an unwilling subject on the apple.

Tomato plants will grow on potato plants and potato plants on tomato

plants. When the potato is the root, both tomatoes and potatoes may be

produced; when the tomato is the root, neither potatoes nor tomatoes

will be produced. Chestnuts are said to grow on some kinds of oaks.

[Illustration: _Fig. 265. Cion for cleft-grafting. One-half natural

size._]

Why do we graft? Think a bit. If I sow seeds of a Baldwin apple, I shall

probably have as many kinds of apples as I have trees. Some of these

apples may be like the Baldwin, and they may not. That is, apple seeds

do not reproduce the particular variety. They will not be held to any

stricter account than merely to produce apples; these apples may range

all the way from toothsome kinds to Ben Davis. The nurseryman knows

this, and he does not wait for the trees to bear in the hope that they

will produce something to his liking. So he grafts them when they still

are young,--takes a cion from the kind which he wishes to perpetuate. So

it happens that all the Baldwins and the Kings and the Russets, and all

other named varieties, are growing on alien roots; and what kinds of

fruits these stocks would have produced no one will ever know, because

their heads were cut off in youth and other heads were put on to order.

In this way apples and pears and plums and peaches and cherries and

apricots are propagated, for they will not grow readily from cuttings.

But raspberries and blackberries and gooseberries and currants and

grapes grow willingly from cuttings, and they are not grafted by the

nurseryman.

The forming, growing tissue of the trunk is the cambium, lying on the

outside of the woody cylinder, beneath the bark. In order that union may

take place, the cambium of the cion and the stock must come together.

Therefore, the cion is set in the side of the stock. I once knew a man

who believed that everything was designed for some useful purpose. The

hole in the pith bothered him, until he discovered that a cion just

filled it. He grafted his trees accordingly; but the experiment was

productive of nothing except pithy remarks.

[Illustration: _Fig. 266. Cleft-graft. One-half natural size._]

There are many ways of shaping the cion and of preparing the stock to

receive it. These ways are dictated largely by the relative sizes of

cion and stock, although many of them are matters of mere personal

preference. The underlying principles are two: see that there is close

contact between the cambiums of cion and stock; cover the wounded

surfaces to prevent evaporation and to protect the parts from disease.

[Illustration: _Fig. 267. The graft waxed._]

On large stocks the common form of grafting is the cleft-graft. The

stock is cut off and split; and in one or both sides a wedge-shaped cion

is firmly inserted. Fig. 265 shows the cion; Fig. 266, the cions set in

the stock; Fig. 267, the stock waxed. It will be seen that the lower

bud--that lying in the wedge--is covered by the wax; but being nearest

the food supply and least exposed to weather, it is the most likely to

grow: it pushes through the wax.

[Illustration: _Fig. 268. Shield-budding. One-half natural size._]

The wax is made of beeswax, resin, and tallow. The hands are greased,

and the wax is then worked until it is soft enough to spread. For the

little grafting which any school would do, it is better to buy the wax

of a seedsman. However, grafting is hardly to be recommended as a

general school diversion, as the making of cuttings is; and this account

of it is inserted chiefly to satisfy the general curiosity on the

subject. But we hope that now and then a youngster will make the effort

for himself, for nothing is more exciting than to make a graft grow all

by one's self.

Cleft-grafting is done in spring, as growth begins. The cions are cut

previously, when perfectly dormant, and from the tree which it is

desired to propagate. The cions are kept in sand or moss in the cellar.

Limbs of various sizes may be cleft-grafted--from one-half inch up to

four inches in diameter; but a diameter of one inch is the most

convenient size. All the leading or main branches of a tree top may be

grafted. If the remaining parts of the top are gradually cut away and

the scions grow well, the entire top will be changed over to the new

variety in three or four years. Each cion may be a different variety;

but there is no difference in the operation or the treatment of the

tree.

On young or small stocks, like nursery trees, the cleft-graft is not

practicable, and a different form of grafting is employed; but the

teacher will not care to be confused with further details.

[Illustration: _Fig. 269. The bud set in the matrix. One-half natural

size._]

We have seen that a cutting may be reduced to a single bud; so may a

cion. If the bud-cion has very little or no wood attached, and is

inserted underneath the bark, the operation is known as budding. The

commonest form of budding is shown in Figs. 268, 269, 270. This is the

method known as shield-budding, because the bud, with its attached

bark, is shield-shaped (Fig. 268). A T-shape incision is made in the

stock, and under the bark the bud is inserted (Fig. 269); then the wound

is tightly bound with soft cord or bast (Fig. 270). Budding may be

performed whenever the bark will "slip" and when well grown buds can be

secured,--that is, either in spring or late summer. It is usually

performed at the latter season; and then the bud does not throw out a

shoot the same season, but merely grows fast to the stock. The next

spring it throws out a shoot and makes a trunk; and in the meantime the

stock has been cut off just above the bud. That is, the bud-shoot takes

the place of the top of the stock.