PALMERSTON HOME SECRETARY, 1853 AND 1854.
The world had not to wait long. Lord Palmerston had, as we have seen,
been turned out on the 19th of December, 1851. Parliament met on the 8th
of February following, and before the month was over Lord John was out
of office. A Militia Bill was brought in by him to which Palmerston
expressed himself as antagonistic. It is not supposed that he had been
anxious to turn out his late chief on that special question, but had
rather selected it as a commencement for his attack; but the House
reconsidered the matter on which Lord John had been triumphant, and
supported the late Foreign Secretary so loudly by its cheers, as to make
it apparent to the Head of the Government that he could no longer stand
his ground. It was then that Palmerston wrote as follows to his
brother;--“I have had my tit-for-tat with John Russell, and I turned him
out on Friday last. I certainly, however, did not expect to do so, nor
did I intend to do anything more than to persuade the House to reject
his foolish plan and to adopt a more sensible one. I have no doubt that
two things induced him to resign: first, the almost insulting manner
towards him in which the House, by its cheers, went with me in the
debate; and, secondly, the fear of being defeated on the vote of
censure about the Cape affairs which was to have been moved to-day.”
Lord Palmerston speaks of Lord John’s “foolish plan.” It may probably be
surmised that the abstract folly of the plan was not so potent with the
writer of the letter as the determination of which he speaks “to have
his tit-for-tat with John Russell.” It cannot be but that personal
questions in the bosoms of Statesmen should share the ground with
matters of public import, and often lead to the forming of an opinion or
the riveting of a doubt. If I hear of a public man with whom it has not
been so, I feel that he must have lacked the warmth necessary for party
conflict. “Measures not men,” is a great war-cry by which to gain the
voices of the ignorant; but, when they have been gained, men will count
almost for as much as measures.
Lord Palmerston had at any rate delivered a knock-down blow, and Lord
John was out. Lord Derby was sent for by the Queen, and in making his
Cabinet offered to Lord Palmerston the place of Chancellor of the
Exchequer. It was just forty-three years since the same place was
offered him before, and then, as now, by a Tory Prime Minister. What a
length of life to run between two such proposals! We are taught now to
think that a man who first undertakes such duties as those of regulating
the finances of his country at sixty-eight years of age, is taxing human
nature too far; and certainly were we to hear that a youth of
twenty-five had been so selected, we should think that he was very
precocious, or that the Prime Minister was very silly. But this man
refused both offers; and, without going into the motives which induced
him to decline Lord Derby’s proposition, we cannot but rejoice that he
saw his way clearly to the refusal. We cannot but think that there
would have been a drifting back to Toryism under Lord Derby which would
have materially interfered with that popularity by which he was to be
lifted up to the management of affairs during the Crimean War. In
discussing with his brother the state of parties at the time, he thus
says;--“The truth is that the Whigs would be glad to get rid of John
Russell and to have me in his stead, if this change could well be
accomplished.” That, in truth, was the change which the Liberal party
desired, without probably any defined expression of such a wish. The
qualities of Lord Palmerston’s mind had taken possession of men, and
though the English Liberal of to-day would probably think twice before
he would place the thoughtful statesmanship of the one below the happy
audacity of the other, at the moment undoubtedly the country was tired
of Lord John, and inclined to turn against him because he had turned out
his old colleague.
No weaker Government than that of Lord Derby’s was ever formed in
England. The only persons in it well known at the time to political life
were Lord Derby and Mr. Disraeli, who had fallen into the vacancy made
by the death of a much weaker man than himself. Lord George Bentinck had
gone, and left to Mr. Disraeli the leadership of the House of Commons.
But when we look back over the not long interval of nineteen years we
hardly know who they were that he had to lead. It has been said that
besides Lord Derby and Mr. Herries there was not an English Privy
Councillor among the number. It included none of Sir Robert Peel’s
followers. Free Trade was the one matter in dispute, and on the question
of Free Trade there was a majority against Government consisting of
Peelites, Whigs, and Radicals. Lord John and Lord Palmerston, together
with Sir James Graham and Mr. Gladstone, declared it to be impossible to
carry on the Government in such a condition of things. A new Parliament
was called, and on the 11th of November, 1852, the Queen’s Speech was
read to them. Parliament was invited to consider whether recent
legislation had not inflicted unavoidable injury.[J] This was intended
as a direct slap in the face for the advocates of Free Trade. Mr.
Villiers moved a counter-resolution, full, as Mr. Disraeli said, of
“odious epithets.” This was rejected by 336 votes to 256. Lord
Palmerston then proposed a second resolution, declaring “That it is the
opinion of the House that the improved condition of the people ... is
mainly the result of recent legislation.” This was directly at variance
with the convictions of the Ministry, but it was accepted and allowed to
pass by a great majority. The resolution is supposed to have been
prepared by Sir James Graham, in concert with Lord John. And the fact of
its adoption by Lord Palmerston, and its promotion by him in political
concert with Lord John, proves that at this moment there was no war
between the two old colleagues. The cause for war still remained, and
did in fact prevent for the present any combination of Statesmen in
which Lord Palmerston should serve under Lord John; but of personal
quarrel there was none, and the two men were thus able to act together
within twelve months of the day on which the fatal letter had been
written. Lord Palmerston had in June of that year declared his purpose
not to serve under Lord John. “He certainly has entirely lost mine.”
Lord John had lost Lord Palmerston’s confidence. “I feel no resentment
towards him personally or privately; but it would require strong
inducements to persuade me to become again a member of a Government of
which he was the head. I feel no confidence in his discretion or
judgment as a political leader, and could place no trust in his steady
fidelity as a colleague, having my official position at his mercy.”
It was in vain, however, that Lord Derby accepted the resolution in
favour of Free Trade. Mr. Disraeli brought in his Budget, which was at
once thrown out by 303 votes to 286. This took place on the 16th of
December, and on the 20th Lord Derby declared that the Ministry had
resigned. Lord Aberdeen was then sent for, and formed the Administration
in which Lord John Russell went in as Foreign Secretary and Lord
Palmerston to the Home Office. There must have been to him in this a
certain bitterness. He had at first declined Lord Aberdeen’s offer
because Lord Aberdeen’s policy as Foreign Minister had for many years
been at direct variance with his own. He had, however, been persuaded by
Lord Lansdowne, who had been better able, perhaps, to read the signs of
the times than could he himself, and the feelings of the minds of men
towards him against whom the Court had used its influence. He was
assured that the administration of Foreign Affairs would not rest with
Lord Aberdeen, but with Lord Clarendon or Lord John,--and of the general
liberality of both of these he was well assured. He says himself to his
brother that he had determined that he himself would not in any case
take the Foreign Office. In this, no doubt, there was some
boasting,--natural and understood. It would have been impossible that
Lord Palmerston should then have returned to the Foreign Office.
There is something almost ludicrous in the energy displayed by Lord
Palmerston at the Home Office; and yet it was essentially useful. He
visited prisons and wrote memoranda on the ventilation of cells. He
arranged tickets-of-leave for convicts, and attempted to abate the
nuisance of smoke in London. He built cemeteries, and fixed the winter
assizes. Such matters are by no means ludicrous. It is by attending to
them that the welfare of a people is in a great measure obtained. They
are, no doubt, as important as those foreign arrangements for the
government of Europe,--and, indeed, of the world at large,--in which
Lord Palmerston had been hitherto engaged. But they do not loom so large
before the imagination. And we can imagine that he himself felt the
difference when he descended from instructing Sir Stratford Canning to
consulting a factory inspector.
It was about this time, I think, that he fell into a habit of
intercourse with the public generally which adhered to him till the day
of his death. He became notorious as a joker. He passed on from the
light, courteous _persiflage_ of the Foreign Minister to the common
John-Bull fun of an English magistrate, without an apparent effort, but
with an evident intention. The wit was never very good. It must be
acknowledged that it was generally commonplace, and that from the mouth
of another it would have had no effect. But the world had so come to
love its Palmerston that it was ready to laugh at everything; and when
the world of deputations has been made to laugh, much has been
achieved. The deputations did laugh, and Lord Palmerston obtained the
character of being the wittiest Englishman of his day. No character was
ever more cheaply earned, or used to a better effect.
Looking back at these days, we seem to remember that Lord Palmerston, as
Home Secretary, appeared larger to us than did other Ministers of the
day. He was not only Home Secretary, but had confided to him the duty of
general adviser in public matters. The great trouble of the Crimean War
was coming on, and the state of things was not so well known to others
as to him. There was, too, a question as to Reform, regarding which he
all but felt himself compelled to resign. “My office is too closely
connected with Parliamentary changes to allow me to sit silent during
the whole progress of a Reform Bill through Parliament; and I could not
take up a Bill which contained material things of which I disapprove,
and assist to fight it through the House of Commons, to force it on the
Lords, and to stand upon it at the hustings.” This he said in a letter
to his brother-in-law, Lawrence Sulivan. We can understand that, for the
satisfaction of his own political feelings, he need not have stirred
himself much on any question of Reform. But it must have been difficult
for him to have a Reform Bill settled for him while he was Home
Secretary. There was, too, a double reason for his disagreement at the
moment. Should the fleet move up to the Dardanelles, or should it remain
in the Mediterranean? This was in anticipation of that which afterwards
became the Crimean War, and was a matter on which Lord Palmerston was
likely to have a more decided opinion than in regard to the Reform Bill.
But at last he withdrew his resignation. “I remain in the Government. I
was much and strongly pressed to do so for several days by many of the
members of the Government, who declared that they were no parties to
Aberdeen’s answer to me, and that they considered all the details of the
intended Reform measure as still open to discussion. Their earnest
representations and the knowledge that the Cabinet had on Thursday taken
a decision on Turkish affairs in entire accordance with opinions which I
had long unsuccessfully pressed upon them, decided me to withdraw my
resignation, which I did yesterday.”
This was at the close of 1853, when Parliament was not sitting, and for
the next two years the Crimean War became so completely the one matter
of vital interest to England as to make it necessarily the point on
which a memoir of Lord Palmerston’s life for those two years must
altogether hang. He was Home Secretary when the war began, but had been
lifted up to the position of Prime Minister before its close. This was
done that England might be able to have, as she ought, the most
competent man she possessed to conduct it for her. I am not expressing
an opinion that he was the most competent man,--only that England so
thought, and justified her opinion by the final result. But in truth the
capability of a man for such work does not depend on any power of
intellect, or indomitable courage, or far-seeing cunning. The man is
competent simply because he is believed to be so. A nation trusts a man,
and will go to work under him in a manner which is impossible for it to
adopt under a leader that it does not trust. And, as seems to be the
case with all men who are brought into a difficult operation, and
succeed in it, just at the moment convenient for success, Lord
Palmerston took the matter in hand exactly at the right time. It may be
that Aberdeen had failed because he was Aberdeen, and Palmerston
succeeded because he was Palmerston, each by such lights and gifts as
were in him. That was, and still is, the average Englishman’s idea. Or
it may be that Palmerston, with his usual luck, stepped in just when the
evil days were over and success was becoming possible. That is the idea
of clever critics of affairs. Who shall say which was correct?
We must go back here, and in the slightest possible manner touch upon
the causes of the great war. They had had their beginning while Lord
Palmerston was at the Foreign Office, even if they be not said to have
commenced earlier than that. The nominal cause was a dispute which grew
up in Jerusalem between the Latin and the Greek Churches for possession
of the highest authority over the Holy Places. It was acknowledged that
the Holy Places should be open to both, but it was considered essential
that one should be supreme. It need hardly be said that with this
contest England had no personal concern. It was settled at last by the
perplexed Turk on the advice of the English Ambassador. But it was so
settled as to make Nicholas, the Emperor of Russia, more convinced than
ever of the general necessity of taking all the members of the Greek
Church in Turkey especially under his protection. This he attempted to
do in the fulness of autocratic authority. Then, when demur was made to
the Emperor’s claim, Count Mentschikoff was sent across the Pruth so as
to occupy the Danubian Principalities, which, as far as this transaction
was concerned, were at the time a part of Turkey. All Europe at once
went to work to induce him to return. England, France, Austria, and
Prussia, at any rate, did so. But Nicholas, who had long been busy and
greedy over the chattels of the “sick man,” would not retire without
achieving something. And Turkey, thoroughly supported by that famous
Englishman, Sir Stratford Canning,--who had now become Lord Stratford de
Redcliffe,--would grant him nothing in the way of a protectorate. A
conference met at Vienna, with a pundit from each of the four countries,
to save Turkey, and at the same time to save if possible the feelings
and the honour of the Czar. But the attempt came to nothing, and was at
last altogether abortive.
Mr. Kinglake seems to attribute to Lord Palmerston almost more than a
friendly compliance with Napoleon in this matter. “There was not,
perhaps, more than one member of the English Cabinet who desired the
formation of this singular alliance on grounds like those which moved
the French Emperor.” We presume that Lord Palmerston was the Cabinet
Minister here indicated. Again he says; “Of the bulk of the Cabinet, and
possibly of all of them except one, Lord Clarendon’s pithy phrase was
the true one. They drifted” (vol. i. p. 440). Napoleon probably was
anxious to obtain for himself the _éclat_ of going to war with Queen
Victoria for his ally. For a man who had obtained his empire as he had
done it was a great thing to appear before the world with such a
Sovereign for his friend. We can understand that in fighting Russia he
should be actuated by such a motive. But the Coup d’Etat had taken place
in the winter of 1851-1852, and the pundits were at their work of peace
in Vienna during the summer of 1853. The dates do not hold good for the
continuance of such a project on the part of Napoleon. It might have
served for three months to keep his throne, but could hardly have been
serviceable after fifteen. We do know that Lord Aberdeen was weak,
doing his best to stave off war if he could do so. And we know also that
Palmerston was strong, anxious from the beginning to act in accordance
with the English Ambassador at Constantinople. But we doubt whether
there be reason to suppose that he had lent himself to the wishes of the
Emperor of the French, or desired to go beyond his own Ambassador.
Looking back at the whole character of the man through a long life, we
find that his fault has been that of confident,--almost that of
self-opinionated audacity. Having the advantage of his private
correspondence,--which had not been revealed to Mr. Kinglake when his
first volumes were published,--we can read in it no trace of such
friendship, or, we may say, of such anti-British feeling. He was ready
to fight any man who was not an Englishman for any point,--and any man
who was an Englishman who opposed him, as long as he had a leg to stand
upon. I am inclined, therefore, to think that Palmerston, in his
readiness for war with Russia, was in no degree guided by imperial
sympathies. In July he wrote as follows to Lord Aberdeen; “I quite agree
with you that we ought to try whether we can devise any proposal which,
without involving any departure by the Sultan from the ground of
independence on which he has taken his stand, might satisfy any just
claim which the Emperor can put forward. In the meantime, however, I
hope you will allow the squadrons to be ordered to go up to the
Bosphorus as soon as it is known in Constantinople that the Russians
have entered the Principalities, and to be further at liberty to go into
the Black Sea, if necessary or useful for the protection of Turkish
territory.” And he ends his letter as follows; “I am confident that this
country expects that we should pursue such a course, and I cannot
believe that we should receive anything but support in pursuing it from
the party in Opposition.” Then he writes to Lord John Russell; “In my
opinion, the course which the Emperor”--the Emperor of Russia,--“has
pursued on these matters from his first overtures for a partition of
Turkey, and especially the violent, abusive, and menacing language of
his last manifesto, seem to show that he has taken his line, and that
nothing will satisfy him but complete submission on the part of Turkey;
and we ought, therefore, not to disguise from ourselves that he is bent
upon a stand-up fight.”
“I tried again to persuade the Cabinet to send the squadrons up to the
Bosphorus, but failed; I was told that Stratford and La Cour have powers
to call for them. This is, no doubt, stated in public despatches, but we
all know that he has been privately desired not to do so. Words may
properly be answered by words, but acts should be replied to by acts;
and the entrance of the Russians as invaders into the Turkish territory
ought to be followed and replied to by the entrance of the squadrons
into the Bosphorus as protectors.” Here Palmerston seems to speak with
his wonted voice. It was as though the foreign affairs of England were
all but under his control. It may be that he and the Emperor of the
French were of one mind. Or it may be that the Emperor, knowing which
way Palmerston was inclined to lead, foresaw that he could best play his
own part by walking with him. But of the two men we think it probable
that Lord Palmerston knew Eastern Europe the better, and had the clearer
idea of what he intended to do. Still in July, he writes thus to the
members of the Cabinet; “The Russian Government has been led on step by
step by the apparent timidity of the Government of England; and
reports, artfully propagated that the British Cabinet had declared that
it would have _la paix à tout prix_, have not been sufficiently
contradicted by any overt acts.” But Lord Aberdeen was instinctively
against the war into which, as Lord Clarendon afterwards said, England
had drifted, and Lord Clarendon, who had become Foreign Secretary,
agreed with Lord Aberdeen.
It must be remembered that the Emperor Nicholas was thoroughly convinced
that England, and especially England under the guidance of Lord
Aberdeen, would not allow herself to be driven into war. He read the
speeches in the House of Commons, and probably counted even the votes.
To the English money-making commercial mind, war he conceived to be of
all things the most antipathetic. Looking forward as well as his
intellect would allow him, he thought he saw that the British power was
in her decline. Sir Stratford Canning and Lord Palmerston he had always
hated. They were two special foes; but they were only two. All England,
with her bales of cotton, would certainly not go to war. Such was the
conviction of the Emperor Nicholas. And, since Lord Aberdeen had come
into power at the preceding Christmas, such also had been the tendency
of the English Prime Minister’s mind. But the will of Lord
Palmerston,--and the will also of the Emperor of the French,--had been
stronger than that of Lord Aberdeen. Very much in compliance with
Palmerston’s instructions, the two fleets did pass up the Dardanelles on
the 14th of October, and were brought to an anchor immediately off
Constantinople. The two Lords in the English Cabinet were still hardly
acting in concert, though Lord Aberdeen’s nature was so gracious as to
make actual opposition to his colleague almost impossible. He, too, had
at his back the Prince Consort, who, though he agreed to war under
certain circumstances, was not of one mind with Lord Palmerston as to
what those circumstances were.[K] Lord Palmerston defines his ideas in
the following words; “We passed the Rubicon when we first took part with
Turkey, and sent our squadrons to support her; and when England and
France have once taken a third Power by the hand, that third Power must
be carried in safety through the difficulties in which it may be
involved. England and France cannot afford to be baffled, and whatever
measures may be necessary on their part to baffle their opponent, those
measures must be adopted; and the Governments of the two most powerful
countries on the face of the earth must not be frightened, either by
words or things, either by the name or by the reality of war.” That was
dated on the 1st of November, hardly a clear month before Sinope, and
indicates what were then his intentions.
When the fleets had passed up the Dardanelles, the anger of Nicholas was
very great. He had never thought that by crossing the Pruth he had given
a _casus belli_; and as without such provocation the passage of the
fleets up to Constantinople would have been an infraction of a
well-understood treaty, he considered himself to have been grossly
insulted and misused. Was it the fact that these English did intend to
fight him? He was a Sovereign who had made awful preparations for war,
and he was aware that the English army was, in these latter days, always
maintained on a peace-footing,--what to him must have appeared a cheap
and nasty military arrangement. If these English attempted to follow up
their fleet, he would let them feel the weight of his right hand. But it
was incumbent on him, at any rate, to punish the Turks. Therefore he
sent his own fleet out from Sebastopol, and arranged matters for Sinope.
The reader must remember that during this time Lord Palmerston was
Secretary of State for Home Affairs, and was by no means specially
called upon to attend to this Russo-Turkish question. He had his smoke
and his cemeteries, and his factories and his law courts, to look
after.