THE POLES--FRANKLIN--ROSS--NORDENSKIOLD--NANSEN
Almost the whole of the explorations which we have hitherto described
or referred to had for their motive some practical purpose, whether
to reach the Spice Islands or to hunt big game. Even the excursions
of Davis, Frobisher, Hudson, and Baffin in pursuit of the north-west
passage, and of Barentz and Chancellor in search of the north-east
passage, were really in pursuit of mercantile ends. It is only with
James Cook that the era of purely scientific exploration begins,
though it is fair to qualify this statement by observing that the
Russian expedition under Behring, already referred to, was ordered
by Peter the Great to determine a strictly geographical problem,
though doubtless it had its bearings on Russian ambitions. Behring
and Cook between them, as we have seen, settled the problem of the
relations existing between the ends of the two continents Asia
and America, but what remained still to the north of _terra firma_
within the Arctic Circle? That was the problem which the nineteenth
century set itself to solve, and has very nearly succeeded in the
solution. For the Arctic Circle we now possess maps that only show
blanks over a few thousand square miles.
This knowledge has been gained by slow degrees, and by the exercise
of the most heroic courage and endurance. It is a heroic tate, in
which love of adventure and zeal for science have combated with
and conquered the horrors of an Arctic winter, the six months'
darkness in silence and desolation, the excessive cold, and the
dangers of starvation. It is impossible here to go into any of
the details which rendered the tale of Arctic voyages one of the
most stirring in human history. All we are concerned with here is
the amount of new knowledge brought back by successive expeditions
within the Arctic Circle.
This region of the earth's surface is distinguished by a number
of large islands in the eastern hemisphere, most of which were
discovered at an early date. We have seen how the Norsemen landed
and settled upon Greenland as early as the tenth century. Burrough
sighted Nova Zembla in 1556; in one of the voyages in search of the
north-east passage, though the very name (Russian for Newfoundland)
implies that it had previously been sighted and named by Russian
seamen. Barentz is credited with having sighted Spitzbergen. The
numerous islands to the north of Siberia became known through the
Russian investigations of Discheneff, Behring, and their followers;
while the intricate network of islands to the north of the continent
of North America had been slowly worked out during the search for the
north-west passage. It was indeed in pursuit of this will-of-the-wisp
that most of the discoveries in the Arctic Circle were made, and
a general impetus given to Arctic exploration.
It is with a renewed attempt after this search that the modern history
of Arctic exploration begins. In 1818 two expeditions were sent under
the influence of Sir Joseph Banks to search the north-west passage,
and to attempt to reach the Pole. The former was the objective of
John Ross in the _Isabella_ and W. E. Parry in the _Alexander_,
while in the Polar exploration John Franklin sailed in the _Trent_.
Both expeditions were unsuccessful, though Ross and Parry confirmed
Baffin's discoveries. Notwithstanding this, two expeditions were
sent two years later to attempt the north-west passage, one by land
under Franklin, and the other by sea under Parry. Parry managed
to get half-way across the top of North America, discovered the
archipelago named after him, and reached 114° West longitude, thereby
gaining the prize of £5000 given by the British Parliament for
the first seaman that sailed west of the 110th meridian. He was
brought up, however, by Banks Land, while the strait which, if he
had known it, would have enabled him to complete the north-west
passage, was at that time closed by ice. In two successive voyages,
in 1822 and 1824, Parry increased the detailed knowledge of the
coasts he had already discovered, but failed to reach even as far
westward as he had done on his first voyage. This somewhat discouraged
Government attempts at exploration, and the next expedition, in
1829, was fitted out by Mr. Felix Booth, sheriff of London, who
despatched the paddle steamer _Victory_, commanded by John Ross.
He discovered the land known as Boothia Felix, and his nephew,
James C. Ross, proved that it belonged to the mainland of America,
which he coasted along by land to Cape Franklin, besides determining
the exact position of the North Magnetic Pole at Cape Adelaide, on
Boothia Felix. After passing five years within the Arctic Circle,
Ross and his companions, who had been compelled to abandon the
_Victory_, fell in with a whaler, which brought them home.
We must now revert to Franklin, who, as we have seen, had been
despatched by the Admiralty to outline the north coast of America,
only two points of which had been determined, the embouchures of
the Coppermine and the Mackenzie, discovered respectively by Hearne
and Mackenzie. It was not till 1821 that Franklin was able to start
out from the mouth of the Coppermine eastward in two canoes, by
which he coasted along till he came to the point named by him Point
Turn-again. By that time only three days' stores of pemmican remained,
and it was only with the greatest difficulty, and by subsisting
on lichens and scraps of roasted leather, that they managed to
return to their base of operations at Fort Enterprise. Four years
later, in 1825, Franklin set out on another exploring expedition
with the same object, starting this time from the mouth of the
Mackenzie river, and despatching one of his companions, Richardson,
to connect the coast between the Mackenzie and the Coppermine; while
he himself proceeded westward to meet the Blossom, which, under
Captain Beechey, had been despatched to Behring Strait to bring his
party back. Richardson was entirely successful in examining the
coast-line between the Mackenzie and the Coppermine; but Beechey,
though he succeeded in rounding Icy Cape and tracing the coast as
far as Point Barrow, did not come up to Franklin, who had only
got within 160 miles at Return Reef. These 160 miles, as well as
the 222 miles intervening between Cape Turn-again, Franklin's
easternmost point by land, and Cape Franklin, J. C. Ross's most
westerly point, were afterwards filled in by T. Simpson in 1837,
after a coasting voyage in boats of 1408 miles, which stands as a
record even to this day. Meanwhile the Great Fish River had been
discovered and followed to its mouth by C. J. Back in 1833. During
the voyage down the river, an oar broke while the boat was shooting
a rapid, and one of the party commenced praying in a loud voice;
whereupon the leader called out: "Is this a time for praying? Pull
your starboard oar!"
Meanwhile, interest had been excited rather more towards the South
Pole, and the land of which Cook had found traces in his search
for the fabled Australian continent surrounding it. He had reached
as far south as 71.10°, when he was brought up by the great ice
barrier. In 1820-23 Weddell visited the South Shetlands, south of
Cape Horn, and found an active volcano, even amidst the extreme
cold of that district. He reached as far south as 74°, but failed
to come across land in that district. In 1839 Bellany discovered
the islands named after him, with a volcano twelve thousand feet
high, and another still active on Buckle Island. In 1839 a French
expedition under Dumont d'Urville again visited and explored the
South Shetlands; while, in the following year, Captain Wilkes, of
the United States navy, discovered the land named after him. But
the most remarkable discovery made in Antarctica was that of Sir
J. C. Ross, who had been sent by the Admiralty in 1840 to identify
the South Magnetic Pole, as we have seen he had discovered that of
the north. With the two ships _Erebus_ and _Terror_ he discovered
Victoria Land and the two active volcanoes named after his ships,
and pouring forth flaming lava, amidst the snow. In January 1842
he reached farthest south, 76°. Since his time little has been
attempted in the south, though in the winter of 1894-95 C. E.
Borchgrevink again visited Victoria Land.
[Illustration: NORTH POLAR REGION--WESTERN HALF.]
On the return of the _Erebus_ and _Terror_ from the South Seas the
government placed these two vessels at the disposal of Franklin
(who had been knighted for his previous discoveries), and on the
26th of May 1845 he started with one hundred and twenty-nine souls
on board the two vessels, which were provisioned up to July 1848.
They were last seen by a whaler on the 26th July of the former
year waiting to pass into Lancaster Sound. After penetrating as
far north as 77°, through Wellington Channel, Franklin was obliged
to winter upon Beechey Island, and in the following year (September
1846) his two ships were beset in Victoria Strait, about twelve
miles from King William Land. Curiously enough, in the following
year (1847) J. Rae had been despatched by land from Cape Repulse
in Hudson's Bay, and had coasted along the east coast of Boothia,
thus connecting Ross's and Franklin's coast journeys with Hudson's
Bay. On 18th April 1847 Rae had reached a point on Boothia less
than 150 miles from Franklin on the other side of it. Less than
two months later, on the 11th June, Franklin died on the _Erebus_.
His ships were only provisioned to July 1848, and remained still
beset throughout the whole of 1847. Crozier, upon whom the command
devolved, left the ship with one hundred and five survivors to
try and reach Back's Fish River. They struggled along the west
coast of King William Land, but failed to reach their destination;
disease, and even starvation, gradually lessened their numbers.
An old Eskimo woman, who had watched the melancholy procession,
afterwards told M'Clintock they fell down and died as they walked.
By this time considerable anxiety had been roused by the absence of
any news from Franklin's party. Richardson and Rae were despatched
by land in 1848, while two ships were sent on the attempt to reach
Franklin through Behring Strait, and two others, the _Investigator_
and the _Enterprise_, under J. C. Ross, through Baffin Bay. Rae
reached the east coast of Victoria Land, and arrived within fifty
miles of the spot where Franklin's two ships had been abandoned;
but it was not till his second expedition by land, which started
in 1853, that he obtained any news. After wintering at Lady Pelly
Bay, on the 20th April 1854 Rae met a young Eskimo, who told him
that four years previously forty white men had been seen dragging
a boat to the south on the west shore of King William Land, and a
few months later the bodies of thirty of these men had been found
by the Eskimo, who produced silver with the Franklin crest to confirm
the truth of their statement. Further searches by land were continued
up to as late as 1879, when Lieutenant F. Schwatka, of the United
States army, discovered several of the graves and skeletons of
the Franklin expedition.
Neither of the two attempts by sea from the Atlantic or from the
Pacific base, in 1848, having succeeded in gaining any news, the
_Enterprise_ and the _Investigator_, which had previously attempted
to reach Franklin from the east, were despatched in 1850, under
Captain R. Collinson and Captain M'Clure; to attempt the search from
the west through Behring Strait. M'Clure, in the _Investigator_,
did not wait for Collinson, as he had been directed, but pushed on
and discovered Banks Land, and became beset in the ice in Prince of
Wales Strait. In the winter of 1850-51 he endeavoured unsuccessfully
to work his way from this strait into Parry Sound, but in August
and September 1851 managed to coast round Banks Land to its most
north-westerly point, and then succeeded in passing through the
strait named after M'Clure, and reached Barrow Strait, thus performing
for the first time the north-west passage, though it was not till
1853 that the _Investigator_ was abandoned. Collinson, in the
_Enterprise_, followed M'Clure closely, though never reaching him,
and attempting to round Prince Albert Land by the south through
Dolphin Strait, reached Cambridge Bay at the nearest point by ship
of all the Franklin expeditions. He had to return westward, and
only reached England in 1855, after an absence of five years and
four months.
From the east no less than ten vessels had attempted the Franklin
sea search in 1851, comprising two Admiralty expeditions, one private
English one, an American combined government and private party,
together with a ship put in commission by the wifely devotion of
Lady Franklin. These all attempted the search of Lancaster Sound,
where Franklin had last been seen, and they only succeeded in finding
three graves of men who had died at an early stage, and had been
buried on Beechey Island. Another set of four vessels were despatched
under Sir Edward Belcher in 1852, who were fortunate enough to
reach M'Clure in the _Investigator_ in the following year, and
enabled him to complete the north-west passage, for which he gained
the reward of £10,000 offered by Parliament in 1763. But Belcher was
obliged to abandon most of his vessels, one of which, the _Resolute_,
drifted over a thousand miles, and having been recovered by an
American whaler, was refitted by the United States and presented
to the queen and people of Great Britain.
Notwithstanding all these efforts, the Franklin remains have not
yet been discovered, though Dr. Rae, as we have seen, had practically
ascertained their terrible fate. Lady Franklin, however, was not
satisfied with this vague information. She was determined to fit
out still another expedition, though already over £35,000 had been
spent by private means, mostly from her own personal fortune; and
in 1857 the steam yacht _Fox_ was despatched under M'Clintock,
who had already shown himself the most capable master of sledge
work. He erected a monument to the Franklin expedition on Beechey
Island in 1858, and then following Peel Sound, he made inquiries
of the natives throughout the winter of 1858-59. This led him to
search King William Land, where, on the 25th May, he came across
a bleached human skeleton lying on its face, showing that the man
had died as he walked. Meanwhile, Hobson, one of his companions,
discovered a record of the Franklin expedition, stating briefly its
history between 1845 and 1848; and with this definite information
of the fate of the Franklin expedition M'Clintock returned to England
in 1859, having succeeded in solving the problem of Franklin's fate,
while exploring over 800 miles of coast-line in the neighbourhood
of King William Land.
The result of the various Franklin expeditions had thus been to
map out the intricate network of islands dotted over the north of
North America. None of these, however, reached much farther north
than 75°.
Only Smith Sound promised to lead north of the 80th parallel. This
had been discovered as early as 1616 by Baffin, whose farthest
north was only exceeded by forty miles, in 1852, by Inglefield in
the _Isabel_, one of the ships despatched in search of Franklin.
He was followed up by Kane in the _Advance_, fitted out in 1853 by
the munificence of two American citizens, Grinnell and Peabody. Kane
worked his way right through Smith Sound and Robeson Channel into
the sea named after him. For two years he continued investigating
Grinnell Land and the adjacent shores of Greenland. Subsequent
investigations by Hayes in 1860, and Hall ten years later, kept
alive the interest in Smith Sound and its neighbourhood; and in
1873 three ships were despatched under Captain (afterwards Sir
George) Nares, who nearly completed the survey of Grinnell Land,
and one of his lieutenants, Pelham Aldrich, succeeded in reaching
82.48° N. About the same time, an Austrian expedition under Payer
and Weyprecht explored the highest known land, much to the east,
named by them Franz Josef Land, after the Austrian Emperor.
[Illustration: NORTH POLAR REGION--EASTERN HALF.]
Simultaneously interest in the northern regions was aroused by
the successful exploit of the north-east passage by Professor
(afterwards Baron) Nordenskiold, who had made seven or eight voyages
in Arctic regions between 1858 and 1870. He first established the
possibility of passing from Norway to the mouth of the Yenesei
in the summer, making two journeys in 1875-76. These have since
been followed up for commercial purposes by Captain Wiggins, who
has frequently passed from England to the mouth of the Yenesei in
a merchant vessel. As Siberia develops there can be little doubt
that this route will become of increasing commercial importance.
Professor Nordenskiold, however, encouraged by his easy passage
to the Yenesei, determined to try to get round into Behring Strait
from that point, and in 1878 he started in the _Vega_, accompanied
by the _Lena_, and a collier to supply them with coal. On the 19th
August they passed Cape Chelyuskin, the most northerly point of the
Old World. From here the _Lena_ appropriately turned its course
to the mouth of its namesake, while the _Vega_ proceeded on her
course, reaching on the 12th September Cape North, within 120 miles
of Behring Strait; this cape Cook had reached from the east in 1778.
Unfortunately the ice became packed so closely that they could
not proceed farther, and they had to remain in this tantalising
condition for no less than ten months. On the 18th July 1879 the
ice broke up, and two days later the _Vega_ rounded East Cape with
flying colours, saluting the easternmost coast of Asia in honour
of the completion of the north-east passage. Baron Nordenskiold
has since enjoyed a well-earned leisure from his arduous labours
in the north by studying and publishing the history of early
cartography, on which he has issued two valuable atlases, containing
fac-similes of the maps and charts of the Middle Ages.
General interest thus re-aroused in Arctic exploration brought about
a united effort of all the civilised nations to investigate the
conditions of the Polar regions. An international Polar Conference
was held at Hamburg in 1879, at which it was determined to surround
the North Pole for the years 1882-83 by stations of scientific
observation, intended to study the conditions of the Polar Ocean. No
less than fifteen expeditions were sent forth; some to the Antarctic
regions, but most of them round the North Pole. Their object was
more to subserve the interest of physical geography than to promote
the interest of geographical discovery; but one of the expeditions,
that of the United States under Lieutenant A. W. Greely, again took
up the study of Smith Sound and its outlets, and one of his men,
Lieutenant Lockwood, succeeded in reaching 83.24° N., within 450
miles of the Pole, and up to that time the farthest north reached
by any human being. The Greely expedition also succeeded in showing
that Greenland was not so much ice-capped as ice-surrounded.
Hitherto the universal method by which discoveries had been made
in the Polar regions was to establish a base at which sufficient
food was cached, then to push in any required direction as far as
possible, leaving successive caches to be returned to when provisions
fell short on the forward journey. But in 1888, Dr. Fridjof Nansen
determined on a bolder method of investigating the interior of
Greenland. He was deposited upon the east coast, where there were
no inhabitants, and started to cross Greenland, his life depending
upon the success of his journey, since he left no reserves in the
rear and it would be useless to return. He succeeded brilliantly
in his attempt, and his exploit was followed up by two successive
attempts of Lieutenant Peary in 1892-95, who succeeded in crossing
Greenland at much higher latitude even than Nansen.
[Illustration: CLIMBING THE NORTH POLE]
The success of his bold plan encouraged Dr. Nansen to attempt an
even bolder one. He had become convinced, from the investigations
conducted by the international Polar observations of 1882-83, that
there was a continuous drift of the ice across the Arctic Ocean from
the north-east shore of Siberia. He was confirmed in this opinion, by
the fact that debris from the _Jeannette_, a ship abandoned in 1881
off the Siberian coast, drifted across to the east coast of Greenland
by 1884. He had a vessel built for him, the now-renowned _Fram_,
especially intended to resist the pressure of the ice. Hitherto it
had been the chief aim of Arctic explorations to avoid besetment,
and to try and creep round the land shores. Dr. Nansen was convinced
that he could best attain his ends by boldly disregarding these
canons and trusting to the drift of the ice to carry him near to
the Pole. He reckoned that the drift would take some three years,
and provisioned the _Fram_ for five. The results of his venturous
voyage confirmed in almost every particular his remarkable plan,
though it was much scouted in many quarters when first announced.
The drift of the ice carried him across the Polar Sea within the
three years he had fixed upon for the probable duration of his
journey; but finding that the drift would not carry him far enough
north, he left the _Fram_ with a companion, and advanced straight
towards the Pole, reaching in April 1895 farthest north, 86.14°,
within nearly 200 miles of the Pole. On his return journey he was
lucky enough to come across Mr. F. Jackson, who in the _Windward_
had established himself in 1894 in Franz Josef Land. The rencontre
of the two intrepid explorers forms an apt parallel of the celebrated
encounter of Stanley and Livingstone, amidst entirely opposite
conditions of climate.
Nansen's voyage is for the present the final achievement of Arctic
exploration, but his Greenland method of deserting his base has
been followed by Andrée, who in the autumn of 1897 started in a
balloon for the Pole, provisioned for a long stay in the Arctic
regions. Nothing has been heard of him for the last twelve months,
but after the example of Dr. Nansen there is no reason to fear
just at present for his safety, and the present year may possibly
see his return after a successful carrying out of one of the great
aims of geographical discovery. It is curious that the attention of
the world should be at the present moment directed to the Arctic
regions for the two most opposite motives that can be named, lust
for gold and the thirst for knowledge and honour.
[_Authorities:_ Greely, _Handbook of Arctic Discoveries_, 1896.]
ANNALS OF DISCOVERY
B.C.
_cir._ 600. Marseilles founded.
570. Anaximander of Miletus invents maps and the gnomon.
501. Hecatæus of Miletus writes the first geography.
450. Himilco the Carthaginian said to have visited Britain.
446. Herodotus describes Egypt and Scythia.
_cir._ 450. Hanno the Carthaginian sails down the west coast of
Africa as far as Sierra Leone.
_cir._ 333. Pytheas visits Britain and the Low Countries.
332. Alexander conquers Persia and visits India.
330. Nearchus sails from the Indus to the Arabian Gulf.
_cir._ 300. Megasthenes describes the Punjab.
_cir._ 200. Eratosthenes founds scientific geography.
100. Marinus of Tyre, founder of mathematical geography.
60-54. Cæsar conquers Gaul; visits Britain, Switzerland, and Germany.
20. Strabo describes the Roman Empire. First mention of Thule
and Ireland.
_bef._ 12. Agrippa compiles a _Mappa Mundi_, the foundation of
all succeeding ones.
A.D.
150. Ptolemy publishes his geography.
230. The Peutinger Table pictures the Roman roads.
400-14. Fa-hien travels through and describes Afghanistan and India.
499. Hoei-Sin said to have visited the kingdom of Fu-sang, 20,000
furlongs east of China (identified by some with California).
518-21. Hoei-Sing and Sung-Yun visit and describe the Pamirs and the
Punjab.
540. Cosmas Indicopleustes visits India, and combats the sphericity
of the globe.
629-46. Hiouen-Tshang travels through Turkestan, Afghanistan, India,
and the Pamirs.
671-95. I-tsing travels through and describes Java, Sumatra, and India.
776. The _Mappa Mundi_ of Beatus.
851-916. Suláimán and Abu Zaid visit China.
861. Naddod discovers Iceland.
884. Ibn Khordadbeh describes the trade routes between Europe and
Asia.
_cir._ 890. Wulfstan and athere sail to the Baltic and the North Cape.
_cir._ 900. Gunbiörn discovers Greenland.
912-30. The geographer Mas'udi describes the lands of Islam, from
Spain to Further India, in his "Meadows of Gold."
921. Ahmed Ibn Fozlan describes the Russians.
969. Ibn Haukal composes his book on Ways.
985. Eric the Red colonises Greenland.
_cir._1000. Lyef, son of Eric the Red, discovers Newfoundland
(Helluland), Nova Scotia (Markland), and the mainland of
North America (Vinland).
1111. Earliest use of the water-compass by Chinese.
1154. Edrisi, geographer to King Roger of Sicily, produces his
geography.
1159-73. Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela visited the Persian Gulf; reported
on India.
_cir._1180. The compass first mentioned by Alexander Neckam.
1255. William Ruysbroek (Rubruquis), a Fleming, visits Karakorum.
1260-71. The brothers Nicolo and Maffeo Polo, father and uncle of Marco
Polo, make their first trading venture through Central Asia.
1271-95. They make their second journey, accompanied by Marco Polo;
and about 1275 arrived at the Court of Kublai Khan in Shangfu,
whence Marco Polo was entrusted with several missions to
Cochin China, Khanbalig (Pekin), and the Indian Seas.
1280. Hereford map of Richard of Haldingham.
1284. The Ebstorf _Mappa Mundi_.
_bef._1290. The normal Portulano compiled in Barcelona.
1292. Friar John of Monte Corvino, travels in India, and
afterwards becomes Archbishop of Pekin.
1325-78. Ibn Batuta, an Arab of Tangier, after performing the Mecca
pilgrimage through N. Africa, visits Syria, Quiloa (E. Africa),
Ormuz, S. Russia, Bulgaria, Khiva, Candahar, and attached
himself to the Court of Delhi, 1334-42, whence he was
despatched on an embassy to China. After his return he visited
Timbuctoo.
1316-30. Odorico di Pordenone, a Minorite friar, travelled through
India, by way of Persia, Bombay, and Surat, to Malabar, the
Coromandel coast, and thence to China and Tibet.
1320. Flavio Gioja of Amalfi invents the compass box and card.
1312-31. Abulfeda composes his geography.
1327-72. Sir John Mandeville said to have written his travels in India.
1328. Friar Jordanus of Severac. Bishop of Quilon.
1328-49. John de Marignolli, a Franciscan friar, made a mission to
China, visited Quilon in 1347, and made a pilgrimage to the
shrine of St. Thomas in India in 1349.
1339. Angelico Dulcert of Majorca draws a Portulano.
1351. The Medicean Portulano compiled.
1375. Cresquez, the Jew, of Majorca, improves Dulcert's Portulano
(Catalan map).
_cir._1400. Jehan Bethencourt re-discovers the Canaries.
1419. Prince Henry the Navigator establishes a geographical seminary
at Sagres (died 1460).
1419-40. Nicolo Conti, a noble Venetian, travelled throughout Southern
India and along the Bombay coast.
1420. Zarco discovers Madeira.
1432. Gonsalo Cabral re-discovers the Azores.
1442. Nuño Tristão reaches Cape de Verde.
1442-44. Abd-ur-Razzak, during an embassy to India, visited Calicut,
Mangalore, and Vijayanagar.
1457. Fra Mauro's map.
1462. Pedro de Cintra reaches Sierra Leone.
1468-74. Athanasius Nikitin, a Russian, travelled from the Volga,
through Central Asia and Persia, to Gujerat, Cambay, and Chaul,
whence he proceeded inland to Bidar and Golconda.
1471. Fernando Poo discovers his island.
1471. Pedro d'Escobar crosses the line.
1474. Toscanelli's map (foundation of Behaim globe and Columbus'
guide).
1478. Second printed edition of Ptolemy, with twenty-seven
maps--practically the first atlas.
1484. Diego Cam discovers the Congo.
1486. Bartholomew Diaz rounds the Cape of Good Hope.
1487. Pedro de Covilham visits Ormuz, Goa, and Malabar, and
afterwards settled in Abyssinia.
1492. Martin Behaim makes his globe.
1492. 6th September. Columbus starts from the Canaries.
1492. 12th October. Columbus lands at San Salvador (Watling Island).
1493. 3rd May. Bull of partition between Spain and Portugal issued
by Pope Alexander VI.
1493. September. Columbus on his second voyage discovers Jamaica.
1494-99. Hieronimo di Santo Stefano, a Genoese, visited Malabar and
the Coromandel coast, Ceylon and Pegu.
1497. Vasco da Gama rounds the Cape, sees Natal (Christmas Day) and
Mozambique, lands at Zanzibar, and crosses to Calicut.
1497. John Cabot re-discovers Newfoundland.
1498. Columbus on his third voyage discovers Trinidad and the
Orinoco.
1499. Amerigo Vespucci discovers Venezuela.
1499. Pinzon discovers mouth of Amazon, and doubles Cape St. Roque.
1500. Pedro Cabral discovers Brazil on his way to Calicut.
1500. First map of the New World, by Juan de la Cosa.
1500. Corte Real lands at mouth of St. Lawrence, and re-discovers
Labrador.
1501. Vespucci coasts down S. America and proves that it is a New
World.
1501. Tristan d'Acunha discovers his island.
1501. Juan di Nova discovers the island of Ascension.
1502. Bermudez discovers his islands.
1502-4. Columbus on his fourth voyage explores Honduras.
1503-8. Travels of Ludovico di Varthema in Further India.
1505. Mascarenhas discovers the islands of Bourbon and Mauritius.
1507. Martin Waldseemüller proposes to call the New World America
in his _Cosmographia_.
1509. Malacca visited by Lopes di Sequira.
1512. Molucca, or Spice Islands, visited by Francisco Serrão.
1513. Strasburg Ptolemy contains twenty new maps by Waldseemüller,
forming the first modern atlas.
1513. Ponce de Leon discovers Florida.
1513. Vasco Nuñez de Balbao crosses the Isthmus of Panama, and sees
the Pacific.
1517. Sebastian Cabot said to have discovered Hudson's Bay.
1517. Juan Diaz de Solis discovers the Rio de la Plata, and is
murdered on the island of Martin Garcia.
1518. Grijalva discovers Mexico.
1519. Fernando Cortez conquers Mexico.
1519. Fernando Magellan starts on the circumnavigation of the globe.
1519. Guray explores north coast of Gulf of Mexico.
1520. Schoner's second globe.
1520. Magellan sees Monte Video, discovers Patagonia and Tierra del
Fuego, and traverses the Pacific.
1520-26. Alvarez explores the Soudan.
1521. Magellan discovers the Ladrones (Marianas), and is killed on
the Philippines.
1522. Magellan's ship _Victoria_, under Sebastian del Cano,
reaches Spain, having circumnavigated the globe in three years.
1524. Verazzano, on behalf of the French King, coasts from Cape Fear
to New Hampshire.
1527. Saavedra sails from west coast of Mexico to the Moluccas.
1529. Line of demarcation between Spanish and Portuguese fixed at
17° east of Moluccas.
1531. Francisco Pizarro conquers Peru.
1532. Cortez visits California.
1534. Jacques Cartier explores the gull and river of St. Lawrence.
1535. Diego d'Almagro conquers Chili.
1536. Gonsalo Pizarro passes the Andes.
1537-58. Ferdinand Mendez Pinto travels to Abyssinia, India, the Malay
Archipelago, China, and Japan.
1538. Gerhardt Mercator begins his career as geographer. (Globe,
1541; projection, 1569; died 1594; atlas, 1595).
1539. Francesco de Ulloa explores the Gulf of California.
1541. Orellana sails down the Amazon.
1542. Ruy Lopez de Villalobos discovers New Philippines, Garden
Islands, and Pelew Islands, and takes possession of the
Philippines for Spain.
1542. Cabrillo advances as far as Cape Mendocino.
1542. Japan first visited by Antonio de Mota.
1542. Gaetano sees the Sandwich Islands.
1543. Ortez de Retis discovers New Guinea.
1544. Sebastian Munster's _Cosmographia_.
1549. Bareto and Homera explore the lower Zambesi.
1553. Sir Hugh Willoughby attempts the North-East Passage past North
Cape, and sights Novaya Zemlya.
1554. Richard Chancellor, Willoughby's pilot, reaches Archangel, and
travels overland to Moscow.
1556-72. Antonio Laperis' atlas published at Rome.
1558. Anthony Jenkinson travels from Moscow to Bokhara.
1567. Alvaro Mendaña discovers Solomon Islands.
1572. Juan Fernandez discovers his island, and St. Felix and St.
Ambrose Islands.
1573. Abraham Ortelius' _Teatrum Orbis Terrarum_.
1576. Martin Frobisher discovers his bay.
1577-79. Francis Drake circumnavigates the globe, and explores the west
coast of North America.
1579. Yermak Timovief seizes Sibir on the Irtish.
1580. Dutch settle in Guiana.
1586. John Davis sails through his strait, and reaches lat. 72° N.
1590. Battel visits the lower Congo.
1592. The Molyneux globe.
1592. Juan de Fuca imagines he has discovered an immense sea in the
north-west of North America.
1596. William Barentz discovers Spitzbergen, and reaches lat. 80° N.
1596. Payz traverses the Horn of Africa, and visits the source of
the Blue Nile.
1598. Mendaña discovers Marquesas Islands.
1598. Hakluyt publishes his _Principal Navigations_.
1599. Houtman reaches Achin, in Sumatra.
1603. Stephen Bennett re-discovers Cherry Island, 74.13° N.
1605. Louis Vaes de Torres discovers his strait.
1606. Quiros discovers Tahiti and north-east coast of Australia.
1608. Champlain discovers Lake Ontario.
1609. Henry Hudson discovers his river.
1610. Hudson passes through his strait into his bay.
1611. Jan Mayen discovers his island.
1615. Lemaire rounds Cape Horn (Hoorn), and sees New Britain.
1616. Dirk Hartog coasts West Australia to 27° S.
1616. Baffin discovers his bay.
1618. George Thompson, a Barbary merchant, sails up the Gambia.
1619. Edel and Houtman coast Western Australia to 32-1/2° S.
(Edel's Land).
1622. Dutch ship _Leeuwin_ reaches south-west cape of Australia.
1623. Lobo explores Abyssinia.
1627. Peter Nuyts discovers his archipelago.
1630. First meridian of longitude fixed at Ferro, in the Canary
Islands.
1631. Fox explores Hudson's Bay.
1638. W. J. Blaeu's _Atlas_.
1639. Kupiloff crosses Siberia to the east coast.
1642. Abel Jansen Tasman discovers Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) and
Staaten Land (New Zealand).
1642. Wasilei Pojarkof traces the course of the Amur.
1643. Hendrik Brouwer identifies New Zealand.
1643. Tasman discovers Fiji.
1645. Michael Staduchin reaches the Kolima.
1645. Nicolas Sanson's atlas.
1645. Italian Capuchin Mission explores the lower Congo.
1648. The Cossack Dishinef sails between Asia and America.
1650. Staduchin reaches the Anadir, and meets Dishinef.
1682. La Salle descends the Mississippi.
1696. Russians reach Kamtschatka.
1699. Dampier discovers his strait.
1700. Delisle's maps.
1701. Sinpopoff describes the land of the Tschutkis.
1718. Jesuit map of China and East Asia published by the Emperor
Kang-hi.
1721. Hans Egédé re-settles Greenland.
1731. Hadley invented the sextant.
1731. Krupishef sails round Kamtschatka.
1731. Paulutski travels round the north-east corner of Siberia.
1735-37. Maupertuis measures an arc of the meridian.
1739-44. Lord George Anson circumnavigates the globe.
1740. Varenne de la Véranderye discovers the Rocky Mountains.
1741. Behring discovers his strait.
1742. Chelyuskin discovers his cape.
1743-44. La Condamine explores the Amazon.
1745-61. Bourguignon d'Anville produces his maps.
1761-67. Carsten Niebuhr surveys Arabia.
1764. John Byron surveys the Falkland Islands.
1765. Harrison perfects the chronometer.
1767. First appearance of the _Nautical Almanac_.
1768. Carteret discovers Pitcairn Island, and sails through St.
George's Channel, between New Britain and New Ireland.
1768-71. Cook's first voyage; discovers New Zealand and east coast
of Australia; passes through Torres Strait.
1769-71. Hearne traces river Coppermine.
1769-71. James Bruce re-discovers the source of the Blue Nile in
Abyssinia.
1770. Liakhoff discovers the New Siberian Islands.
1771-72. Pallas surveys West and South Siberia.
1776-79. Cook's third voyage; surveys North-West Passage; discovers
Owhyhee (Hawaii), where he was killed.
1785-88. La Pérouse surveys north-east coast of Asia and Japan,
discovers Saghalien, and completes delimitation of the ocean.
1785-94. Billings surveys East Siberia.
1787-88. Lesseps surveys Kamtschatka and crosses the Old World from
east to west.
1788. The African Association founded.
1789-93. Mackenzie discovers his river, and first crosses North America.
1792. Vancouver explores his island.
1793. Browne reaches Darfur, and reports the existence of the White
Nile.
1796. Mungo Park reaches the Niger.
1796. Lacerda explores Mozambique.
1797. Bass discovers his strait.
1799-1804. Alexander von Humboldt explores South America.
1800-4. Lewis and Clarke explore the basin of the Missouri.
1801-4. Flinders coasts south coast of Australia.
1805-7. Pike explores the country between the sources of the
Mississippi and the Red River.
1810-29. Malte-Brun publishes his _Géographic Universelle_.
1814. Evans discovers Lachlan and Macquarie rivers.
1816. Captain Smith discovers South Shetland Isles.
1817-20. Spix and Martius explore Brazil.
1817. First edition of Stieler's atlas.
1817-22. Captain King maps the coast-line of Australia.
1819-22. Franklin, Back, and Richardson attempt the North-West Passage
by land.
1819. Parry discovers Lancaster Strait and reaches 114° W.
1820-23. Wrangel discovers his land.
1821. Bellinghausen discovers Peter Island, the most southerly land
then known.
1822. Denham and Clapperton discover Lake Tchad, and visit Sokoto.
1822-23. Scoresby explores the coast of East Greenland.
1823. Weddell reaches 74.15° S.
1826. Major Laing is murdered at Timbuctoo.
1827. Parry reaches 82.45° N.
1827. Réné Caillié visits Timbuctoo.
1828-31. Captain Sturt traces the Darling and the Murray.
1829-33. Ross attempts the North-West Passage; discovers Boothia Felix.
1830. Royal Geographical Society founded, and next year united with
the African Association.
1831-35. Schomburgk explores Guiana.
1831. Captain Biscoe discovers Enderby Land.
1833. Back discovers Great Fish River.
1835-49. Junghuhn explores Java.
1837. T. Simpson coasts along the north mainland of North America
1277 miles.
1838-40. Wood explores the sources of the Oxus.
1838-40. Dumont d'Urvilie discovers Louis-Philippe Land and Adélie Land.
1839. Balleny discovers his island.
1839. Count Strzelecki discovers Gipps' Land.
1840. Captain Sturt travels in Central Australia.
1840-42. James Ross reaches 78.10° S.; discovers Victoria Land, and
the volcanoes Erebus and Terror.
1841. Eyre traverses south of Western Australia.
1842-62. E. F. Jomard's _Monuments de la Géographie_ published.
1843-47. Count Castelnau traces the source of the Paraguay.
1844. Leichhardt explores Southern Australia.
1845. Huc explores Tibet.
1845. Petermann's _Mittheilungen_ first published.
1845-47. Franklin's last voyage.
1846. First edition of K. v. Spruner's _Historische Handatlas_.
1847. J. Rae connects Hudson's Bay with east coast of Boothia.
1848. Leichhardt attempts to traverse Australia, and disappears.
1849-56. Livingstone traces the Zambesi and crosses South Africa.
1850-54. M'Clure succeeds in the North-West Passage.
1850-55. Barth explores the Soudan.
1853. Dr. Kane explores Smith's Sound.
1854. Rae hears news of the Franklin expedition from the Eskimo.
1854-65. Faidherbe explores Senegambia.
1856-57. The brothers Schlagintweit cross the Himalayas, Tibet, and
Kuen Lun.
1856-59. Du Chaillu travels in Central Africa.
1857-59. M'Clintock discovers remains of the Franklin expedition, and
explores King William Land.
1858. Burton and Speke discover Lake Tanganyika, and Speke sees
Lake Victoria Nyanza.
1858-64. Livingstone traces Lake Nyassa.
1859. Valikhanoft reaches Kashgar.
1860. Burke travels from Victoria to Carpentaria.
1860. Grant and Speke, returning from Lake Victoria Nyanza, meet
Baker coming up the Nile.
1861-62. M'Douall Stuart traverses Australia from south to north.
1863. W. G. Palgrave explores Central and Eastern Arabia.
1864. Baker discovers Lake Albert Nyanza.
1868. Nordenskiold reaches his highest point in Greenland, 81.42°.
1868-71. Ney Elias traverses Mid-China.
1868-74. John Forrest penetrates from Western to Central Australia.
1869-71. Schweinfurth explores the Southern Soudan.
1869-74. Nachtigall explores east of Tchad.
1870. Fedchenko discovers Transalai, north of Pamir.
1870. Douglas Forsyth reaches Yarkand.
1871-88. The four explorations of Western China by Prjevalsky.
1872-73. Payer and Weiprecht discover Franz Josef Land.
1872-76. H.M.S. _Challenger_ examines the bed of the ocean.
1872-76. Ernest Giles traverses North-West Australia.
1873. Colonel Warburton traverses Australia from east to west.
1873. Livingstone discovers Lake Moero.
1874-75. Lieut. Cameron crosses equatorial Africa.
1875-94. Élisée Reclus publishes his _Géographie Universelle._
1876. Albert Markham reaches 83.20° N. on the Nares expedition.
1876-77. Stanley traces the course of the Congo.
1878-82. The Pundit Krishna traces the course of the Yangtse, Pekong,
and Brahmaputra.
1878-79. Nordenskiold solves the North-East Passage along the north
coast of Siberia.
1878-84. Joseph Thomson explores East-Central Africa.
1878-85. Serpa Pinto twice crosses Africa.
1879-82. The _Jeannette_ passes through Behring Strait to the
mouth of the Lena.
1880. Leigh Smith surveys south coast of Franz Josef Land.
1880-82. Bonvalot traverses the Pamirs.
1881-87. Wissmann twice crosses Africa, and discovers the left affluents
of the Congo.
1883. Lockwood, on the Greely Mission, reaches 83.23° N., north cape
of Greenland.
1886. Francis Garnier explores the course of the Mekong.
1887. Younghusband travels from Pekin to Kashmir.
1887-89. Stanley conducts the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition across
Africa, and discovers the Pigmies, and the Mountains of the
Moon.
1888. F. Nansen crosses Greenland from east to west.
1888-89. Captain Binger traces the bend of the Niger.
1889. The brothers Grjmailo explore Chinese Turkestan.
1889-90. Bonvalot and Prince Henri d'Orléans traverse Tibet.
1890. Selous and Jameson explore Mashonaland.
1890. Sir W. Macgregor crosses New Guinea.
1891-92. Monteil crosses from Senegal to Tripoli.
1892. Peary proves Greenland an island.
1893. Mr. and Mrs. Littledale travel across Central Asia.
1893-97. Dr. Sven Hedin explores Chinese Turkestan, Tibet, and Mongolia.
1893-97. Dr. Nansen is carried across the Arctic Ocean in the
_Fram_, and advances farthest north (86.14° N.).
1894-95. C. E. Borchgrevink visits Antarctica.
1894-96. Jackson-Harmsworth expedition in Arctic lands.
1896. Captain Bottego explores Somaliland.
1896. Donaldson Smith traces Lake Rudolph.
1896. Prince Henri D'Orleans travels from Tonkin to Moru.
1897. Captain Foa traverses South Africa from S. to N.
1897. D. Carnegie crosses W. Australia from S. to N.
EUROPE.
GREAT BRITAIN.--B.C. 450. Himilco. _Circa_ 333. Pytheas. 60-54.
Cæsar.
FRANCE.--B.C. _circa_ 600. Marseilles founded. 57. Cæsar.
RUSSIA.--A.D. 1554. Richard Chancellor.
BALTIC.--A.D. 890. Wulfstan and Othere.
ICELAND.--A.D. 861. Naddod.
ASIA.
INDIA.--B.C. 332. Alexander. 330. Nearchus. _Circa_ 300. Megasthenes.
A.D. 400-14. Fa-hien. 518-21. Hoei-Sing and Sung-Yun. 540. Cosmas
Indicopleustes. 629-46. Hiouen-Tshang. 671-95. I-tsing. 1159-73.
Benjamin of Tudela. 1304-78. Ibn Batuta. 1327-72. Mandeville. 1328.
Jordanus of Severac. 1328-49. John de Marignolli. 1419-40. Nicolo
Conti. 1442-44. Abd-ur-Razzak. 1468-74. Athanasius Nikitin. 1487.
Pedro de Covilham. 1494-99. Hieronimo di Santo Stefano. 1503-8.
Ludovico di Varthema.
FARTHER INDIA.--A.D. 1503. Ludovico di Varthema. 1509. Lopes di
Sequira. 1886. Francis Garnier.
CHINA.--A.D. 851-916. Suláimán and Abu Zaid. 1292. John of Monte
Corvino. 1316-30. Odorico di Pordenone. 1328-49. John de Marignolli.
1537-58. Ferdinand Mendez Pinto. 1868-71. Ney Elias. 1871-88.
Prjevalsky. 1878-82. Pundit Krishna. 1889. Grjmailo brothers. 1896.
Prince Henri d'Orléans.
JAPAN.--A.D. 1542. Antonio de Mota. 1785-88. La Pérouse.
ARABIA.--A.D. 1761-67. Carsten Niebuhr. 1863. Palgrave.
PERSIA.--B.C. 332. Alexander. A.D. 1468-74. Athanasius Nikitin.
MONGOLIA.--A.D. 1255. Ruysbroek (Rubruquis). 1260-71. Nicolo and
Maffeo Polo. 1271. Marco Polo. 1893-97. Dr. Sven Hedin.
TIBET.--A.D. 1845. Huc. 1856-7. Schlagintweit. 1878. Pundit Krishna.
1887. Younghusband. 1889-90. Bonvalot and Prince Henri d'Orléans.
1893-97. Dr. Sven Hedin.
CENTRAL ASIA.--A.D. 1558. Anthony Jenkinson. 1642. Wasilei Pojarkof.
1838-40. Wood. 1859. Valikhanoff. 1870. Douglas Forsyth. 1870.
Fedchenko. 1880. Bonvalot. 1893. Littledale.
SIBERIA.--A.D. 1579. Timovief. 1639. Kupiloff. 1644-50. Staduchin.
1648. Dshineif. 1701. Sinpopoff. 1731. Paulutski. 1742. Chelyuskin.
1771-72. Pallas. 1785-94. Billings.
KAMTSCHATKA.--A.D. 1696. Russians. 1731. Kru pishef. 1787-88. Lesseps.
AFRICA.
A.D. _circa_ 450. Hanno. 1420. Zarco. 1462. Pedro de Cintra. 1484.
Diego Cam. 1486. Bartholomew Diaz. 1497. Vasco da Gama. 1520. Alvarez.
1549. Bareto and Homera. 1590. Battel. 1596. Payz. 1618. Thompson.
1623. Lobo. 1645. Italian Capuchins. 1769-71. Bruce. 1793. Browne.
1796. Mungo Park. 1796. Lacerda. 1822. Denham and Clapperton. 1826.
Laing. 1827. Réné Caillié. 1849-73. Livingstone. 1850-55. Barth.
1854-65. Faidherbe. 1856-59. Du Chaillu. 1858. Burton and Speke.
1860. Grant and Speke. 1864. Baker. 1869-71. Schweinfurth. 1869-74.
Nachtigall. 1874-75. Cameron. 1876-89. Stanley. 1878-84. Thomson.
1878-85. Serpa Pinto. 1881-87. Wissmann. 1888-89. Binger. 1890.
Selous and Jameson. 1891-92. Monteil. 1896. Bottego. 1896. Donaldson
Smith. 1897. Foa.
NORTH AMERICA.
A.D. 499. Hoei-Sin. _Circa_ 1000. Lyef. 1497, 1517. John and Sebastian
Cabot. 1500. Corte Real. 1513. Ponce de Leon. 1524. Verazzano.
1532. Cortez. 1534. Cartier. 1539. Ulloa. 1542. Cabrillo. 1516.
Frobisher. 1586. Davis. 1592. Juan de Fuca. 1608. Champlain. 1609,
10. Hudson. 1631. Fox. 1682. La Salle. 1740. Varenne de la Véranderye
1741. Behring. 1789-93. Mackenzie. 1792. Vancouver. 1800-4. Lewis
and Clarke. 1805-7. Pike. 1837. Simpson.
SOUTH AMERICA.
A.D. 1498. Columbus. 1499-1501. Amerigo Vespucci. 1499. Pinzon.
1500. Pedro Cabral. 1517. Juan Diaz de Solis. 1519-20. Magellan.
1531. Francisco Pizarro. 1535. D'Almagro. 1536. Gonsalo Pizarro.
1541. Orellana. 1572. Juan Fernandez. 1580. Dutch in Guiana. 1615.
Lemaire. 1743-44. La Condamine. 1764. John Byron. 1799-1804. Humboldt.
1817-20. Spix and Martius. 1831-35. Schomburgk. 1843-47. Castelnau.
CENTRAL AMERICA.
A.D. 1502. Columbus. 1513. Vasco Nuñez de Balbao. 1518. Grijalva.
1519. Fernando Cortez. 1519. Guray.
AUSTRALIA.
A.D. 1605. Torres. 1606. Quiros. 1616. Hartog. 1619. Edel and Houtman.
1622. The _Leeuwin_. 1627. Nuyts. 1699. Dampier. 1770. Cook. 1797.
Bass. 1801-4. Flinders. 1814. Evans. 1817-22. King. 1828-40. Sturt.
1839. Strzelecki. 1841. Eyre. 1844-48. Leichhardt. 1860. Burke.
1861-62. MacDouall Stuart. 1868-74. Forrest. 1872-76. Giles. 1873.
Warburton. 1897. Carnegie.
NEW ZEALAND.
A.D. 1642. Tasman. 1643. Brouwer. 1768-79. Cook.
POLYNESIA.
A.D. 1512. Francisco Serrão. 1520, 21. Magellan. 1527. Saavedra.
1542. Gaetano 1542. Ruy Lopez de Villalobos. 1543. Ortez de Retis.
1567-98. Alvaro Mendaña. 1599. Houtman. 1643. Tasman. 1768. Carteret.
1776-79. Cook. 1835-49. Junghuhn. 1890. Macgregor.
NORTH POLE.
A.D. _circa_ 900. Gunbiörn. 985. Eric the Red. 1553. Willoughby.
1596. Barentz. 1603. Bennett. 1611. Jan Mayen. 1616. Baffin. 1721.
Egédé. 1769-71. Hearne. 1819-22. Franklin, Back, and Richardson.
1819-27. Parry. 1820-23. Wrangel. 1822-23. Scoresby. 1829-33. Ross.
1833. Back. 1845-47. Franklin. 1847-54. Rae. 1850-54. M'Clure.
1853. Kane. 1857-59. M'Clintock. 1868-79. Nordenskiöld. 1872-73.
Payer and Weiprecht. 1876. Markham. 1879-82. The _Jeannette_. 1880.
Leigh Smith. 1883. Lockwood. 1888-97. Nansen. 1892. Peary. 1894-96.
Jackson-Harmsworth expedition.
SOUTH POLE.
A.D. 1816. Capt. Smith. 1821. Bellinghausen. 1823. Weddell. 1831.
Biscoe. 1838-40. Dumont d'Urville. 1839. Balleny. 1840-42. James
Ross. 1894-95. Borchgrevink.
CIRCUMNAVIGATORS.
A.D. 1522. Sebastian del Cano. 1577-79. Drake. 1739-44. Lord George
Anson.
ATLANTIC OCEAN.
A.D. 1400. Jehan Bethencourt. 1432. Cabral. 1442. Nuño Tristão.
1471. Pedro d'Escobar. 1471. Fernando Po. 1492-93. Columbus. 1501.
Juan di Nova. 1501. Tristan d'Acunha. 1502. Bermudez.
INDIAN OCEAN.
A.D. 1505. Mascarenhas.
PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE.
B.C. 570. Anaximander of Miletus. 501. Hecatæus of Miletus. 446.
Herodotus. _Circa_ 200. Eratosthenes. 100. Marinus of Tyre. 20.
Strabo. Before 12. Agrippa. A.D. 150. Ptolemy. 230. Peutinger Table.
776. Beatus. 884. Ibn Khordadbeh. 912-30. Mas'udi. 921. Ahmed Ibn
Fozlan. 969. Ibn Haukal. 1111. Water-compass. 1154. Edrisi. _Circa_
1180. Alexander Neckam. 1280. Hereford map. 1284. Ebstorf map.
1290. The normal Portulano. 1320. Flavio Gioja. 1339. Dulcert.
1351. Medicean Portulano. 1375. Cresquez. 1419. Prince Henry the
Navigator. 1457. Fra Mauro. 1474. Toscanelli. 1478. 2nd ed. Ptolemy.
1492. Behaim. 1500. Juan de la Cosa. 1507-13. Waldseemüller. 1520.
Schoner. 1538. Mercator. 1544. Munster. 1556-72. Laperis. 1573.
Ortelius. 1592. Molyneux globe. 1598. Hakluyt. 1630. Ferro meridian
fixed. 1638. Blaeu. 1645. Sanson. 1700. Delisle. 1718. Jesuit map
of China. 1731. Hadley. 1735-37. Maupertuis. 1745-61. Bourguiguon
d'Anville. 1765. Harrison. 1767. Nautical Almanac. 1788. African
Association. 1810-29. Malte-Brun. 1817. Stieler. 1830. Royal
Geographical Society founded. 1842. Jomard 1845. Petermann. 1846.
Spruner. 1875-94. Élisée Reclus. 1872-76. The _Challenger_.