EXPLORATION AND PARTITION OF AFRICA: PARK--LIVINGSTONE--STANLEY
We have seen how the Portuguese had slowly coasted along the shore
of Africa during the fifteeenth century in search of a way to the
Indies. By the end of the century mariners _portulanos_ gave a
rude yet effective account of the littoral of Africa, both on the
west and the eastern side. Not alone did they explore the coast, but
they settled upon it. At Amina on the Guinea coast, at Loando near
the Congo, and at Benguela on the western coast, they established
stations whence to despatch the gold and ivory, and, above all, the
slaves, which turned out to be the chief African products of use
to Europeans. On the east coast they settled at Sofala, a port of
Mozambique; and in Zanzibar they possessed no less than three ports,
those first visited by Vasco da Gama and afterwards celebrated by
Milton in the sonorous line contained in the gorgeous geographical
excursus in the Eleventh Book--
"Mombaza and Quiloa and Melind."
--_Paradise Lost_, xi. 339.
It is probable that, besides settling on the coast, the Portuguese
from time to time made explorations into the interior. At any rate,
in some maps of the sixteenth and seventeenth century there is
shown a remarkable knowledge of the course of the Nile. We get
it terminated in three large lakes, which can be scarcely other
than the Victoria and Albert Nyanza, and Tanganyika. The Mountains
of the Moon also figure prominently, and it was only almost the
other day that Mr. Stanley re-discovered them. It is difficult,
however, to determine how far these entries on the Portuguese maps
were due to actual knowledge or report, or to the traditions of a
still earlier knowledge of these lakes and mountains; for in the
maps accompanying the early editions of Ptolemy we likewise obtain
the same information, which is repeated by the Arabic geographers,
obviously from Ptolemy, and not from actual observation. When the
two great French cartographers Delisle and D'Anville determined
not to insert anything on their maps for which they had not some
evidence, these lakes and mountains disappeared, and thus it has
come about that maps of the seventeenth century often appear to
display more knowledge of the interior of Africa than those of the
beginning of the nineteenth, at least with regard to the sources
of the Nile.
[Illustration: DAPPER'S MAP OF AFRICA, 1676.]
African exploration of the interior begins with the search for
the sources of the Nile, and has been mainly concluded by the
determination of the course of the three other great rivers, the
Niger, the Zambesi, and the Congo. It is remarkable that all four
rivers have had their course determined by persons of British
nationality. The names of Bruce and Grant will always be associated
with the Nile, that of Mungo Park with the Niger, Dr. Livingstone with
the Zambesi, and Mr. Stanley with the Congo. It is not inappropriate
that, except in the case of the Congo, England should control the
course of the rivers which her sons first made accessible to
civilisation.
We have seen that there was an ancient tradition reported by Herodotus,
that the Nile trended off to the west and became there the river
Niger; while still earlier there was an impression that part of
it at any rate wandered eastward, and some way joined on to the
same source as the Tigris and Euphrates--at least that seems to be
the suggestion in the biblical account of Paradise. Whatever the
reason, the greatest uncertainty existed as to the actual course
of the river, and to discover the source of the Nile was for many
centuries the standing expression for performing the impossible. In
1768, James Bruce, a Scottish gentleman of position, set out with
the determination of solving this mystery--a determination which
he had made in early youth, and carried out with characteristic
pertinacity. He had acquired a certain amount of knowledge of Arabic
and acquaintance with African customs as Consul at Algiers. He went
up the Nile as far as Farsunt, and then crossed the desert to the Red
Sea, went over to Jedda, from which he took ship for Massowah, and
began his search for the sources of the Nile in Abyssinia. He visited
the ruins of Axum, the former capital, and in the neighbourhood of
that place saw the incident with which his travels have always
been associated, in which a couple of rump-steaks were extracted
from a cow while alive, the wound sewn up, and the animal driven
on farther.
Here, guided by some Gallas, he worked his way up the Blue Nile
to the three fountains, which he declared to be the true sources
of the Nile, and identified with the three mysterious lakes in
the old maps. From there he worked his way down the Nile, reaching
Cairo in 1773. Of course what he had discovered was merely the
source of the Blue Nile, and even this had been previously visited
by a Portuguese traveller named Payz. But the interesting adventures
which he experienced, and the interesting style in which he told
them, aroused universal attention, which was perhaps increased
by the fact that his journey was undertaken purely from love of
adventure and discovery. The year 1768 is distinguished by the
two journeys of James Cook and James Bruce, both of them expressly
for purposes of geographical discovery, and thus inaugurating the
era of what may be called scientific exploration. Ten years later
an association was formed named the African Association, expressly
intended to explore the unknown parts of Africa, and the first
geographical society called into existence. In 1795 MUNGO PARK was
despatched by the Association to the west coast. He started from
the Gambia, and after many adventures, in which he was captured
by the Moors, arrived at the banks of the Niger, which he traced
along its middle course, but failed to reach as far as Timbuctoo.
He made a second attempt in 1805, hoping by sailing down the Niger
to prove its identity with the river known at its mouth as the
Congo; but he was forced to return, and died at Boussa, without
having determined the remaining course of the Niger.
Attention was thus drawn to the existence of the mysterious city
of Timbuctoo, of which Mungo Park had brought back curious rumours
on his return from his first journey. This was visited in 1811 by
a British seaman named Adams, who had been wrecked on the Moorish
coast, and taken as a slave by the Moors across to Timbuctoo. He
was ultimately ransomed by the British consul at Mogador, and his
account revived interest in West African exploration. Attempts were
made to penetrate the secret of the Niger, both from Senegambia
and from the Congo, but both were failures, and a fresh method was
adopted, possibly owing to Adams' experience in the attempt to
reach the Niger by the caravan routes across the Sahara. In 1822
Major Denham and Lieutenant Clapperton left Murzouk, the capital
of Fezzan, and made their way to Lake Chad and thence to Bornu.
Clapperton, later on, again visited the Niger from Benin. Altogether
these two travellers added some two thousand miles of route to
our knowledge of, West Africa. In 1826-27 Timbuctoo was at last
visited by two Europeans--Major Laing in the former year, who was
murdered there; and a young Frenchman, Réné Caillié, in the latter.
His account aroused great interest, and Tennyson began his poetic
career by a prize-poem on the subject of the mysterious African
capital.
It was not till 1850 that the work of Denham and Clapperton was
again taken up by Barth, who for five years explored the whole
country to the west of Lake Chad, visiting Timbuctoo, and connecting
the lines of route of Clapperton and Caillié. What he did for the
west of Lake Chad was accomplished by Nachtigall east of that lake
in Darfur and Wadai, in a journey which likewise took five years
(1869-74). Of recent years political interests have caused numerous
expeditions, especially by the French to connect their possessions
in Algeria and Tunis with those on the Gold Coast and on the Senegal.
The next stage in African exploration is connected with the name
of the man to whom can be traced practically the whole of recent
discoveries. By his tact in dealing with the natives, by his calm
pertinacity and dauntless courage, DAVID LIVINGSTONE succeeded
in opening up the entirely unknown districts of Central Africa.
Starting from the Cape in 1849, he worked his way northward to the
Zambesi, and then to Lake Dilolo, and after five years' wandering
reached the western coast of Africa at Loanda. Then retracing his
steps to the Zambesi again, he followed its course to its mouth
on the east coast, thus for the first time crossing Africa from
west to east. In a second journey, on which he started in 1858, he
commenced tracing the course of the river Shiré, the most important
affluent of the Zambesi, and in so doing arrived on the shores of
Lake Nyassa in September 1859.
Meanwhile two explorers, Captain (afterwards Sir Richard) Burton
and Captain Speke, had started from Zanzibar to discover a lake of
which rumours had for a long time been heard, and in the following
year succeeded in reaching Lake Tanganyika. On their return Speke
parted from Burton and took a route more to the north, from which
he saw another great lake, which afterwards turned out to be the
Victoria Nyanza. In 1860, with another companion (Captain Grant),
Speke returned to the Victoria Nyanza, and traced out its course. On
the north of it they found a great river trending to the north, which
they followed as far as Gondokoro. Here they found Mr. (afterwards Sir
Samuel) Baker, who had travelled up the White Nile to investigate its
source, which they thus proved to be in the Lake Victoria Nyanza.
Baker continued his search, and succeeded in showing that another
source of the Nile was to be found in a smaller lake to the west,
which he named Albert Nyanza. Thus these three Englishmen had combined
to solve the long-sought problem of the sources of the Nile.
The discoveries of the Englishmen were soon followed up by important
political action by the Khedive of Egypt, Ismail Pasha, who claimed
the whole course of the Nile as part of his dominions, and established
stations all along it. This, of course, led to full information about
the basin of the Nile being acquired for geographical purposes, and,
under Sir Samuel Baker and Colonel Gordon, civilisation was for a
time in possession of the Nile from its source to its mouth.
Meanwhile Livingstone had set himself to solve the problem of the
great Lake Tanganyika, and started on his last journey in 1865
for that purpose. He discovered Lakes Moero and Bangweolo, and
the river Nyangoue, also known as Lualaba. So much interest had
been aroused by Livingstone's previous exploits of discovery, that
when nothing had been heard of him for some time, in 1869 Mr. H.
M. Stanley was sent by the proprietors of the _New York Herald_,
for whom he had previously acted as war-correspondent, to find
Livingstone. He started in 1871 from Zanzibar, and before the end
of the year had come across a white man in the heart of the Dark
Continent, and greeted him with the historic query, "Dr. Livingstone,
I presume?" Two years later Livingstone died, a martyr to geographical
and missionary enthusiasm. His work was taken up by Mr. Stanley,
who in 1876 was again despatched to continue Livingstone's work,
and succeeded in crossing the Dark Continent from Zanzibar to the
mouth of the Congo, the whole course of which he traced, proving
that the Lualaba or Nyangoue were merely different names or affluents
of this mighty stream. Stanley's remarkable journey completed the
rough outline of African geography by defining the course of the
fourth great river of the continent.
But Stanley's journey across the Dark Continent was destined to be
the starting-point of an entirely new development of the African
problem. Even while Stanley was on his journey a conference had been
assembled at Brussels by King Leopold, in which an international
committee was formed representing all the nations of Europe, nominally
for the exploration of Africa, but, as it turned out, really for
its partition among the European powers. Within fifteen years of
the assembly of the conference the interior of Africa had been
parcelled out, mainly among the five powers, England, France, Germany,
Portugal, and Belgium. As in the case of America, geographical
discovery was soon followed by political division.
[Illustration: EXPLORATION AND PARTITION OF AFRICA.]
The process began by the carving out of a state covering the whole
of the newly-discovered Congo, nominally independent, but really
forming a colony of Belgium, King Leopold supplying the funds for
that purpose. Mr. Stanley was despatched in 1879 to establish stations
along the lower course of the river, but, to his surprise, he found
that he had been anticipated by M. de Brazza, a Portuguese in the
service of France, who had been despatched on a secret mission to
anticipate the King of the Belgians in seizing the important river
mouth. At the same time Portugal put in claims for possession of
the Congo mouth, and it became clear that international rivalries
would interfere with the foundation of any state on the Congo unless
some definite international arrangement was arrived at. Almost
about the same time, in 1880, Germany began to enter the field
as a colonising power in Africa. In South-West Africa and in the
Cameroons, and somewhat later in Zanzibar, claims were set up on
behalf of Germany by Prince Bismarck which conflicted with English
interests in those districts, and under his presidency a Congress
was held at Berlin in the winter of 1884-85 to determine the rules
of the claims by which Africa could be partitioned. The old historic
claims of Portugal to the coast of Africa, on which she had established
stations both on the west and eastern side, were swept away by the
principle that only effective occupation could furnish a claim of
sovereignty. This great principle will rule henceforth the whole
course of African history; in other words, the good old Border
rule--
"That they should take who have the power.
And they should keep who can."
Almost immediately after the sitting of the Berlin Congress, and
indeed during it, arrangements were come to by which the respective
claims of England and Germany in South-West Africa were definitely
determined. Almost immediately afterwards a similar process had to
be gone through in order to determine the limits of the respective
"spheres of influence," as they began to be called, of Germany and
England in East Africa. A Chartered Company, called the British East
Africa Association, was to administer the land north of Victoria Nyanza
bounded on the west by the Congo Free State, while to the north it
extended till it touched the revolted provinces of Egypt, of which
we shall soon speak. In South Africa a similar Chartered Company,
under the influence of Mr. Cecil Rhodes, practically controlled the
whole country from Cape Colony up to German East Africa and the
Congo Free State.
The winter of 1890-91 was especially productive of agreements of
demarcation. After a considerable amount of friction owing to the
encroachments of Major Serpa Pinto, the limits of Portuguese Angola
on the west coast were then determined, being bounded on the east
by the Congo Free State and British Central Africa; and at the
same time Portuguese East Africa was settled in its relation both
to British Central Africa on the west and German East Africa on
the north. Meanwhile Italy had put in its claims for a share in
the spoil, and the eastern horn of Africa, together with Abyssinia,
fell to its share, though it soon had to drop it, owing to the
unexpected vitality shown by the Abyssinians. In the same year
(1890) agreements between Germany and England settled the line of
demarcation between the Cameroons and Togoland, with the adjoining
British territories; while in August of the same year an attempt
was made to limit the abnormal pretensions of the French along
the Niger, and as far as Lake Chad. Here the British interests
were represented by another Chartered Company, the Royal Niger
Company. Unfortunately the delimitation was not very definite,
not being by river courses or meridians as in other cases, but
merely by territories ruled over by native chiefs, whose boundaries
were not then particularly distinct. This has led to considerable
friction, lasting even up to the present day; and it is only with
reference to the demarcation between England and France in Africa
that any doubt still remains with regard to the western and central
portions of the continent.
Towards the north-east the problem of delimitation had been complicated
by political events, which ultimately led to another great exploring
expedition by Mr. Stanley. The extension of Egypt into the Equatorial
Provinces under Ismail Pasha, due in large measure to the geographical
discoveries of Grant, Speke, and Baker, led to an enormous accumulation
of debt, which caused the country to become bankrupt, Ismail Pasha
to be deposed, and Egypt to be administered jointly by France and
England on behalf of the European bondholders. This caused much
dissatisfaction on the part of the Egyptian officials and army
officers, who were displaced by French and English officials; and
a rebellion broke out under Arabi Pasha. This led to the armed
intervention of England, France having refused to co-operate, and
Egypt was occupied by British troops. The Soudan and Equatorial
Provinces had independently revolted under Mohammedan fanaticism,
and it was determined to relinquish those Egyptian possessions,
which had originally led to bankruptcy. General Gordon was despatched
to relieve the various Egyptian garrisons in the south, but being
without support, ultimately failed, and was killed in 1885. One
of Gordon's lieutenants, a German named Schnitzler, who appears
to have adopted Mohammedanism, and was known as Emin Pasha, was
thus isolated in the midst of Africa near the Albert Nyanza, and
Mr. Stanley was commissioned to attempt his rescue in 1887. He
started to march through the Congo State, and succeeded in traversing
a huge tract of forest country inhabited by diminutive savages,
who probably represented the Pigmies of the ancients. He succeeded
in reaching Emin Pasha, and after much persuasion induced him to
accompany him to Zanzibar, only, however, to return as a German
agent to the Albert Nyanza. Mr. Stanley's journey on this occasion
was not without its political aspects, since he made arrangements
during the eastern part of his journey for securing British influence
for the lands afterwards handed over to the British East Africa
Company.
All these political delimitations were naturally accompanied by
explorations, partly scientific, but mainly political. Major Serpa
Pinto twice crossed Africa in an attempt to connect the Portuguese
settlements on the two coasts. Similarly, Lieutenant Wissmann also
crossed Africa twice, between 1881 and 1887, in the interests of
the Congo State, though he ultimately became an official of his
native country, Germany. Captain Lugard had investigated the region
between the three Lakes Nyanza, and secured it for Great Britain.
In South Africa British claims were successfully and successively
advanced to Bechuana-land, Mashona-land, and Matabele-land, and,
under the leadership of Mr. Cecil Rhodes, a railway and telegraph
were rapidly pushed forward towards the north. Owing to the enterprise
of Mr. (now Sir H. H.) Johnstone, the British possessions were in
1891 pushed up as far as Nyassa-land. By that date, as we have
seen, various treaties with Germany and Portugal had definitely
fixed the contour lines of the different possessions of the three
countries in South Africa. By 1891 the interior of Africa, which
had up to 1880 been practically a blank, could be mapped out almost
with as much accuracy as, at any rate, South America. Europe had
taken possession of Africa.
One of the chief results of this, and formally one of its main
motives, was the abolition of the slave trade. North Africa has
been Mohammedan since the eighth century, and Islam has always
recognised slavery, consequently the Arabs of the north have continued
to make raids upon the negroes of Central Africa, to supply the
Mohammedan countries of West Asia and North Africa with slaves.
The Mahdist rebellion was in part at least a reaction against the
abolition of slavery by Egypt, and the interest of the next few
years will consist in the last stand of the slave merchants in
the Soudan, in Darfur, and in Wadai, east of Lake Chad, where the
only powerful independent Mohammedan Sultanate still exists. England
is closely pressing upon the revolted provinces, along the upper
course of the Nile; while France is attempting, by expeditions
from the French Congo and through Abyssinia, to take possession
of the Upper Nile before England conquers it. The race for the
Upper Nile is at present one of the sources of danger of European
war.
While exploration and conquest have either gone hand in hand, or
succeeded one another very closely, there has been a third motive
that has often led to interesting discoveries, to be followed by
annexation. The mighty hunters of Africa have often brought back,
not alone ivory and skins, but also interesting information of
the interior. The gorgeous narratives of Gordon Cumming in the
"fifties" were one of the causes which led to an interest in African
exploration. Many a lad has had his imagination fired and his career
determined by the exploits of Gordon Cumming, which are now, however,
almost forgotten. Mr. F. C. Selous has in our time surpassed even
Gordon Cumming's exploits, and has besides done excellent work
as guide for the successive expeditions into South Africa.
Thus, practically within our own time, the interior of Africa, where
once geographers, as the poet Butler puts it, "placed elephants instead
of towns," has become known, in its main outlines, by successive
series of intrepid explorers, who have often had to be warriors as
well as scientific men. Whatever the motives that have led the
white man into the centre of the Dark Continent--love of adventure,
scientific curiosity, big game, or patriotism--the result has been
that the continent has become known instead of merely its coast-line.
On the whole, English exploration has been the main means by which
our knowledge of the interior of Africa has been obtained, and
England has been richly rewarded by coming into possession of the
most promising parts of the continent--the Nile valley and temperate
South Africa. But France has also gained a huge extent of country
covering almost the whole of North-West Africa. While much of this
is merely desert, there are caravan routes which tap the basin of
the Niger and conduct its products to Algeria, conquered by France
early in the century, and to Tunis, more recently appropriated. The
West African provinces of France have, at any rate, this advantage,
that they are nearer to the mother-country than any other colony
of a European power; and the result may be that African soldiers
may one of these days fight for France on European soil, just as
the Indian soldiers were imported to Cyprus by Lord Beaconsfield
in 1876. Meanwhile, the result of all this international ambition
has been that Africa in its entirety is now known and accessible
to European civilisation.
[_Authorities:_ Kiepert, _Beiträge zur Entdeckungsgeschichte Afrikas_,
1873; Brown, _The Story of Africa_, 4 vols., 1894; Scott Keltie,
_The Partition of Africa_, 1896.]