The history of the bugle as a military instrument is in England closely

connected with the creation of the light infantry, in which it gradually

superseded the drum[13] as a duty and signal instrument. It was during the

17th century that the change was inaugurated; improvements in firearms

brought about the gradual abandonment of armour by the infantry, and the

formation of the light infantry and the adoption of the bugle followed by

degrees. One of the oldest light infantry regiments, Prince Albert's 1st

Somerset Light Infantry, formed in 1685 by the earl of Huntingdon, employed

a drummer at that date at a shilling per day.[14] At the end of the 18th

century we find the bugle the recognized signal instrument in the light

infantry, while the trumpet remained that of the cavalry. The general order

introducing the bugle as a minor badge for the light infantry is under date

28th of December 1814. In 1856 the popularity of the keyed or Royal Kent

bugle in the army had reached its height. A bugle-band was formed in the

Royal Artillery as a substitute for the drum and fife band.[15] The

organization and training of this bugle-band were entrusted to

Trumpet-major James Lawson, who raised it to a very high standard of

excellence. Major Lawson was a fine cornet player, and finding the scale of

the service bugle too restricted he obtained permission to add to it a

valve attachment, which made the bugle a chromatic instrument like the

cornet, in fact practically a saxhorn. Before long, horns in E flat, tenor

horns in B flat, euphoniums and bass tubas were added, all made of copper,

and in 1869 the name of "bugle band" was changed to R.A. Brass Band, and in

1877 it was merged in the Mounted Band. The bugle with its double

development by means of keys into Royal Kent bugle and ophicleide, and by

means of valves into saxhorns and tubas, formed the nucleus of brass bands

of all countries during the greater part of the 19th century. The

Flügelhorn, as its name denotes, became the signal instrument of the

infantry in Germany as in England, and still holds it own with the keyed

bugle in the fine military bands of Austro-Hungary.

There is in the department of prehistoric antiquities at the British Museum

a fine bugle-horn belonging to the Bronze Age in Denmark; the tube, which

has an accentuated conical bore, is bent in a semi-circle, and has on the

inner bend a series of little rings from which were probably suspended

ornaments or cords. An engraved design runs spirally round the whole length

of the tube, which is in an excellent state of preservation.

Meyerbeer introduced the bugle in B flat in his opera _Robert-le-Diable_ in

the scene of the resurrection of the nuns, and a bugle in A in the fifth

act.

See, for further information on the technique of the instrument, Logier's

_Introduction to the Art of Playing on the Royal Kent Bugle_ (London,

Clementi, 1820); and for the use of the bugle in the French army, G.

Kastner, _Le Manuel général de musique militaire_ (with illustrations,

Paris, 1848).

(K. S.)

[1] The word is derived from Lat. _buculus_, a young bull. "Bugle," meaning

a long jet or black glass bead, used in trimming ladies' dresses, is

possibly connected with the Ger. _Bugel_, a bent piece of metal. The

English name "bugle" is also given to a common labiate plant, the _Ajuga

reptans_, not to be confused with the "Bugloss" or _Anchusa officinalis_.

[2] For diagrams of these mouthpieces see V.C. Mahillon, _Éléments

d'acoustique_ (Brussels, 1874), p. 96.

[3] See E. van der Straeten, _La Musique aux Pays-bas_, vol. vii. p. 38,

where the instrument is not mentioned as a novelty; also Léon, comte de

Laborde, _Les Ducs de Bourgogne_, pt. ii. (_Preuves_), (Paris, 1849), tom.

i. p. 365, No. 1266.

[4] Martin Agricola, _Musica Instrumentalis deudsch_ (Wittenberg, 1528), f.

viii^b.

[5] Michael Praetorius, _Syntagma Musicum_ (Wolfenbüttel, 1618), pl. viii.

No. 5.

[6] See Captain C.R. Day, _Descript. Catalogue_ (London, 1891), pp.

168-169, and pl. xi. fig. D.

[7] Barthol. Trevisa, _De Propr. Rebus_, xviii., xv., 1495, 774.

[8] _King Alisaunder_, 5112 and 5282.

[9] _Dictionnaire de l'ancienne langue française du IXe an XVe siècle._

[10] _De re militari_, bk. iii. ch. v.

[11] See _Catal. descriptif du musée instrumental du conservatoire de

Bruxelles_, vol. i. (Ghent, 1880), p. 331. There are, in the department of

Greek and Roman antiquities at the British Museum, two bronze Etruscan

cornua, No. 2734, resembling the hunting horns of the middle ages and bent

in a semicircular shape. They measure from end to end respectively 2 ft. 1

in. and 2 ft. 2 in.

[12] Maj. J.H.L. Archer, _The British Army Records_ (London, 1888), p. 402.

[13] For the use of the drum in the 16th century, see Sir John Smyth,

_Instructions and Observations for all Chieftaines, Captaines, &c._

(London, 1595), pp. 158-159.

[14] See Richard Cannon, _Historical Records_ of the regiment (London,

1848), p. 3.

[15] See H.G. Farmer, _Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Band_ (London, 1904),

p. 183.

BUGTI, a Baluch tribe of Rind (Arab) origin, numbering about 15,500, who

occupy the hills to the east of the Sind-Peshin railway, between Jacobabad

and Sibi, with the Marris (a cognate tribe) to the north of them. Like the

Marris, the Bugtis are physically a magnificent race of people, fine

horsemen, good swordsmen and hereditary robbers. An expedition against them

was organized by Sir C. Napier in 1845, but they were never brought under

control till Sir Robert Sandeman ruled Baluchistan. Since the construction

of the railway, which completely outflanks their country, they have been

fairly orderly.

BUHLE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1763-1821), German scholar and philosopher, was

born at Brunswick, and educated at Göttingen. He became professor of

philosophy at Göttingen, Moscow (1840) and Brunswick. Of his numerous

publications, [v.04 p.0707] the most important are the _Handbuch der

Geschichte der Philosophie_ (8 vols., 1796-1804), and _Geschichte der

neueren Philosophie_ (6 vols., 1800-1805). The latter, elaborate and well

written, is lacking in critical appreciation and proportion; there are

French and Italian translations. He edited Aratus (2 vols., 1793, 1801) and

part of Aristotle (Bipontine edition, vols. i.-v., 1791-1904).

BUHTUR[=I] [al-Wal[=i]d ibn 'Ubaid All[=a]h] (820-897), Arabian poet, was

born at Manbij (Hierapolis) in Syria, between Aleppo and the Euphrates.

Like Ab[=u] Tamm[=a]m, he was of the tribe of T[=a]i. While still young, he

went to visit Ab[=u] Tamm[=a]m at Horns, and by him was commended to the

authorities at Ma'arrat un-Nu'm[=a]n, who gave him a pension of 4000

dirhems (about £90) yearly. Later he went to Bagdad, where he wrote verses

in praise of the caliph Motawakkil and of the members of his court.

Although long resident in Bagdad he devoted much of his poetry to the

praise of Aleppo, and much of his love-poetry is dedicated to Alwa, a

maiden of that city. He died at Manbij Hierapolis in 897. His poetry was

collected and edited twice in the 10th century, arranged in one edition

alphabetically (i.e. according to the last consonant in each line); in the

other according to subjects. It was published in Constantinople (A.D.

1883). Like Ab[=u] Tamm[=a]m he made a collection of early poems, known as

the Ham[=a]sa (index of the poems contained in it, in the _Journal of the

German Oriental Society_, vol. 47, pp. 418 ff., cf. vol. 45, pp. 470 ff.).

Biography in M^cG. de Slane's translation of Ibn Khallik[=a]n's

_Biographical Dictionary_ (Paris and London, 1842), vol. iii. pp. 657 ff.;

and in the _Book of Songs_ (see ABULFARAJ), vol. xviii. pp. 167-175.

(G. W. T.)

BUILDERS' RITES. Many people familiar with the ceremonies attendant on the

laying of foundation stones, whether ecclesiastical, masonic or otherwise,

may be at a loss to account for the actual origin of the custom in placing

within a cavity beneath the stone, a few coins of the realm, newspapers,

&c. The ordinary view that by such means particulars may be found of the

event on the removal of the stone hereafter, may suffice as respects

latter-day motives, but such memorials are deposited in the hope that they

will never be disturbed, and so another reason must be found for such an

ancient survival. Whilst old customs continue, the reasons for them are

ever changing, and certainly this fact applies to laying foundation stones.

Originally, it appears that living victims were selected as "a sacrifice to

the gods," and especially to ensure the stability of the building. Grimm[1]

remarks "It was often thought necessary to immure live animals and even men

in the foundation, on which the structure was to be raised, to secure

immovable stability." There is no lack of evidence as to this gruesome

practice, both in savage and civilized communities. "The old pagan laid the

foundation of his house and fortress in blood."[2] Under the walls of two

round towers in Ireland (the only ones examined) human skeletons have been

discovered. In the 15th century, the wall of Holsworthy church was built

over a living human being, and when this became unlawful, images of living

beings were substituted (_Folk-Lore Journal_, i. 23-24).

The best succinct account of these rites is to be obtained in G. W. Speth's

_Builders' Rites and Ceremonies_ (1893).

(W. J. H.*)

[1] _Teutonic Mythology_ (1883-1884), (trans. Stalleybrass).

[2] Baring-Gould on "Foundations," _Murray's Mag._ (1887).

BUILDING.[1] The art of building comprises the practice of civil

architecture, or the mechanical operations necessary to [Sidenote: Relation

of building to architecture.] carry the designs of the architect into

effect. It is not infrequently called "practical architecture," but the

adoption of this form would lead only to confusion, by rendering it

difficult to make the distinction generally understood between architecture

(_q.v._) as a fine or liberal art, and architecture as a mechanical art.

The execution of works of architecture necessarily includes building, but

building is frequently employed when the result is not architectural; a man

may be a competent builder without being an architect, but no one can be an

accomplished architect unless he be competent to specify and direct all the

operations of building. An architect should have a scientific knowledge of

the various soils he may meet with, such as clay, earth, silt, rock,

gravel, chalk, &c., so that when the trial holes are dug out on the site,

he can see the nature of the soil, and at once know what kind of a

foundation to put to the building, and the depth to which he must go to get

a good bottom. He should also have a good knowledge of chemistry, so that

he may understand the effects of the various acids, gases, &c., that are

contained in the materials he uses, and the objections to their presence.

He must be acquainted with the principles of timbering in trenches, and

excavations, shoring, brickwork, fireproof construction, stonework,

carpentry and joinery, smiths' work, plumbing, heating, ventilation, bells,

electric and gas lighting, water-supply, drainage, plastering, tiling to

internal walls or pavings and roofs, slating of roofs, glazing, painting

and decoration. He should be able to calculate the various strengths and

strains to be placed on any portion of the structure, and have a general

knowledge of the building trade, enabling him to deal with any difficulty

or defects that may arise.

An important feature in the qualification of the architect is that he

should be thoroughly conversant with the by-laws of the different towns or

districts, as to the requirements for the various classes of buildings, and

the special features of portions of the different buildings. The following

are examples of the various buildings which he may have to design, and the

erection of which he may have to superintend:--dwelling-houses, domestic

buildings, shops, dwellings for the working class, public buildings such as

churches, schools, hospitals, libraries and hotels, factories of all kinds

for all general trades, studios, electric power stations, cold storage

buildings, stables and slaughterhouses. With regard to factories, places

for the storage or making of different patent foods, and for slaughter of

beasts intended for human consumption, stringent by-laws are in most

countries laid down and enforced by the public health authorities. In

England, the Public Health Acts and By-laws are carried out by the various

borough or district authorities, who appoint inspectors especially to study

the health of the public with regard to sanitary arrangements. The

inspectors have special powers to deal with all improper or defective food,

or with any defects in buildings that may affect its cleanly preparation.

In addition to meeting the requirements of the clients, the various

buildings have to be constructed and planned on clearly [Sidenote: Reasons

for special type of plans.] defined lines, according to the rules of the

various authorities that control their erection; thus the construction and

planning of public schools are governed in England by the board of

education, and churches are governed by the various societies that assist

in financing the erection of these edifices; of these the Incorporated

Church Building Society exercises the strongest control. Factories both in

England and France must be planned and erected to meet the separate acts

that deal with these buildings. The fire insurance companies lay down

certain requirements according to the size of the building, and the special

trade for which it is erected, and fix their rate of premium accordingly.

Dwelling-houses in London must be erected in accordance with the many

building acts which govern the materials to be used, and the methods by

which they shall be employed, the thickness of walls, rates of inclination

of roofs, means of escape from fire, drainage, space at rear, &c. &c.;

these laws especially forbid the use of timber framed buildings. In sundry

districts in England where the model by-laws are not in force, notably at

Letchworth, Herts, it is possible to erect buildings with sound materials

untrammelled by by-laws. With regard to premises used in a combined way, as

shop and dwelling-house, if in London, and the building exceeds 10 squares,

or 1000 sq. ft. super in area, the stairs and a large portion of the

building must be built of fire-resisting materials. In the erection of

London flats under certain conditions the stairs and corridors [v.04

p.0708] must be of fire-resisting materials, while in parts of New York

timber buildings are allowed; for illustrations of these see the article

CARPENTRY. In public buildings and theatres in London, Paris and New York

not only the construction, but also the exits and seating accommodation and

stage, including the scenery dock and flies, must conform to certain

regulations.

The conditions necessary for planning a successful building may be

summarized as follows:--(1) Ease of access; (2) Good [Sidenote: Conditions

necessary for a successful building.] light (3) Good service; (4) Pleasing

environment and approaches; (5) Minimum cost with true economy; in the case

of office buildings, also ease of rearrangement to suit tenants. An

architect should also be practically acquainted with all the modes of

operation in all the trades or arts employed in building, and be able

minutely to estimate beforehand the absolute cost involved in the execution

of a proposed structure. The power to do this necessarily involves that of

measuring work (usually done by the quantity surveyor at an advanced stage

of the work), and of ascertaining the quantities to be done. In ordinary

practice the architect usually cubes a building at a price per foot cube,

as will be described hereafter, but an architect should know how to measure

and prepare quantities, or he cannot be said to be master of his

profession.

Building includes what is called construction, which is the branch of the

science of architecture relating to the practical [Sidenote: Construction.]

execution of the works required to produce any structure; it will therefore

be necessary to explain the subject in a general manner before entering

upon building in detail.

Although the styles of architecture have varied at different periods,

buildings, wherever similar materials are employed, must be constructed on

much the same principles. Scientific knowledge of the natures and

properties of materials has, however, given to the modern workman immense

advantages over his medieval brother-craftsman, and caused many changes in

the details of the trade, or art of building, although stones, bricks,

mortar, &c., then as now, formed the element of the more solid parts of all

edifices.

The object of constructions is to adapt, combine and fit materials in such

a manner that they shall retain in use the [Sidenote: General principles.]

forms and dispositions assigned to them. If an upright wall be properly

constructed upon a sufficient foundation, the combined mass will retain its

position and bear pressure acting in the direction of gravity to any extent

that the ground on which it stands, and the compound materials of the wall,

can sustain. But pressure acting laterally has a necessary tendency to

overthrow a wall, and therefore it will be the aim of the constructor to

compel, as far as possible, all forces that can act upon an upright wall,

to act in the direction of gravity, or else to give it permanent means of

resistance in the direction opposite to that in which a disturbing force

may act. Thus when an arch is built to bear against an upright wall, a

buttress or other counterfort is applied in a direction opposed to the

pressure of the arch. In like manner the inclined roof of a building

spanning from wall to wall tends to thrust out the walls, and hence a tie

is applied to hold the opposite sides of the roof together at its base,

where alone a tie can be fully efficient, and thus the roof is made to act

upon the walls wholly in the direction of gravity; or where an efficient

tie is inapplicable, as in the case of a hammer beam roof, buttresses or

counterforts are added to the walls, to enable them to resist the pressure

outwards. A beam laid horizontally from wall to wall, as a girder to carry

a floor and its load, may sag or bend downwards, and tend thereby to force

out the walls, or the beam itself may break. Both these contingencies are

obviated by trussing, which renders the beam stiff enough to place its load

on the walls in the direction of gravity, and strong enough to carry it

safely. Or if the beam be rigid in its nature, or uncertain in its

structure, or both (as cast-iron is), and will break without bending, the

constructor by the smiths' art will supply a check and ensure it against

the possible contingency.

Perfect stability, however, is not to be obtained with materials which are

subject to influences beyond the control of man, and all matter is subject

to certain influences of that nature. The [Sidenote: Materials.] influences

mostly to be contended against are heat and humidity, the former of which

produces movement of some kind or to some extent in all bodies, the latter,

in many kinds of matter; whilst the two acting together contribute to the

disintegration or decay of materials available for the purposes of

construction. These pervading influences the constructor seeks to

counteract, by proper selection and disposition of his materials.

Stone and brick, the principal materials in general construction, keep

their places in combination by means of gravity. They may [Sidenote:

Stone.] be merely packed together, but in general they are compacted by

means of mortar or cement, so that although the main constituent materials

are wholly incompressible, masses of either, or of both, combined in

structures are compressible, until the setting medium has indurated to a

like condition of hardness. That kind of stone is best fitted for the

purposes of general construction which is least absorbent of moisture, and

at the same time free to work. Absorbent stone exposed to the weather

rapidly disintegrates, and for the most part non-absorbent stone is so hard

that it cannot always be used with a due regard to economy. When,

therefore, suitable stone of both qualities can be obtained, the harder

stone can be exposed to the weather, or to the action which the softer

stone cannot resist, and made to form the main body of the structure of the

latter so protected. The hard and the soft should be made to bear alike,

and should therefore be coursed and bonded together by the mason's art,

whether the work be of stone wrought into blocks and gauged to thickness,

or of rough dressed or otherwise unshaped rubble compacted with mortar.

Good bricks are less absorbent of moisture than any stone of the same

degree of hardness, and are better non-conductors [Sidenote: Bricks.] of

heat than stone. As the basis of a stable structure, brickwork is more to

be relied upon than stone in the form of rubble, when the constituents bear

the relation to one another last above referred to, the setting material

being the same in both; because the brick by its shaped form seats itself

truly, and produces by bonding a more perfectly combined mass, whilst the

imperfectly shaped and variously sized stone as dressed rubble can neither

bed nor bond truly, the inequalities of the form having to be compensated

for with mortar, and the irregularity of size of the main constituent

accounted for by the introduction of larger and smaller stones. The most

perfect stability is to be obtained, nevertheless, from truly wrought and

accurately seated and bonded blocks of stone, mortar being used to no

greater extent than may be necessary to exclude wind and water and prevent

the disintegrating action of these agents upon even the most durable stone.

When water alone is to be dealt with, and especially when it is liable to

act with force, mortar is necessary for securing to every block in the

structure its own full weight, and the aid of every other collateral and

superimposed stone, in order to resist the loosening effect which water in

powerful action is bound to produce.

In the application of construction to any particular object, the nature of

the object will naturally affect the character of [Sidenote: Particular

objects of construction.] the constructions and the materials of which they

are to be formed. Every piece of construction should be complete in itself,

and independent as such of everything beyond it. A door or a gate serves

its purpose by an application wholly foreign to itself, but it is a good

and effective, or a bad and ineffective, piece of construction,

independently of the posts to which it may be hung, whilst the wheel of a

wheelbarrow, comprising felloes, spokes and axletree, is a piece of

construction complete in itself, and independent as such of everything

beyond it. An arch of masonry, however large it may be, is not necessarily

a piece of construction complete in itself, for it would fall to pieces

without abutments. Thus a bridge consisting of a series of arches, however

extensive, may be but one piece of construction, no arch being complete in

itself without the collateral arches in the series to serve as its

abutments, and the whole series being dependent thereby upon [v.04 p.0709]

the ultimate abutments of the bridge, without which the structure would not

stand. This illustration is not intended to apply to the older bridges with

widely distended masses, which render each pier sufficient to abut the

arches springing from it, but tend, in providing for a way over the river,

to choke up the way by the river itself, or to compel the river either to

throw down the structure or else to destroy its own banks.

Some soils are liable to change in form, expanding and contracting under

meteorological influences; such are clays which [Sidenote: Foundations.]

swell when wetted and shrink when dried. Concrete foundations are commonly

interposed upon such soils to protect the building from derangement from

this cause; or walls of the cheaper material, concrete, instead of the more

expensive brick or stone structure, are brought up from a level

sufficiently below the ordinary surface of the ground. When concrete is

used to obviate the tendency of the soil to yield to pressure, expanse or

extent of base is required, and the concrete being widely spread should

therefore be deep or thick as a layer, only with reference to its own power

of transmitting to the ground the weight of the wall to be built upon it,

without breaking across or being crushed. But when concrete is used as a

substitute for a wall, in carrying a wall down to a low level, it is in

fact a wall in itself, wide only in proportion to its comparative weakness

in the absence of manipulated bond in its construction, and encased by the

soil within which it is placed. When a concrete wall is used in place of

brick the London Building Act requires an extra thickness of one-third; on

the question of reinforced concrete no regulations as to thickness have at

present been made.

The foundation of a building of ordinary weight is for the most part

sufficiently provided for by applying what are technically [Sidenote:

Footings to walls.] termed "footings" to the walls. The reason for a

footing is, that the wall obtains thereby a bearing upon a breadth of

ground so much greater than its own width or thickness above the footing as

to compensate for the difference between the power of resisting pressure of

the wall, and of the ground or ultimate foundation upon which the wall is

to rest. It will be clear from this that if a building is to be erected

upon rock as hard as the main constituent of the walls theoretically no

expanded footings will be necessary; if upon chalk, upon strong or upon

weak gravel, upon sand or upon clay, the footing must be expanded with

reference to the power of resistance of the structure to be used as a

foundation; whilst in or upon made ground or other loose and badly combined

or imperfectly resisting soil, a solid platform bearing evenly over the

ground, and wide enough not to sink into it, becomes necessary under the

constructed footing. For this purpose the easiest, the most familiar, and

for most purposes the most effectual and durable is a layer of concrete.

The English government, when it has legislated upon building matters, has

generally confined itself to making provision that the enclosing walls of

buildings should be formed of incombustible materials. In provisions

regarding the least thicknesses of such walls, these were generally

determined with reference to the height and length of the building.

In the general and usual practice of developing land at the present day,

the owner or freeholder of the land first consults an [Sidenote: Procedure

for an intended building.] architect and states his intentions of building,

the size of what he requires, what it is to be used for, if for trade how

many hands he intends to employ, and the sub-buildings and departments,

&c., that will be wanted. The architect gathers as much information as he

can as to his client's requirements, and from this information prepares his

sketches. This first step is usually done with rough sketches or outlines

only, and when approved by the client as regards the planning and situation

of rooms, &c., the architect prepares the plans, elevations, and sections

on the lines of the approved rough sketches; at the same time he strictly

observes the building acts, and makes every portion of the building comply

with these acts as regards the thickness of walls, open spaces, light and

air, distances from surrounding property, frontage lines, and a host of

other points too numerous to mention, as far as he can interpret the

meaning of the enactments. (The London and New York Building Acts are very

extensive, with numerous amendments made as occasion requires.) An

architect, whilst preparing the working drawings from the rough approved

sketches, and endeavouring to conform with the Building Act requirements,

often finds after consultation with the district surveyor, or the London

County Council, or other local authorities, that the plans have to be

altered; and when so altered the client may disapprove of them, and thus

delay often occurs in settling them.

Another important point is that after the architect has obtained the

consent of the building authorities, and also the approval of the client,

then he may have to fight the adjoining owners with regard to ancient

lights, or air space, or party walls. In the city of London these last

difficulties often mean the suspension of the work for a long time, and a

great loss to the client.

If the site is a large one, or the nature of the soil uncertain, trial

holes should be sunk directly the sketch plans are approved. (See

FOUNDATIONS.)

Where the property is leasehold there are always at this stage negotiations

as to obtaining the approval of the senior lessors and the freeholders;

these having been obtained, the architect is then free to serve the various

notices that may be required _re_ party walls, &c.

The contract plans should be very carefully prepared, and sections, plans

and elevations of all parts of the buildings and the levels from a datum

line be given. In addition to the general set of drawings, larger scale

details of the principal portions of the building should be given.

If there are any existing buildings on the site these should be carefully

surveyed and accurate detail plans be made for reference; this is

especially necessary with regard to easements and rights of adjoining

owners. Also in the preparation of the site plan the various levels of the

ground should be shown.

The plans having been approved by all parties concerned, the next operation

is the preparation of the _specification_. This is a document which

describes the materials to be used in the building, states how they are to

be mixed, and how the various works are to be executed, and specifies every

trade, and every portion of work in the building. The specification is

necessary to enable the builder to erect the structure according to the

architect's requirements, and is written by the architect; usually two

copies of this document are made, one for the builder, the other for the

architect, and the latter is signed as the contract copy in the same manner

as the drawings.

From the specification and drawings usually an approximate estimate of the

cost of the proposed building is prepared by the architect, and the most

general method adopted is to cube the building by a multiplication of the

length, breadth and height of the building, and to multiply the product or

cubic contents by a price ranging from fivepence to three shillings per

cubic foot. In the case of churches, chapels and schools, the cost may be

roughly computed by taking the number of seats at a price per seat. In the

case of churches and chapels, taking a minimum area of 8 ft. each, the cost

varies from £10 upwards, the difference being due to the amount of

architectural embellishment or the addition of a tower. Schools may be

estimated as averaging £9 per scholar; we find that, taking schools of

various sizes erected by the late London School Board, their cost varied

from £7:12:4 to £10:1:10 per scholar. Hospitals vary from £100 per bed

upwards, the lowest cost being taken from a cottage hospital type; while in

the case of St Thomas's hospital, London, the cost per bed, including the

proportion of the administrative block, was £650, and without this portion

the wards alone cost £250. The Herbert hospital at Woolwich cost only £320

per bed.

The bills of quantities are prepared by the quantity surveyor, and are

generally made to form part of the contract, and so mentioned in "the

contract." The work of the quantity surveyor is to measure from the

drawings the whole of the materials required for the structure, and state

the amounts or quantities of the respective materials in the form of a bill

usually made out on foolscap paper specially ruled, so that [v.04 p.0710]

the builders can price each item, together with the labour required to work

and fix it, thus forming the building. The idea is to be able to arrive at

a lump sum for which the builders will undertake to erect the building. It

is of frequent occurrence, in fact it occurs in four-fifths of building

contracts, that when a building is commenced, the client, or other

interested person, will alter some portion, thereby causing deviations from

the bills of quantities. By having the prices of the different materials

before him, it is easy for the quantity surveyor to remeasure the portion

altered, adding or deducting as the case may be, and thus to ascertain what

difference the alteration makes. This method of bills of quantities and

prices is absolutely necessary to any one about to build, and means a

considerable saving to the client in the end. For example:--Suppose that

bills of quantities are not prepared for a certain job by a quantity

surveyor, and, as is often done, the drawings and specification are sent to

several builders asking them for a quotation to build the house or factory

or whatever it may be, according to the drawings and specification. The

prices are duly sent in to the architect, and probably the lowest price is

accepted and the successful builder starts the job. During the progress of

the works certain alterations take place by the owner's instructions, and

when the day of settlement comes, the builder puts in his claim for

"extras," then owing to the alterations and to the architect having no

prices to work upon, litigation often ensues.

Before the work of erecting a structure is entrusted to a builder he has to

sign a contract in the same manner as the drawings and specification. This

contract is an important document wherein the builder agrees to carry out

the work for a stated sum of money, in accordance with the drawings and

specification, and bills of quantities, and instructions of the architect,

and to his entire satisfaction; and it also states the description of the

materials and workmanship, and the manner of carrying out the work,

responsibilities of the builder, particularly clauses indemnifying the

employer against accidents to employees, and against numerous other risks,

the time of completion of works under a penalty for non-completion (the

usual allowance being made for bad weather, fire or strikes), and also how

payments will be made to the builder as he proceeds with the building. This

form of contract is generally prepared by the architect, and varies in part

as may be necessary to meet the requirements of the case.

When the drawings have been approved by the owner or client, also by the

district surveyor or local authorities, and by adjoining owners, one copy

of them, made on linen, is usually deposited (in London) either with the

district surveyor, or with the London County Council, another is prepared

for the freeholder if a lease of the land is granted, and a third is given

to the builder. In addition, in complicated cases such as occur in the city

of London, when a building is erected on land which has four or five

distinct owners, an architect may have to prepare a large number of

complete copies to be deposited with the various parties interested.

The duties of the builder are very similar to those of the architect,

except that he is not expected to be able to plan [Sidenote: The builder's

sphere.] and design, but to carry out the plans and designs of the

architect in the actual work of building. The builder should also know the

various acts, and in particular the acts specially relating to the erection

of scaffoldings, hoardings, gantries, shoring and pulling down of old

buildings. He should have a thorough knowledge of all materials, their

qualifying marks or brands, and the special features of good and bad in

each class, their uses and method of use. He should be able to control and

manage both the men and materials; and briefly, in a builder, as opposed to

an architect, the constructive knowledge should predominate.

On large or important works it is usual to have a clerk of works or

delegate from the architect; his duties are to be on the works while they

are in progress and endeavour by constant attention to secure the use of

the best materials and construction, and to report to the architect for his

instruction any difficulties that may arise. He should be a thoroughly

practical man as opposed to the architectural draughtsman. His salary is

paid by the client, and is not included in the architect's remuneration.

American building acts agree in a general manner with those enforced in

London. But whereas New York allows the erection [Sidenote: American

practice.] of frame or wood structures, while defining a certain portion of

the city inside which no new frame or wood structures shall be erected, in

London and the large cities of Great Britain the erection of wood frame

buildings as dwellings is prohibited. In New York City provision is made

for a space at the rear of domestic buildings at least 10 ft. deep, but

such depth is increased when the building is over 60 ft. high, and is

varied under special circumstances. In London this depth is the same, but

the height of the building in relation to the space required in the rear

thereof shall be constructed to keep within an angle of 63½ degrees,

inclining from the rear boundary towards the building from the level of

pavement in front of building; the position from which the angle is taken

is varied under special circumstances. In the smaller English towns the

building regulations are framed on the model by-laws, and these increase

the depth of the yard or garden according to the height of the building.

With regard to the strength and proportion of materials, these are not

dealt with in the London Building Act to the same extent as in the New

York; for example, in the New York acts (parts 4 and 5)[2] it is prescribed

that the bricks used shall be good, hard, well-burned bricks. The sand used

for mortar shall be clean, sharp, grit sand, free from loam or dirt, and

shall not be finer than the standard samples kept in the office of the

department of buildings; also the quality of lime and mortar is fully

described, and the strengths of steel and cast-iron, and tests of new

materials. Also it is required that all excavations for buildings shall be

properly guarded and protected so as to prevent them from becoming

dangerous to life or limb, and shall be sheath-piled where necessary by the

person or persons causing the excavations to be made, to prevent the

adjoining earth from caving in. Plans filed in the department of buildings

shall be accompanied by a statement of the character of the soil at the

level of the footings. There are also requirements as to protecting

adjoining property. The bearing capacity of soils, pressure under footings

of foundations, and in part 6 the materials of walls and the methods to be

observed in building them are defined. Part 23 deals with floor loads, and

the strength of floors constructed of various materials, and requires that

the temporary support shall be strong enough to carry the load placed upon

them during the progress of any works to buildings. Part 24 deals with the

calculations and strength of materials, and wind pressure. Parts 4 and 5 of

the New York Building Code are not dealt with by the London Building Act,

but the local by-laws of the various districts deal with these. Part 6 of

the New York code is dealt with partly by the London Building Act, and

partly by the local by-laws. Parts 23 and 24 of the New York code are not

dealt with in the English acts at all. In America the standard quality for

all materials is set out, but in no English acts do we find the definition

of the quality of timber, new materials, steel, &c. Iron and steel

construction is in its infancy in England as compared with America, and

probably this accounts for no special regulations being in force; but part

22 of the New York Building Code, section 110 to 129 inclusive, deals very

fully with iron and steel construction, and this is further supplemented by

sections 137 to 140 inclusive.

Sanitary work is dealt with in London by section 39 of the Public Health

(London) Act, and the drainage by-laws of the London County Council, in

which every detail is very fully gone into with regard to the laying of

drains, and fitting up of soil pipes, w.c.'s, &c., all of which is to be

carried out and tested to the satisfaction of the local borough's sanitary

inspector. The general requirements of New York with regard to sanitary

work are very similar with a few more restrictions, and are carried out

under "the rules and regulations for plumbing, drainage, [v.04 p.0711]

water-supply, and ventilation of buildings." The noticeable feature of the

New York regulations is that all master plumbers have to be registered,

which is not so in England. The New York regulations have 183 sections

relating to sanitary work, and the English regulations have 96 sections.

Also by part 16 of the Amendments to Plumbing Rules 1903, the New York laws

require that, before any construction of, or alterations to, any gas piping

or fittings are commenced, permits must be obtained from the superintendent

of buildings; these are only issued to a registered plumber. The

application must be accompanied by plans of the different floors showing

each outlet, and the number of burners to each outlet; a statement must

also be made of the quality of the pipes and fittings, all of which are to

be tested by the inspector. In London there are no such laws; the gas

companies control a small portion of the work as regards the connexion to

meters, while the insurance companies require gas jets to be covered with a

wire guard where liable to come in contact with inflammable goods. As to

water, the various water companies in England have each their own set of

regulations as to the kind of fittings and thickness and quality of pipe to

be used, whether for service, wastes or main.

The importance of fire-resisting construction is being more fully

recognized now by all countries. In France the regulations [Sidenote:

Fire-resisting construction.] for factories, shops and workshops relating

to "exits" require that all doors should open outwardly when they open on

to courts, vestibules, staircases or interior passages. When they give

access to the open air, outward opening is not obligatory unless it has

been judged necessary in the interests of safety. If the doors open on to a

passage or staircase they must be fixed in such a manner as not to project

into the passage or staircase when open. The exits must be numerous, and

signs indicating the quickest way out are to be placed in conspicuous

positions. The windows are to open outwardly. Staircases in offices or

other buildings serving as places for work shall be constructed in

incombustible materials, or shall be walled in fully in plaster. The number

of staircases shall be in proportion to the number of employees, &c. It is

prohibited to use any liquid emitting vapours inflammable under 35° C. for

the purpose of lighting or heating, unless the apparatus containing the

liquid is solidly closed during work, that part of the apparatus containing

the liquid being so closed as to avoid any oozing out of the liquid, &c.

&c. Instructions are added as to precautions to be taken in case of fire.

In London fire-resisting construction is dealt with in the London Building

Act, and its second schedule, and in London County Council Theatre and

Factory Acts, &c. In New York the building code (parts 19, 20 and 21) deals

with fire appliances, escapes, and fire-proof shutters and doors,

fire-proof buildings and fire-proof floors, and requires that all tenement

houses shall have an iron ladder for escape. A section somewhat similar to

the last came into force in London in 1907 under the London Building Act,

being framed with a view to require all existing projecting one-storey

shops to have a fire-resisting roof, and all existing buildings over 50 ft.

in height to have means of escape to and from the roof in case of fire.

There are several patents now in use with which it would be possible to

erect a fire-proof dwelling at small cost with walls 3 to 5 in. in

thickness. One of these has been used where the building act does not

apply, as in the case of the Newgate prison cells, London, where the

outside walls were from 3 to 4 in. thick only, and were absolutely fire and

burglar proof. This method consists in using steel dovetailed sheets fixed

between small steel stanchions and plastered in cement on both sides. This

form of construction was also used at the British pavilion, Paris

Exhibition 1900, and has been employed in numerous other buildings in

England, and also in South Africa, Venezuela, and India (Delhi durbar). The

use of many of these convenient and sound forms of building construction

for ordinary buildings in London, and in districts of England where the

model by-laws are in force, is prohibited because they do not comply with

some one or other of the various clauses relating to materials, or to the

thickness of a wall.

The various details of construction are described and illustrated under

separate headings. See BRICKWORK, CARPENTRY, FOUNDATIONS, GLAZING, JOINERY,

MASONRY, PAINTER-WORK, PLASTERING, ROOFS, SCAFFOLD, SHORING, STAIRCASE,

STEEL CONSTRUCTION, STONE, TIMBER, WALL-COVERINGS, &c.

The principal publications for reference in connexion with this subject

are: _The Building and Health Laws of the City of New York_, Brooklyn Eagle

Library, No. 85; _Rules and Regulations affecting Building Operations in

the administrative County of London_, compiled by Ellis Marsland;

_Annotated By-Laws as to House Drainage, &c._, by Jensen; _Metropolitan

Sanitation_, by Herbert Daw.

(J. BT.)

[1] The verb "to build" (O.E. _byldan_) is apparently connected with O.E.

_bold_, a dwelling, of Scandinavian origin; cf. Danish _bol_, a farm,

Icelandic _ból_, farm, abode. Skeat traces it eventually to Sanskrit _bhu_,

to be, build meaning "to construct a place in which to be or dwell."

[2] _Building and Health Laws and Regulations affecting the City of New

York, including the Building Code of New York City as amended to 1st May

1903._

BUILDING SOCIETIES, the name given to societies "for the purpose of

raising, by the subscriptions of the members, a stock or fund for making

advances to members out of the funds of the society upon freehold,

copyhold, or leasehold estate by way of mortgage," may be "either

_terminating_ or _permanent_" (Building Societies Act 1874, § 13). A

"terminating" society is one "which by its rules is to terminate at a fixed

date, or when a result specified in its rules is attained"; a "permanent"

society is one "which has not by its rules any such fixed date or specified

result, at which it shall terminate" (§ 5). A more popular description of

these societies would be--societies by means of which every man may become

"his own landlord," their main purpose being to collect together the small

periodical subscriptions of a number of members, until each in his turn has

been able to receive a sum sufficient to aid him materially in buying his

dwelling-house. The origin and early history of these societies is not very

clearly traceable. A mention of "building clubs" in Birmingham occurs in

1795; one is known to have been established by deed in the year 1809 at

Greenwich; another is said to have been founded in 1825, under the auspices

of the earl of Selkirk at Kirkcudbright in Scotland, and we learn

(Scratchley, _On Building Societies_, p. 5) that similar societies in that

kingdom adopted the title of "menages."

_United Kingdom._--When the Friendly Societies Act of 1834 gave effect to

the wise and liberal policy of extending its benefits to societies for

frugal investment, and generally to all associations having a similar legal

object, several building societies were certified under it,--so many,

indeed, that in 1836 a short act was passed confirming to them the

privileges granted by the Friendly Societies Act, and according to them the

additional privileges (very valuable at that time) of exemption from the

usury laws, simplicity in forms of conveyance, power to reconvey by a mere

endorsement under the hands of the trustees for the time being, and

exemption from stamp duty. This act remained unaltered until 1874, when an

act was passed at the instance of the building societies conferring upon

them several other privileges, and relieving them of some disabilities and

doubts, which had grown up from the judicial expositions of the act of

1836. It made future building societies incorporated bodies, and extended

the privilege of incorporation to existing societies upon application, so

that members and all who derive title through them were relieved from

having to trace that title through the successive trustees of a society. It

also gave a distinct declaration to the members of entire freedom from

liability to pay anything beyond the arrears due from them at the time of

winding up, or the amount actually secured by their mortgage deeds. Power

to borrow money was also expressly given to the societies by the act, but

upon two conditions: that the limitation of liability must be made known to

the lender, by being printed on the acknowledgment for the loan, and that

the borrowed money must not exceed two-thirds of the amount secured by

mortgage from the members, or, in a terminating society, one year's income

from subscriptions. Previous to the passing of the act (or rather to the

judicial decision in _Laing_ v. _Read_, which the clause of the act made

statutory) there had been, on the one hand, grave doubts on high legal

authority whether a society could borrow money at all; while, on the other

hand, many societies in order to raise funds carried on the business of

deposit banks to an extent far exceeding the amounts used by them for their

legitimate purpose of investment on mortgage. It enacted, that if a society

borrowed more than the statute authorizes, the directors accepting the loan

should be personally [v.04 p.0712] responsible for the excess. By an act

passed in 1894 all the Benefit Building Societies established under the act

of 1836 after the year 1856 were required to become incorporated under the

act of 1874.

There are, therefore, three categories of building societies:--(1) Those

established before 1856, which have not been incorporated under the act of

1874 and remain under the act of 1836. (2) Those established before 1874

under the act of 1836, which have been incorporated under the act of 1874.

(3) Those which have been established since the act of 1874 was passed. The

first class still act by means of trustees. Of these societies there are

only 62 remaining in existence, and their number cannot be increased. The

second and third classes exceed 2000 in number.

The early societies were all "terminating,"--consisting of a limited number

of members, and coming to an end as soon as every member had received the

amount agreed upon as the value of his shares. Take, as a simple typical

example of the working of such a society, one the shares of which are £120

each, realizable by subscriptions of 10s. a month during 14 years. Fourteen

years happens to be nearly the time in which, at 5% compound interest, a

sum of money becomes doubled. Hence the present value, at the commencement

of the society, of the £120 to be realized at its conclusion, or (what is

the same thing) of the subscriptions of 10s. a month by which that £120 is

to be raised, is £60. If such a society had issued 120 shares, the

aggregate subscriptions for the first month of its existence would amount

to exactly the sum required to pay one member the present value of one

share. One member would accordingly receive a sum down of £60, and in order

to protect the other members from loss, would execute a mortgage of his

dwelling-house for ensuring the payment of the future subscription of 10s.

per month until every member had in like manner obtained an advance upon

his shares, or accumulated the £120 per share. As £60 is not of itself

enough to buy a house, even of the most modest kind, every member desirous

of using the society for its original purpose of obtaining a dwelling-house

by its means would require to take more than one share. The act of 1836

limited the amount of each share to £150, and the amount of the monthly

contributions on each share to £1, but did not limit the number of shares a

member might hold.

The earlier formed societies (in London at least) did not usually adopt the

title "Building Society"; or they added to it some further descriptive

title, as "Accumulating Fund," "Savings Fund," or "Investment Association."

Several are described as "Societies for obtaining freehold property," or

simply as "Mutual Associations," or "Societies of Equality." The building

societies in Scotland are mostly called "Property Investment," or

"Economic." Although the term "Benefit Building Society" occurs in the

title to the act of 1836, it was not till 1849 that it became in England

the sole distinctive name of these societies; and it cannot be said to be a

happy description of them, for as ordinarily constituted they undertake no

building operations whatever, and merely advance money to their members to

enable them to build or to buy dwelling-houses or land.

The name "Building Society," too, leaves wholly out of sight the important

functions these societies fulfil as means of investment of small savings.

The act of 1836 defined them as societies to enable every member to receive

the amount or value of a share or shares to erect or purchase a

dwelling-house, &c., but a member who did not desire to erect or purchase a

dwelling-house might still receive out of the funds of the society the

amount or value of his shares, improved by the payments of interest made by

those to whom shares had been advanced.

About 1846 an important modification of the system of these societies was

introduced, by the invention of the "permanent" plan, which was adopted by

a great number of the societies established after that date. It was seen

that these societies really consist of two classes of members; that those

who do not care to have, or have not yet received, an advance upon mortgage

security are mere investors, and that it matters little when they commence

investing, or to what amount; while those to whom advances have been made

are really debtors to the society, and arrangements for enabling them to

pay off their debt in various terms of years, according to their

convenience, would be of advantage both to themselves and the society. By

permitting members to enter at any time without back-payment, and by

granting advances for any term of years agreed upon, a continuous inflow of

funds, and a continuous means of profitable investment of them, would be

secured. The interest of each member in the society would terminate when

his share was realized, or his advance paid off, but the society would

continue with the accruing subscriptions of other members employed in

making other advances.

Under this system building societies largely increased and developed. The

royal commissioners who inquired into the subject in 1872 estimated the

total assets of the societies in 1870 at 17 millions, and their annual

income at 11 millions. The more complete returns, afterwards obtained,

indicate that this was an under-estimate.

A variety of the terminating class of societies met at one time with

considerable favour under the name of "Starr Bowkett" or "mutual"

societies, of which more than a thousand were established. They differed

from the typical society above described, in the contribution of a member

who had not received an advance being much smaller, while the amount of the

advance was much larger, and it was made without any calculation of

interest. Thus a society issued, say, 500 shares, on which the

contributions were to be 1s. 3d. per week, and, as soon as a sum of £300

accumulated allotted it by ballot to one of the shareholders, on condition

that he was to repay it without interest by instalments in 10 or 12½ years,

and at the same time to keep up his share-contributions. The fortunate

recipient of the appropriation was at liberty to sell it, and frequently

did so at a profit; but (except from fines) no profit whatever was earned

by those who did not succeed in getting an appropriation, and as the number

of members successful in the ballot must necessarily be small in the

earlier years of the society, the others frequently became discontented and

retired. These societies could not borrow money, for as they received no

interest they could not pay any. The plan was afterwards modified by

granting the appropriations alternately by ballot and sale, so that by the

premiums paid on the sales (which are the same in effect as payments of

interest on the amount actually advanced) profits might be earned for the

investing members. The formation of societies of this class ceased on the

passing of the act of 1894, by which balloting for advances was prohibited

in societies thereafter established. A further modification of the "mutual"

plan was to make all the appropriations by sale. The effect of this was to

bring the mutual society back to the ordinary form; for it amounts to

precisely the same thing for a man to pay 10s. a month on a loan of £60 for

14 years, as for him to borrow a nominal sum of £84 for the same period,

repayable in the same manner, but to allow £24 off the loan as a "bidding"

at the sale. The only difference between the two classes of societies is

that the interest which the member pays who bids for his advance depends on

the amount of competition at the bidding, and is not fixed by a rule of the

society.

For several years the progress of building societies in general was steady,

but there were not wanting signs that their prosperity was unsubstantial. A

practice of receiving deposits repayable at call had sprung up, which must

lead to embarrassment where the funds are invested in loans repayable

during a long term of years. It was surmised, if not actually known, that

many societies had large amounts of property on their hands, which had been

reduced into possession in consequence of the default of borrowers in

paying their instalments. A practice had also grown up of establishing

mushroom societies, which did little more than pay fees to the promoters.

The vicious system of trafficking in advances that had been awarded by

ballot, near akin to gambling, prevailed in many societies. These signs of

weakness had been observed by the well-informed, and the disastrous failure

of a large society incorporated under [v.04 p.0713] the act of 1874, the

Liberator, which had in fact long ceased to do any genuine building society

business, hastened the crisis.

This society had drawn funds to the amount of more than a million sterling

from provident people in [Sidenote: The "Liberator."] all classes of the

population and all parts of the country by specious representations, and

had applied those funds not to the legitimate purpose of a building

society, but to the support of other undertakings in which the same persons

were concerned who were the active managers of the society. The consequence

was that the whole group of concerns became insolvent (Oct. 1892), and the

Liberator depositors and shareholders were defrauded of every penny of

their investments. Many of them suffered great distress from the loss of

their savings, and some were absolutely ruined. The result was to weaken

confidence in building societies generally, and this was very marked in the

rapid decline of the amount of the capital of the incorporated building

societies. From its highest point (nearly 54 millions) reached in 1887, it

fell to below 43 millions in 1895. On some societies, which had adopted the

deposit system, a run was made, and several were unable to stand it. The

Birkbeck Society was for two days besieged by an anxious crowd of

depositors clamouring to withdraw their money; but luckily for that

society, and for the building societies generally, a very large portion of

its funds was invested in easily convertible securities, and it was enabled

by that means to get sufficient assistance from the Bank of England to pay

without a moment's hesitation every depositor who asked for his money. Its

credit was so firmly established by this means that many persons sought to

pay money in. Had this very large society succumbed, the results would have

been disastrous to the whole body of building societies. As the case stood,

the energetic means it adopted to save its own credit reacted in favour of

the societies generally.

The Liberator disaster convinced everybody that something must be done

towards avoiding such calamities in the future. The government of the day

brought in a bill for that purpose, and several private members also

prepared measures--most of them more stringent than the government bill.

All the bills were referred to a select committee, of which Mr Herbert

Gladstone was the chairman. As the result of the deliberations of the

committee, the Building Societies Act of 1894 was passed. Meanwhile the Rt.

Hon. W.L. Jackson (afterwards Lord Allerton), a member of the committee,

moved for an address to the crown for a return of the property held in

possession by building societies. This was the first time such a return had

been called for, and the managers of the societies much resented it; there

were no means of enforcing the return, and the consequence was that many

large societies failed to make it, notwithstanding frequent applications by

the registrar. The act provided that henceforth all incorporated societies

should furnish returns in a prescribed form, including schedules showing

respectively the mortgages for amounts exceeding £5000; the properties of

which the societies had taken possession for more than twelve months

through default of the mortgagors; and the mortgages which were more than

twelve months in arrear of repayment subscription. The act did not come

into operation till the 1st of January 1895, and the first complete return

under it was not due till 1896, when it appeared that the properties in

possession at the time of Mr Jackson's return must have been counted for at

least seven and a half millions in the assets of the societies. In a few

years after the passing of the act the societies reduced their properties

in possession from 14% of the whole of the mortgages to 5%, or, in other

words, reduced them to one-third of the original amount, from 7½ millions

to 2½ millions. Though this operation must have been attended with some

sacrifice in many societies, upon the whole the balance of profit has

increased rather than diminished. Thus this provision of the act, though it

greatly alarmed the managers of societies, was really a blessing in

disguise. The act also gave power to the registrar, upon the application of

ten members, to order an inspection of the books of a society, but it did

not confer upon individual members the right to inspect the books, which

would have been more effective. It empowered the registrar, upon the

application of one-fifth of the members, to order an inspection upon oath

into the affairs of a society, or to investigate its affairs with a view to

dissolution, and even in certain cases to proceed without an application

from members. It gave him ample powers to deal with a society which upon

such investigation proved to be insolvent, and these were exercised so as

to procure the cheap and speedy dissolution of such societies. It also

prohibited the future establishment of societies making advances by ballot,

or dependent on any chance or lot, and provided an easy method by which

existing societies could discontinue the practice of balloting. This method

has been adopted in a few instances only. The act, or the circumstances

which led to it, has greatly diminished the number of new societies

applying for registry.

The statistics of building societies belonging to all the three classes

mentioned show that there were on the 31st of December 1904, 2118 societies

in existence in the United Kingdom. Of these, 2075, having 609,785 members,

made returns. Their gross receipts for the financial year were £38,729,009,

and the amount advanced on mortgage during the year was £9,589,864. The

capital belonging to their members was £39,408,430, and the undivided

balance of profit £4,004,547. Their liabilities to depositors and other

creditors were £24,838,290. To meet this they had mortgages on which

£53,196,112 was due, but of this £2,443,255 was on properties which had

been in possession more than a year, and £222,444 on mortgages which had

fallen into arrear more than a year. Their other assets were £14,952,485,

and certain societies showed a deficit balance which in the aggregate was

£102,670. As compared with 1895, when first returns were obtained from

unincorporated societies, these figures show an increase in income of 30%,

in assets of 23%, and in profit balances of 46%, and a diminution of the

properties in possession and mortgages in arrear of 14% in the nine years.

The total assets and income are more than three times the amount of the

conjectural estimate made for 1870 by the royal commission. It is not too

much to say that a quarter of a million persons have been enabled by means

of building societies to become the proprietors of their own homes.

In recent years, several rivals to building societies have sprung up.

Friendly societies have largely taken to investing their surplus funds in

loans to members on the building society principle. Industrial and

provident land and building societies have been formed. The legislature has

authorized local authorities to lend money to the working classes to enable

them to buy their dwelling-houses. Bond and investment companies have been

formed under the Companies Acts, and are under no restriction as to

balloting for appropriation. All these have not yet had any perceptible

effect in checking the growth of the building society movement, and it is

not thought that they will permanently do so.

_British Colonies._--In several of the British colonies, legislation

similar to that of the mother country has been adopted. In Victoria,

Australia, a crisis occurred, in which many building societies suffered

severely. In the other Australian colonies the building society movement

has made progress, but not to a very large extent. In the Dominion of

Canada these societies are sometimes called "loan companies" and are not

restricted in their investments to loans on real estates, but about 90% of

their advances are on that security. At the close of the year 1904 their

liabilities to stockholders exceeded £13,000,000, and to the public

£21,000,000. The uncalled capital was £5,000,000. The balance of current

loans was £28,000,000, and the property owned by the societies exceeded

£7,000,000.

_Belgium, &c._--In Belgium, the Government Savings Bank has power to make

advances of money to societies of credit or of construction to enable their

members to become owners of dwelling-houses. The advance is made to the

society at 3 or sometimes at 2½% interest, and the borrower pays 4%. In the

great majority of cases the borrower effects an insurance with the savings

bank so that his repayments terminate at his death. On the 31st of December

1903 nearly 25,000 advances were in course of repayment. In Germany,

building societies are recognized as a form of societies for self-help, but

are not many in number, being overshadowed by the great organization of

credit societies founded by Schulze-Delitzsch. In other countries there has

been no special legislation for building societies similar to that of the

United Kingdom, and though societies with the same special object probably

exist, separate information with regard to them is not available.

(E. W. B.)

_United States._--"Building and loan association" is a general term applied

in the United States to such institutions as mutual loan associations,

homestead aid associations, savings fund and loan associations,

co-operative banks, co-operative savings and loan associations, &c. They

are private corporations, for the accumulation of savings, and for the

loaning of money to build homes. The first association of this kind in the

United States of which there is any record was organized at Frankford, a

suburb [v.04 p.0714] of Philadelphia, on the 3rd of January 1831, under the

title of the Oxford Provident Building Association. Their permanent

inception took place between 1840 and 1850. The receipts or capital of the

building and loan association consists of periodical payments by the

members, interest and premiums paid by borrowing members or others, fixed

periodical instalments by borrowing members, fines for failures to pay such

fixed instalments, forfeitures, fees for transferring stock, entrance fees,

and any other revenues or payments,--all of which go into the common

treasury. When the instalment payments and profits of all kinds equal the

face value of all the shares issued, the assets, over and above expenses

and losses, are apportioned among members, and this apportionment cancels

the borrower's debt, while the non-borrower is given the amount of his

stock. A man who wishes to borrow, let us say, $1000 for the erection of a

house ordinarily takes five shares in an association, each of which, when

he has paid all the successive instalments on it, will be worth $200, and

he must offer suitable security for his loan, usually the lot on which he

is to build. The money is not lent to him at regular rates of interest, as

in the case of a savings bank or other financial institution, but is put up

at auction usually in open meeting at the time of the payment of dues, and

is awarded to the member bidding the highest premium. To secure the $1000

borrowed, the member gives the association a mortgage on his property and

pledges his five shares of stock. Some associations, when the demand for

money from the shareholders does not exhaust the surplus, lend their funds

to persons not shareholders, upon such terms and conditions as may be

approved by their directors. Herein lies a danger, for such loans are

sometimes made in a speculative way, or on insufficient land value. Some

associations make stock loans, or loans on the shares held by a stockholder

without real estate security; these vary in different associations, some

applying the same rules as to real estate loans. To cancel his debt the

stockholder is constantly paying his monthly or semi-monthly dues, until

such time as these payments, plus the accumulation of profits through

compound interest, mature the shares at $200 each, when he surrenders his

shares, and the debt upon his property is cancelled.

Every member of a building and loan association must be a stockholder, and

the amount of interest which a member has in a [Sidenote: Shares.] building

and loan association is indicated by the number of shares he holds, the age

of the shares, and their maturing value. The difference between a

stockholder in such an association and one in an ordinary corporation for

usual business purposes lies in the fact that in the latter the member or

stockholder buys his stock and pays for it at once, and as a rule is not

called upon for further payment; all profits on such stocks are received

through dividends, the value of shares depending upon the successful

operation of the business. In the former the stockholder or member pays a

stipulated minimum sum, say $1, when he takes his membership and buys a

share of stock. He continues to pay a like sum each month until the

aggregate of sums paid, increased by the profits and all other sources of

income, amounts to the maturing value of the stock, usually $200, when the

stockholder is entitled to the full maturing value of the share and

surrenders the same. Shares are usually issued in series. When a second

series is issued the issue of the stock of the first series ceases. Profits

are distributed and losses apportioned before a new series can be issued.

The term during which a series is open for subscription differs, but it

usually extends over three or six months, and sometimes a year. Some

associations, usually known as perpetual associations, issue a new series

of stock without regard to the time of maturity of previous issues. It is

the practice in such associations to issue a new series of stock every

year. Instead of shares that are paid in instalments, some associations

issue prepaid shares and paid-up shares. _Prepaid shares_, known also as

partly paid-up shares, are issued at a fixed price per share in advance.

They usually participate as fully in the profits as the regular instalment

shares, and when the amount originally paid for such shares, together with

the dividends accrued thereon, reaches the maturing or par value, they are

disposed of in the same manner as regular instalment shares. Some

associations, instead of crediting all the profits made on this class of

shares, allow a fixed rate of interest on the amount paid therefor at each

dividend period, which is paid in cash to the holder thereof. This interest

is then deducted from the profits to which the shares are entitled, and the

remainder is credited to the shares until such unpaid portion of the

profits, added to the amount originally paid, equals the maturing or par

value. _Paid-up shares_ are issued upon the payment of the full maturity or

par value, when a certificate of paid-up stock is issued, the owners being

entitled to receive in cash the amount of all dividends declared thereon,

subject to such conditions or limitations as may be agreed upon. These

shares sometimes participate as fully in the profits as the regular

instalment shares, but in most cases a fixed rate of interest only is

allowed, the holders of the shares usually assigning to the association all

right to profits above that amount. Certificates of matured shares are also

issued to holders of regular instalment shares, who prefer to leave their

money with the association as an investment.

Prior to the maturing of a share it has two values, the holding or book

value and the withdrawal value. The book value is ascertained by adding all

the dues that have been paid to the profits that have accrued; that is to

say, it is the actual value of a share at any particular time. The

withdrawal value is that amount of the book value which the association is

willing to pay to a shareholder who desires to sever his connexion with the

association before his share is matured. Some associations do not permit

their members to withdraw prior to the maturing of their shares. Then the

only way a shareholder can realize upon his shares is by selling them to

some other person at whatever price he can obtain. There are twelve or more

plans for the withdrawal of funds. Every association has full regulations

on all such matters.

The purchase of a share binds the shareholder to the necessity of keeping

up his dues, and thus secures to him not only the benefits [Sidenote:

Variations in methods.] of a savings bank, but the benefit of constantly

accruing compound interest. This accomplishes the first feature of the

motive of a building and loan association. The second is accomplished by

enabling a man to borrow money for building purposes. It is a moot question

whether this method of obtaining money for the building of homes is more or

less economical than that of obtaining it from the ordinary savings banks

or from other sources. Sometimes the premium which must be paid to secure a

loan increases the regular interest to such an amount as to make the

building and loan method more expensive than the ordinary method of

borrowing money, but a building and loan association has a moral influence

upon its members, in that it encourages a regular payment of instalments.

Some associations have a fixed or established premium rate, and under such

circumstances loans are awarded to the members in the order of their

applications or by lot. The premium may consist of the amount which the

borrower pays in excess of the legal interest, or it may consist of a

certain number of payments of dues or of interest to be made in advance.

There are very many plans for the payment of premiums, nearly seventy

relating to real estate loans being in vogue in different associations in

different parts of the United States; but in nearly all cases the borrower

makes his regular payments of dues and interest until the shares pledged

have reached maturing value. There is also a great variety of plans for the

distribution of profits, something like twenty-five such plans being in

existence. The methods of calculating interest and profits are somewhat

complicated, but they are all found in the books to which reference will be

made. The various plans for the payment of premiums, distribution of

profits, and withdrawals, and the calculations under each, are given in

full in the ninth annual report of the U.S. commissioner of labour.

Most building and loan associations confine their operations to a small

community, usually to the county in which they are situated; but some of

them operate on a large scale, extending their business enterprises even

beyond the borders of their own state. These national associations are

ready to make loans on property anywhere, and sell their shares to any

person without reference to his residence. In local associations the total

amount of dues paid in by the shareholders forms the basis for the

distribution of profits, while in most national associations only a portion

of the dues paid in by the shareholders is considered in the distribution.

For instance, in a national association the dues are generally 60 cents a

share per month, out of which either 8 or 10 cents are carried to an

expense fund, the remainder being credited on the loan fund. The expense

fund thus created is lost to the shareholders, except in the case of a few

associations which carry the unexpended balances to the profit and loss

account, and whatever profits are made are apportioned on the amount of

dues credited to the loan fund only. The creation of an expense fund in the

nationals has sometimes been the source of disaster. Safety or security in

both local and national associations depends principally upon the integrity

with which their affairs are conducted, and not so much upon the form of

organization or the method of distribution. Some of the states--New York,

Massachusetts, New Jersey, Ohio, Illinois, California and others--bring

building and loan associations under the same general supervision of law

thrown around savings banks. In some states nothing is officially known of

them beyond the formalities of their incorporation. Though the business of

the associations is conducted by men not trained as bankers, it yet meets

with rare success. Associations disband when not successful, but when they

disband great loss does not occur because the whole business of the

association consists of its loans, and these loans are to its own

shareholders, as a rule, who hold the securities in their associated forms.

The amount of money on hand is always small, because it is sold or lent as

fast as paid in. A disbanded association, therefore, simply returns to its

own members their own property, and but few real losses occur. Investment

in a building and loan association is as nearly absolutely [v.04 p.0715]

safe as it can be, for the monthly dues and the accumulated profits, which

give the actual capital of the association, are lent or sold, as it is

termed, by the association as fast as they accumulate, and upon real estate

or upon the stock of the association itself. The opportunities for

embezzlement, therefore, or for shrinkage of securities, are reduced to the

minimum, and an almost absolute safety of the investment is secured.

The growth of these associations has been very rapid since 1840, and at the

opening of the 20th century they numbered nearly 6000. The Federal

government, through the department of labour, made an investigation of

building and loan associations, and published its report in 1893. The total

dues paid in on instalment shares amounted then to $450,667,594. The

business represented by this great sum, conducted quietly, with little or

no advertising, and without the experienced banker in charge, shows that

the common people, in their own ways, are quite competent to take care of

their savings, especially when it was shown that but thirty-five of the

associations then in existence met with a net loss at the end of their

latest fiscal year, and that this loss amounted to only a little over

$23,000. Bulletin No. 10 (May 1897) of the U.S. department of labour

contained a calculation of the business at that date, based upon such

states' reports as were available. That calculation showed a growth in

almost every item. During the years of depression ending with 1899 the

growth of building and loan associations was naturally slower than in

prosperous periods.

See _Ninth Annual Report of U.S.A. Commissioner of Labour_ (1893);

_Bulletin_, No. 10 (May 1897), of the Department of Labour; Edmund Rigley,

_How to manage Building Associations_ (1873); Seymour Dexter, _A Treatise

on Co-operation Savings and Loan Associations_ (New York, 1891); Charles N.

Thompson, _A Treatise on Building Associations_ (Chicago, 1892).

(C. D. W.)

BUILTH, or BUILTH WELLS, a market town of Brecknockshire, Wales. Pop. of

urban district (1901), 1805. It has a station on the Cambrian line between

Moat Lane and Brecon, and two others (high and low levels) at Builth Road

about 1¾ m. distant where the London & North-Western and the Cambrian cross

one another. It is pleasantly situated in the upper valley of the Wye, in a

bend of the river on its right bank below the confluence of its tributary

the Irfon. During the summer it is a place of considerable resort for the

sake of its waters--saline, chalybeate and sulphur--and it possesses the

usual accessories of pump-rooms, baths and a recreation ground. The scenery

of the Wye valley, including a succession of rapids just above the town,

also attracts many tourists. The town is an important agricultural centre,

its fairs for sheep and ponies in particular being well attended.

The town, called in Welsh Llanfair (yn) Muallt, i.e. St Mary's in Builth,

took its name from the ancient territorial division of Buallt in which it

is situated, which was, according to Nennius, an independent principality

in the beginning of the 9th century, and later a cantrev, corresponding to

the modern hundred of Builth. Towards the end of the 11th century, when the

tide of Norman invasion swept upwards along the Wye valley, the district

became a lordship marcher annexed to that of Brecknock, but was again

severed from it on the death of William de Breos, when his daughter Matilda

brought it to her husband, Roger Mortimer of Wigmore. Its castle, built

probably in Newmarch's time, or shortly after, was the most advanced

outpost of the invaders in a wild part of Wales where the tendency to

revolt was always strong. It was destroyed in 1260 by Llewellyn ab

Gruffydd, prince of Wales, with the supposed connivance of Mortimer, but

its site was reoccupied by the earl of Lincoln in 1277, and a new castle at

once erected. It was with the expectation that he might, with local aid,

seize the castle, that Llewellyn invaded this district in December 1282,

when he was surprised and killed by Stephen de Frankton in a ravine called

Cwm Llewellyn on the left bank of the Irfon, 2½ m. from the town. According

to local tradition he was buried at Cefn-y-bedd ("the ridge of the grave")

close by, but it is more likely that his headless trunk was taken to Abbey

Cwmhir. No other important event was associated with the castle, of which

not a stone is now standing. The lordship remained in the marches till the

Act of Union 1536, when it was grouped with a number of others so as to

form the shire of Brecknock. The town was governed by a local board from

1866 until the establishment of an urban district council in 1894; the

urban district was then made conterminous with the civil parish, and in

1898 it was re-named Builth Wells.

BUISSON, FERDINAND (1841- ), French educationalist, was born at Paris on

the 20th of December 1841. In 1868, when attached to the teaching staff of

the Academy of Geneva, he obtained a philosophical fellowship. In 1870 he

settled in Paris, and in the following year was nominated an inspector of

primary education. His appointment was, however, strongly opposed by the

bishop of Orleans (who saw danger to clerical influence over the schools),

and the nomination was cancelled. But the bishop's action only served to

draw attention to Buisson's abilities. He was appointed secretary of the

statistical commission on primary education, and sent as a delegate to the

Vienna exhibition of 1873, and the Philadelphia exhibition of 1876. In 1878

he was instructed to report on the educational section of the Paris

exhibition, and in the same year was appointed inspector-general of primary

education. In 1879 he was promoted to the directorship of primary

education, a post which he occupied until 1896, when he became professor of

education at the Sorbonne. At the general election of 1902 he was returned

to the chamber of deputies as a radical socialist by the XIII^{me}

arrondissement of Paris. He supported the policy of M. Combes, and presided

over the commission for the separation of church and state.

BUITENZORG, a hill station in the residency of Batavia, island of Java,

Dutch East Indies. It is beautifully situated among the hills at the foot

of the Salak volcano, about 860 ft. above sea-level, and has a cool and

healthy climate. Buitenzorg is the usual residence of the governor-general

of the Dutch East Indies, and is further remarkable on account of its

splendid botanical garden and for its popularity as a health resort. The

botanic gardens are among the finest in the world; they originally formed a

part of the park attached to the palace of the governor-general, and were

established in 1817. Under J.S. Teysmann, who became _hortulanus_ in 1830,

the collection was extended, and in 1868 was recognized as a government

institution with a director. Between this and 1880 a museum, a school of

agriculture, and a culture garden were added, and since then library,

botanical, chemical, and pharmacological laboratories, and a herbarium have

been established. The palace of the governor-general was founded by

Governor-General van Imhoff in 1744, and rebuilt after being destroyed by

an earthquake in 1834. Buitenzorg is also the seat of the general secretary

of the state railway and of the department of mines. Buitenzorg, which is

called Bogor by the natives, was once the capital of the princess of

Pajajaram. Close by, at _Bata Tulis_ ("inscribed stone"), are some Hindu

remains. The district of Buitenzorg (till 1866 an assistant residency)

forms the southern part of the residency of Batavia, with an area of 1447

sq. m. It occupies the northern slopes of a range of hills separating it

from Preanger, and has a fertile soil. Tea, coffee, cinchona, sugar-cane,

rice, nutmegs, cloves and pepper are cultivated.

BUJN[=U]RD, a town of Persia, in the province of Khorasan, in a fertile

plain encompassed by hills, in 37° 29' N., 57° 21' E., at an elevation of

3600 ft. Pop. about 8000. Its old name was Buzinjird, and thus it still

appears in official registers. It is the chief place of the district of

same name, which extends in the west to the borders of Shahrud and

Astarabad; in the north it is bounded by Russian Transcaspia, in the east

by Kuchan, and in the south by Jovain. The greater part of the population

consists of Shadillu Kurds, the remainder being Zafranlu Kurds, Garaili

Turks, Goklan Turkomans and Persians.

BUKH[=A]R[=I] [Mahommed ibn Ism[=a]'[=i]l al-Bukh[=a]r[=i]] (810-872),

Arabic author of the most generally accepted collection of traditions

(_[h.]ad[=i]th_) from Mahomet, was born at Bokhara (_Bukh[=a]r[=a]_), of an

Iranian family, in A.H. 194 (A.D. 810). He early distinguished himself in

the learning of traditions by heart, and when, in his sixteenth year, his

family made the pilgrimage to Mecca, he gathered additions to his store

from the authorities along the route. Already, in his eighteenth year, he

had devoted himself to the collecting, sifting, testing and arranging of

traditions. For that purpose he travelled over the Moslem world, from Egypt

to Samarkand, and learned (as the story goes) from over a thousand men

three hundred thousand traditions, true and false. He certainly became the

acknowledged authority on the subject, and developed a power and speed of

memory [v.04 p.0716] which seemed miraculous, even to his contemporaries.

His theological position was conservative and anti-rationalistic; he

enjoyed the friendship and respect of A[h.]mad Ibn [H.]anbal. In law, he

appears to have been a Sh[=a]fi'ite. After sixteen years' absence he

returned to Bokhara, and there drew up his _[S.]a[h.][=i][h.]_, a

collection of 7275 tested traditions, arranged in chapters so as to afford

bases for a complete system of jurisprudence without the use of speculative

law, the first book of its kind (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW). He died in A.H. 256,

in banishment at Kartank, a suburb of Samarkand. His book has attained a

quasi-canonicity in Isl[=a]m, being treated almost like the Koran, and to

his grave solemn pilgrimages are made, and prayers are believed to be heard

there.

See F. Wüstenfeld, _Sch[=a]fi'iten_, 78 ff.; M^cG. de Slane's transl. of

Ibn Khallikan, i. 594 ff.; I. Goldziher, _Mohammedanische Studien_, ii. 157

ff.; Nawawi, _Biogr. Dict._ 86 ff.

(D. B. MA.)

BUKOVINA, a duchy and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by Russia and

Rumania, S. by Rumania, W. by Transylvania and Hungary, and N. by Galicia.

Area, 4035 sq. m. The country, especially in its southern parts, is

occupied by the offshoots of the Carpathians, which attain in the Giumaleu

an altitude of 6100 ft. The principal passes are the Radna Pass and the

Borgo Pass. With the exception of the Dniester, which skirts its northern

border, Bukovina belongs to the watershed of the Danube. The principal

rivers are the Pruth, and the Sereth with its affluents the Suczawa, the

Moldava and the Bistritza. The climate of Bukovina is healthy but severe,

especially in winter; but it is generally milder than that of Galicia, the

mean annual temperature at Czernowitz being 46.9° F. No less than 43.17% of

the total area is occupied by woodland, and the very name of the country is

derived from the abundance of beech trees. Of the remainder 27.59% is

occupied by arable land, 12.68% by meadows, 10.09% by pastures and 0.78% by

gardens. The soil of Bukovina is fertile, and agriculture has made great

progress, the principal products being wheat, maize, rye, oats, barley,

potatoes, flax and hemp. Cattle-rearing constitutes another important

source of revenue. The principal mineral is salt, which is extracted at the

mine of Kaczyka, belonging to the government. Brewing, distilling and

milling are the chief industries. Commerce is mostly in the hands of the

Jews and Armenians, and chiefly confined to raw products, such as

agricultural produce, cattle, wool and wood. Bukovina had in 1900 a

population of 729,921, which is equivalent to 181 inhabitants per sq. m.

According to nationality, over 40% were Ruthenians, 35% Rumanians, 13%

Jews, and the remainder was composed of Germans, Poles, Hungarians,

Russians and Armenians. The official language of the administration, of the

law-courts, and of instruction in the university is German. Nearly 70% of

the population belong to the Greek Orthodox Church, and stand under the

ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the archbishop or metropolitan of

Czernowitz. To the Roman Catholic Church belong 11%, to the Greek United

Church 3.25%, while 2.5% are Protestants. Elementary education is

improving, but, after Dalmatia, Bukovina still shows the largest number of

illiterates in Austria. The local diet, of which the archbishop of

Czernowitz and the rector of the university are members _ex officio_, is

composed of 31 members, and Bukovina sends 14 deputies to the Reichsrat at

Vienna. For administrative purposes, the country is divided into 9

districts and an autonomous municipality, Czernowitz (pop. 69,619), the

capital. Other towns are Radautz (14,343), Suczawa (10,946), Kuczurmare

(9417), Kimpolung (8024) and Sereth (7610).

Bukovina was originally a part of the principality of Moldavia, whose

ancient capital Suczawa was situated in this province. It was occupied by

the Russians in 1769, and by the Austrians in 1774. In 1777 the Porte,

under whose suzerainty Moldavia was, ceded this province to Austria. It was

incorporated with Galicia in a single province in 1786, but was separated

from it in 1849, and made a separate crownland.

See Bidermann, _Die Bukowina unter der osterreichischen Verwaltung,

1775-1875_ (Lemberg, 1876).

BULACÁN, a town of the province of Bulacán, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on

an arm of the Pampanga delta, 22 m. N.N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 11,589;

after the census enumeration, the town of Guiguintó (pop. 3948) was

annexed. Bulacán is served by the Manila-Dagupan railway. Sugar, rice,

indigo and tropical fruits are the chief products of the fertile district

in which the town lies; it is widely known for its fish-ponds and its

excellent fish, and its principal manufactures are jusi, piña, ilang ilang

perfume and sugar. With the exception of the churches and a few stone

buildings, Bulacán was completely destroyed by fire in 1898.

BULANDSHAHR, a town and district of British India in the Meerut division of

the United Provinces. The town is situated on a height on the right bank of

the Kali-Nadi, whence the substitution of the names Unchanagar and

Bulandshahr (high town) for its earlier name of Baran, by which it is still

sometimes called. The population in 1901 was 18,959. Its present handsome

appearance is due to several successive collectors, notably F.S. Growse,

who was active in erecting public buildings, and in encouraging the local

gentry to beautify their own houses. In particular, it boasts a fine

bathing-ghat, a town-hall, a market-place, a tank to supply water, and a

public garden.

The DISTRICT OF BULANDSHAHR has an area of 1899 sq. m. The district

stretches out in a level plain, with a gentle slope from N.W. to S.E., and

a gradual but very slight elevation about midway between the Ganges and

Jumna. Principal rivers are the Ganges and Jumna--the former navigable all

the year round, the latter only during the rains. The Ganges canal

intersects the district, and serves both for irrigation and navigation. The

Lower Ganges canal has its headworks at Narora. The climate of the district

is liable to extremes, being very cold in the winter and excessively hot in

the summer. In 1901 the population was 1,138,101, showing an increase of

20% in the decade. The district is very highly cultivated and thickly

populated. There are several indigo factories, and mills for pressing and

cleaning cotton, but the former have greatly suffered by the decline in

indigo of recent years. The main line of the East Indian railway and the

Oudh and Rohilkhand railway cross the district. The chief centre of trade

is Khurja.

Nothing certain is known of the history of the district before A.D. 1018,

when Mahmud of Ghazni appeared before Baran and received the submission of

the Hindu raja and his followers to Islam. In 1193 the city was captured by

Kutb-ud-din. In the 14th century the district was subject to invasions of

Rajput and Mongol clans who left permanent settlements in the country. With

the firm establishment of the Mogul empire peace was restored, the most

permanent effect of this period being the large proportion of Mussulmans

among the population, due to the zeal of Aurangzeb. The decline of the

Mogul empire gave free play to the turbulent spirit of the Jats and Gujars,

many of whose chieftains succeeded in carving out petty principalities for

themselves at the expense of their neighbours. During this period, however,

Baran had properly no separate history, being a dependency of Koil, whence

it continued to be administered under the Mahratta domination. After Koil

and the fort of Aligarh had been captured by the British in 1803,

Bulandshahr and the surrounding country were at first incorporated in the

newly created district of Aligarh (1805). Bulandshahr enjoyed an evil

reputation in the Mutiny of 1857, when the Gujar peasantry plundered the

towns. The Jats took the side of the government, while the Gujars and

Mussulman Rajputs were most actively hostile.

See _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, ed. 1908); F.S. Growse,

_Bulandshahr_ (Benares, 1884).

BULAWAYO, the capital of Matabeleland, the western province of southern

Rhodesia, South Africa. White population (1904) 3840. It occupies a central

position on the tableland between the Limpopo and Zambezi rivers, is 4469

ft. above the sea and 1362 m. north-east of Cape Town by rail. Beira, the

nearest port, is 398 m. east in a direct line, but distant 675 m. by

railway. Another railway, part of the Cape to Cairo connexion, runs

north-west from Bulawayo, crossing the Zambezi just below the Victoria

Falls. In the centre of the town is a large market square to which roads

lead in regular lines north, south, east and [v.04 p.0717] west. Those

going east and west are called avenues and are numbered, those running

north and south are called streets and are named. Through the centre of

Market Square runs Rhodes Street. There are many handsome public and

private buildings. In front of the stock exchange is a monument in memory

of the 257 settlers killed in the Matabele rebellion of 1896, and at the

junction of two of the principal streets is a colossal bronze statue of

Cecil Rhodes. East of the town is a large park and botanical gardens,

beyond which is a residential suburb. The railway station and water and

electric supply works are in the south-west quarter. An avenue 130 ft.

broad and nearly 1½ m. long, planted throughout its length with trees,

leads from the town to Government House, which is built on the site of

Lobengula's royal kraal. The tree under which that chieftain sat when

giving judgment has been preserved. A number of gold reefs intersect the

surrounding district and in some of the reefs gold is mined.

South-south-east of the town are the Matoppo Hills. In a grave in one of

these hills, 33 m. from Bulawayo, Rhodes is buried.

The "Place of Slaughter," as the Zulu word Bulawayo is interpreted, was

founded about 1838 by Lobengula's father, Mosilikatze, some distance south

of the present town, and continued to be the royal residence till its

occupation by the British South Africa Company's forces in November 1893,

when a new town was founded. Four years later the railway connecting it

with Cape Town was completed (see RHODESIA).

BULDANA, a town and district of India, in Berar. The town had a population

in 1901 of 4137. The district has an area of 3662 sq. m. The southern part

forms a portion of Berar Balaghat or Berar--above the Ghats. Here the

general contour of the country may be described as a succession of small

plateaus decreasing in elevation to the extreme south. Towards the eastern

side of the district the country assumes more the character of undulating

high lands, favoured with soil of a good quality. A succession of plateaus

descends from the highest ridges on the north to the south, where a series

of small ghats march with the nizam's territory. The small fertile valleys

between the plateaus are watered by streams during the greater portion of

the year, while wells of particularly good and pure water are numerous.

These valleys are favourite village sites. The north portion of the

district occupies the rich valley of the Purna. The district is rich in

agricultural produce; in a seasonable year a many-coloured sheet of

cultivation, almost without a break, covers the valley of the Purna. In the

Balaghat also the crops are very fine. Situated as the district is in the

neighbourhood of the great cotton market of Khamgaon, and nearer to Bombay

than the other Berar districts, markets for its agricultural produce on

favourable terms are easily found. In 1901 the population was 423,616,

showing a decrease of 12% in the decade due to the effects of famine. The

district was reconstituted, and given an additional area of 853 sq. m. in

1905; the population on the enlarged area in 1901 was 613,756. The only

manufacture is cotton cloth. Cotton, wheat and oil-seeds are largely

exported. The Nagpur line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway runs

through the north of the district. The most important place of trade is

Malkapur--pop. (1901) 13,112--with several factories for ginning and

pressing cotton.

BULDUR, or BURDUR, chief town of a sanjak of the Konia vilayet in Asia

Minor. It is called by the Christians _Polydorion_. Its altitude is 3150

ft. and it is situated in the midst of gardens, about 2 m. from the

brackish lake, Buldur Geul (anc. _Ascania Limne_). Linen-weaving and

leather-tanning are the principal industries. There is a good carriage road

to Dineir, by which much grain is sent from the Buldur plain, and a railway

connects it with Dineir and Egirdir. Pop. 12,000.

BULFINCH, CHARLES (1763-1844), American architect, was born in Boston,

Massachusetts, on the 8th of August 1763, the son of Thomas Bulfinch, a

prominent and wealthy physician. He was educated at the Boston Latin school

and at Harvard, where he graduated in 1781, and after several years of

travel and study in Europe, settled in 1787 in Boston, where he was the

first to practise as a professional architect. Among his early works were

the old Federal Street theatre (1793), the first play-house in New England,

and the "new" State House (1798). For more than twenty-five years he was

the most active architect in Boston, and at the same time took a leading

part in the public life of the city. As chairman of the board of selectmen

for twenty-one years (1797-1818), an important position which made him

practically chief magistrate, he exerted a strong influence in modernizing

Boston, in providing for new systems of drainage and street-lighting, in

reorganizing the police and fire departments, and in straightening and

widening the streets. He was one of the promoters in 1787 of the voyage of

the ship "Columbia," which under command of Captain Robert Gray (1755-1806)

was the first to carry the American flag round the world. In 1818 Bulfinch

succeeded B.H. Latrobe (1764-1820) as architect of the National Capitol at

Washington. He completed the unfinished wings and central portion,

constructing the rotunda from plans of his own after suggestions of his

predecessor, and designed the new western approach and portico. In 1830 he

returned to Boston, where he died on the 15th of April 1844. Bulfinch's

work was marked by sincerity, simplicity, refinement of taste and an entire

freedom from affectation, and it greatly influenced American architecture

in the early formative period. His son, Stephen Greenleaf Bulfinch

(1809-1870), was a well-known Unitarian clergyman and author.

See _The Life and Letters of Charles Bulfinch_ (Boston, 1896), edited by

his grand-daughter, and "The Architects of the American Capitol," by James

Q. Howard, in _The International Review_, vol. i. (New York, 1874).

BULGARIA, a kingdom of south-eastern Europe, situated in the north-east of

the Balkan Peninsula, and on the Black Sea. From 1878 until the 5th of

October 1908, Bulgaria was an autonomous and tributary principality, under

the suzerainty of the sultan of Turkey. The area of the kingdom amounts to

37,240 sq. m., and comprises the territories between the Balkan chain and

the river Danube; the province of Eastern Rumelia, lying south of the

Balkans; and the western highlands of Kiustendil, Samakov, Sofia and Trn.

Bulgaria is bounded on the N. by the Danube, from its confluence with the

Timok to the eastern suburbs of Silistria whence a line, forming the

Rumanian frontier, is drawn to a point on the Black Sea coast 10 m. S. of

Mangalia. On the E. it is washed by the Black Sea; on the S. the Turkish

frontier, starting from a point on the coast about 12 m. S. of Sozopolis,

runs in a south-westerly direction, crossing the river Maritza at Mustafa

Pasha, and reaching the Arda at Adakali. The line laid down by the Berlin

Treaty (1878) ascended the Arda to Ishiklar, thence following the crest of

Rhodope to the westwards, but the cantons of Krjali and Rupchus included in

this boundary were restored to Turkey in 1886. The present frontier,

passing to the north of these districts, reaches the watershed of Rhodope a

little north of the Dospat valley, and then follows the crest of the Rilska

Planina to the summit of Tchrni Vrkh, where the Servian, Turkish and

Bulgarian territories meet. From this point the western or Servian frontier

passes northwards, leaving Trn to the east and Pirot to the west, reaching

the Timok near Kula, and following the course of that river to its junction

with the Danube. The Berlin Treaty boundary was far from corresponding with

the ethnological limits of the Bulgarian race, which were more accurately

defined by the abrogated treaty of San Stefano (see below, under

_History_). A considerable portion of Macedonia, the districts of Pirot and

Vranya belonging to Servia, the northern half of the vilayet of Adrianople,

and large tracts of the Dobrudja, are, according to the best and most

impartial authorities, mainly inhabited by a Bulgarian population.

_Physical Features._--The most striking physical features are two

mountain-chains; the Balkans, which run east and west through the heart of

the country; and Rhodope, which, for a considerable distance, forms its

southern boundary. The Balkans constitute the southern half of the great

semicircular range known as the anti-Dacian system, of which the

Carpathians form the northern portion. This great chain is sundered at the

Iron Gates by the passage of the Danube; its two component parts present

many points of resemblance in their aspect and outline, geological

formation and flora. The Balkans (ancient _Haemus_) run almost parallel to

the Danube, ...

_(continued in part 4)_

* * * * *

Corrections made to printed original.

p. 499, History: "It was, however, recovered": 'recoverd' in original

p. 506, 1st para: "the yarrow (Achillea millefolium).": 'Achilloea' in

original

p. 506, 2nd para: "owing partly to licensing legislation": 'lincensing' in

original

p. 507, 2nd para: "The worts of each brewing must be collected": 'much be

collected' in original

p. 541, Lansdowne Bridge: "main members at end of cantilevers":

'centilevers' in original

p. 602, Climate, Flora and Fauna: "constant breeze from the Indian Ocean":

'beeeze' in original

P. 625, Brockville: "situated 119 m. S.W. of Montreal": 'situtated' in

original

p. 635, 5th para: "the embarrassment of breathing": 'embarassment' in

original

p. 671, 1st para: "he conceived an enthusiastic admiration": 'enthusiatic'

in original

P. 703, Marchantiales: "Marchantia polymorpha and Lunularia": 'Marchantia,

polymorpha' in original

p. 707, Fig. 14: "Andreaea petrophila": 'pelrophila' in original

P. 742, Buddhaghosa: "a nearly contemporaneous Chinese translation":

'comtemporaneous' in original