boasts of persecution are put forth, that the cause of the decline of
Buddhism in India had been Brahmin persecution. The now accessible older
authorities, with one doubtful exception,[27] make no mention of
persecution. On the other hand, the comparison we are now able to make
between the canonical books of the older Buddhism and the later texts of
the following centuries, shows a continual decline from the old standpoint,
a continual approximation of the Buddhist views to those of the other
philosophies and religions of India. We can see now that the very event
which seemed, in the eyes of the world, to be the most striking proof of
the success of the new movement, the conversion and strenuous support, in
the 3rd century B.C., of Asoka, the most powerful ruler India had had, only
hastened the decline. The adhesion of large numbers of nominal converts,
more especially from the newly incorporated and less advanced provinces,
produced weakness rather than strength in the movement for reform. The day
of compromise had come. Every relaxation of the old thoroughgoing position
was welcomed and supported by converts only half converted. And so the
margin of difference between the Buddhists and their opponents gradually
faded almost entirely away. The soul theory, step by step, gained again the
upper hand. The popular gods and the popular superstitions are once more
favoured by Buddhists themselves. The philosophical basis of the old ethics
is overshadowed by new speculations. And even the old ideal of life, the
salvation of the Arahat to be won in this world and in this world only, by
self-culture and self-mastery, is forgotten, or mentioned only to be
condemned. The end was inevitable. The need of a separate organization
became less and less apparent. The whole pantheon of the Vedic gods, with
the ceremonies and the sacrifices associated with them, passed indeed away.
But the ancient Buddhism, the party of reform, was overwhelmed also in its
fall; and modern Hinduism arose on the ruins of both.
AUTHORITIES.--The attention of the few scholars at work on the subject
being directed to the necessary first step of publishing the ancient
authorities, the work of exploring them, of analysing and classifying the
data they contain, has as yet been very imperfectly done. The annexed list
contains only the most important works.
TEXTS.--_P[=a]li Text Society_, 57 vols.; _J[=a]taka_, 7 vols., ed.
Fausböll, 1877-1897; _Vinaya_, 5 vols., ed. Oldenberg, 1879-1883;
_Dhammapada_, ed. Fausböll, 2nd ed., 1900; _Divy[=a]vad[=a]na_, ed. Cowell
and Neil, 1882; _Mah[=a]vastu_, ed. Senart, 3 vols., 1882-1897; _Buddha
Carita_, ed. Cowell, 1892; _Milinda-pañho_, ed. Trenckner, 1880.
TRANSLATIONS.--_Vinaya Texts_, by Rhys Davids and Oldenberg, 3 vols.,
1881-1885; _Dhammapada_, by Max Müller, and _Sutta Nipata_, by Fausböll,
1881; _Questions of King Milinda_, by Rhys Davids, 2 vols., 1890-1894;
_Buddhist Suttas,_ by Rhys Davids, 1881; _Saddharma Pundar[=i]ka_, by Kern,
1884; _Buddhist Mah[=a]y[=a]na Texts_, by Cowell and Max Müller, 1894--all
the above in the "Sacred Books of the East"; _J[=a]taka_, vol. i., by Rhys
Davids, under the title _Buddhist Birth Stories_, 1880; vols. i.-vi., by
Chalmers, Neil, Francis, and Rouse, 1895-1897; _Buddhism in Translations_,
by Warren, 1896; _Buddhistische Anthologie_, by Neumann, 1892. _Lieder der
Mönche und Nonnen_, 1899, by the same; _Dialogues of the Buddha_, by Rhys
Davids, 1899; _Die Reden Gotamo Buddhas_, by Neumann, 3 vols., 1899-1903;
_Buddhist Psychology_, by Mrs Rhys Davids, 1900.
MANUALS, MONOGRAPHS, &C.--_Buddhism_, by Rhys Davids, 12mo, 20th thousand,
1903; _Buddha, sein Leben, seine Lehre und seine Gemeinde_, by Oldenberg,
5th edition, 1906; _Der Buddhismus und seine Geschichte in Indien_, by
Kern, 1882; _Der Buddhismus_, by Edmund Hardy, 1890; _American Lectures,
Buddhism_, by Rhys Davids, 1896; _Inscriptions de Piyadasi_, by Senart, 2
vols., 1881-1886; _Mara und Buddha_, by Windisch, 1895; _Buddhist India_,
by Rhys Davids, 1903.
(T. W. R. D.)
[1] That is by the Arahat, the title the Buddha always uses of himself. He
does not call himself the Buddha, and his followers never address him as
such.
[2] One very ancient commentary on the Path has been preserved in three
places in the canon: _D[=i]gha_, ii. 305-307 and 311-313, _Majjhima_, iii.
251, and _Samyutta_, v. 8.
[3] _Mah[=a]li Suttanta_; translated in Rhys Davids' _Dialogues of the
Buddha_, vol. i. p. 201 (cf. p. 204).
[4] See _Iti-vuttaka_, p. 44; _Samyutta_, iii. 57.
[5] See _D[=i]gha_, ii. 28; _J[=a]t_. v. 48, ii. 80.
[6] Burnett, _Early Greek Philosophy_, p. 149.
[7] _Katha Up_. 2, 10; _Bhag. G[=i]t[=a]_, 2, 14; 9, 33.
[8] The _Anatta-lakkhana Sutta_ (_Vinaya_, i. 13 = _Samyutta_, iii. 66 and
iv. 34), translated in _Vinaya Texts_, i. 100-102.
[9] See article on "Buddhist Schools of Thought," by Rhys Davids, in the
_J.R.A.S._ for 1892.
[10] _Questions of King Milinda_, translated by Rhys Davids (Oxford,
1890-1894), vol. i. pp. 40, 41, 85-87; vol. ii. pp. 21-25, 86-89.
[11] _Majjhima_, iii. 251, cf. _Samyutta_, v. 8.
[12] _D[=i]gha_, ii. 290-315. _Majjhima_, i. 55 et seq. Cf. Rhys Davids'
_Dialogues of the Buddha_, i. 81.
[13] No. 8 in the _Sutta Nipata_ (p. 26 of Fausböll's edition). It is
translated by Fausböll in vol. x. of the _S.B.E._, and by Rhys Davids,
_Buddhism_, p. 109.
[14] _D[=i]gha_, ii. 186-187.
[15] _Majjhima_, i. 129.
[16] _Iti-vuttaka_, pp. 19-21.
[17] On the details of these see _D[=i]gha_, i. 71-73, translated by Rhys
Davids in _Dialogues of the Buddha_, i. 82-84.
[18] _D[=i]gha_, i. 74.
[19] _Samyutta_, iv. 251, 261.
[20] _Phaedo_, 69 et seq. The idea is there also put forward in connexion
with a belief in transmigration.
[21] _Samyutta_, iv. 302.
[22] _Majjhima_, iii. 99 et seq.
[23] The history of the Indian doctrine of Karma has yet to be written. On
the Buddhist side see Rhys Davids' _Hibbert Lectures_, pp. 73-120, and
Dahlke, _Aufsatze zum Verstandnis des Buddhismus_ (Berlin, 1903), i.
92-106, and ii. l-11.
[24] For instance, _Majjhima_, i. 163-166
[25] _Anguttara_, iii. 119.
[26] _D[=i]gha_, i. 38.
[27] See _Journal of the P[=a]li Text Society_, 1896, pp. 87-92.
BUDÉ [BUDAEUS], GUILLAUME (1467-1540), French scholar, was born at Paris.
He went to the university of Orleans to study law, but for several years,
being possessed of ample means, he led an idle and dissipated life. When
about twenty-four years of age he was seized with a sudden passion for
study, and made rapid progress, particularly in the Latin and Greek
languages. The work which gained him greatest reputation was his _De Asse
et Partibus_ (1514), a treatise on ancient coins and measures. He was held
in high esteem by Francis I., who was persuaded by him, and by Jean du
Bellay, bishop of Narbonne, to found the Collegium Trilingue, afterwards
the Collège de France, and the library at Fontainebleau, which was removed
to Paris and was the origin of the Bibliothèque Nationale. He also induced
Francis to refrain from prohibiting printing in France, which had been
advised by the Sorbonne in 1533. He was sent by Louis XII. to Rome as
ambassador to Leo X., and in 1522 was appointed _maître des requêtes_ and
was several times _prévôt des marchands_. He died in Paris on the 23rd of
August 1540.
Budé was also the author of _Annotationes in XXIV. libros Pandectarum_
(1508), which, by the application of philology and history, had a great
influence on the study of Roman law, and of _Commentarii linguae Graecae_
(1529), an extensive collection of lexicographical notes, which contributed
greatly to the study of Greek literature in France. Budé corresponded with
the most learned men of his time, amongst them Erasmus, who called him the
marvel of France, and Thomas More. He wrote with equal facility in Greek
and Latin, although his Latin is inferior to his Greek, being somewhat
harsh and full of Greek constructions. His request that he should be buried
at night, and his widow's open profession of Protestantism at Geneva (where
she retired after his death), caused him to be suspected of leanings
towards Calvinism. At the time of the massacre of St Bartholomew, the
members of his family were obliged to flee from France. Some took refuge in
Switzerland, where they worthily upheld the traditions of their house,
while others settled in Pomerania under the name Budde or Buddeus.
[v.04 p.0695] See Le Roy, _Vita G. Budaei_ (1540); Rebitté, _G. Budé,
restaurateur des études grecques en France_ (1846); E. de Budé, _Vie de G.
Budé_ (1884), who refutes the idea of his ancestor's Protestant views;
D'Hozier, _La Maison de Budé_; L. Delaruelle, _Études sur l'humanisme
français_ (1907).
BUDE, a small seaport and watering-place in the Launceston parliamentary
division of Cornwall, England, on the north coast at the mouth of the river
Bude. With the market town of Stratton, 1½ m. inland to the east, it forms
the urban district of Stratton and Bude, with a population (1901) of 2308.
Bude is served by a branch of the London & South-Western railway. Its only
notable building is the Early English parish church of St Michael and All
Angels. The climate is healthy and the coast scenery in the neighbourhood
fine, especially towards the south. There the gigantic cliffs, with their
banded strata, have been broken into fantastic forms by the waves. Many
ships have been wrecked on the jagged reefs which fringe their base. The
figure-head of one of these, the "Bencellon," lost in 1862, is preserved in
the churchyard. The harbour, sheltered by a breakwater, will admit vessels
of 300 tons at high water; and the river has been dammed to form a basin
for the canal which runs to Launceston. Some fishing is carried on: but the
staple trade is the export of sand, which, being highly charged with
carbonate of lime, is much used for manure. There are golf links near the
town. The currents in the bay make bathing dangerous.
BUDGELL, EUSTACE (1686-1737), English man of letters, the son of Dr Gilbert
Budgell, was born on the 19th of August 1686 at St Thomas, near Exeter. He
matriculated in 1705 at Trinity College, Oxford, and afterwards joined the
Inner Temple, London; but instead of studying law he devoted his whole
attention to literature. Addison, who was first cousin to his mother,
befriended him, and, on being appointed secretary to Lord Wharton,
lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1710, took Budgell with him as one of the
clerks of his office. Budgell took part with Steele and Addison in writing
the _Tatler_. He was also a contributor to the _Spectator_ and the
_Guardian_,--his papers being marked with an X in the former, and with an
asterisk in the latter. He was subsequently made under-secretary to
Addison, chief secretary to the lords justices of Ireland, and deputy-clerk
of the council, and became a member of the Irish parliament. In 1717, when
Addison became principal secretary of state in England, he procured for
Budgell the place of accountant and comptroller-general of the revenue in
Ireland. But the next year, the duke of Bolton being appointed
lord-lieutenant, Budgell wrote a lampoon against E. Webster, his secretary.
This led to his being removed from his post of accountant-general, upon
which he returned to England, and, contrary to the advice of Addison,
published his case in a pamphlet. In the year 1720 he lost £20,000 by the
South Sea scheme, and afterwards spent £5000 more in unsuccessful attempts
to get into parliament. He began to write pamphlets against the ministry,
and published many papers in the _Craftsman_. In 1733 he started a weekly
periodical called the _Bee_, which he continued for more than a hundred
numbers. By the will of Matthew Tindal, the deist, who died in 1733, a
legacy of 2000 guineas was left to Budgell; but the bequest (which had, it
was alleged, been inserted in the will by Budgell himself) was successfully
disputed by Tindal's nephew and nearest heir, Nicholas Tindal, who
translated and wrote a _Continuation_ of the _History of England_ of Paul
de Rapin-Thoyras. Hence Pope's lines--
"Let Budgell charge low Grub Street on his quill,
And write whate'er he pleased--except his will."[1]
Budgell is said to have sold the second volume of Tindal's _Christianity as
Old as the Creation_ to Bishop Gibson, by whom it was destroyed. The
scandal caused by these transactions ruined him. On the 4th of May 1737,
after filling his pockets with stones, he took a boat at Somerset-stairs,
and while the boat was passing under the bridge threw himself into the
river. On his desk was found a slip of paper with the words--"What Cato
did, and Addison approved, cannot be wrong." Besides the works mentioned
above, he wrote a translation (1714) of the _Characters_ of Theophrastus.
He never married, but left a natural daughter, Anne Eustace, who became an
actress at Drury Lane.
See Cibber's _Lives of the Poets_, vol. v.
[1] _Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot_, lines 378-379.
BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as _bulga_,
leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. _bougette_, from which the Eng.
form is derived), the name applied to an account of the ways and means by
which the income and expenditure for a definite period are to be balanced,
generally by a finance minister for his state, or by analogy for smaller
bodies.[1] The term first came into use in England about 1760. In the
United Kingdom the chancellor of the exchequer, usually in April, lays
before the House of Commons a statement of the actual results of revenue
and expenditure in the past finance year (now ending March 31), showing how
far his estimates have been realized, and what surplus or deficit there has
been in the income as compared with the expenditure. This is accompanied by
another statement in which the chancellor gives an estimate of what the
produce of the revenue may be in the year just entered upon, supposing the
taxes and duties to remain as they were in the past year, and also an
estimate of what the expenditure will be in the current year. If the
estimated revenue, after allowing for normal increase of the principal
sources of income, be less than the estimated expenditure, this is deemed a
case for the imposition of some new, or the increase of some existing, tax
or taxes. On the other hand, if the estimated revenue shows a large surplus
over the estimated expenditure, there is room for remitting or reducing
some tax or taxes, and the extent of this relief is generally limited to
the amount of surplus realized in the previous year. The chancellor of the
exchequer has to take parliament into confidence on his estimates, both as
regards revenue and expenditure; and these estimates are prepared by the
various departments of the administration. They are divided into two parts,
the consolidated fund services and the supply services, the first
comprising the civil list, debt charge, pensions and courts of justice,
while the "supply" includes the remaining expenditure of the country, as
the army, the navy, the civil service and revenue departments, the
post-office and telegraph services. The consolidated fund services are an
annual charge, fixed by statute, and alterable only by statute, but the
supply services may be gone through in detail, item by item, by the House
of Commons, which forms itself into a committee of supply for the purpose.
These items can be criticized, and reduced (but not increased) by
amendments proposed by private members. The committee of ways and means
(also a committee of the whole House) votes the supplies when granted and
originates all taxes. The resolutions of these committees are reported to
the House, and when the taxation and expenditure obtain the assent of
parliament, the results as thus adjusted become the final budget estimate
for the year, and are passed as the Finance Act. This system of annual
review and adjustment of the public finances obtains not only in the
British colonies, but in British India. The Indian budget, giving the
results of income and expenditure in the year ending 31st of December, and
the prospective estimates, is laid before the imperial parliament in the
course of the ensuing session.
The budget, though modified by different forms, has also long been
practised in France, the United States, and other constitutional countries,
and has in some cases been adopted by autocratic Powers. Russia began the
publication of annual budgets in 1866; Egypt has followed the example; so
also has Turkey, by an imperial decree of 1875. All countries agree in
taking a yearly period, but the actual date of commencement varies
considerably. The German and Danish financial year, like that of the United
Kingdom, begins on the 1st of April; in France, Belgium and Austria, it
begins on the 1st of January; in Italy, Spain, the United States and
Canada, on the 1st of July. [v.04 p.0696] Previously to 1832, however, the
English financial year ran from the 1st of January to the 31st of December.
It may be mentioned that Disraeli introduced a budget (on which he was
defeated) in the autumn of 1852; and in 1860, owing to the ratification of
the commercial treaty with France, the budget was introduced on the 10th of
February. In 1859, through a change of administration, the budget was not
introduced until the 18th of July, while in 1880 there were two budgets,
one introduced in March under Disraeli's administration, and the other in
June, under Gladstone's administration.
National budgets are to be discriminated (1) as budgets passing under
parliamentary scrutiny and debate from year to year, and (2) budgets
emitted on executive authority. In most constitutional countries the
procedure is somewhat of a mean between the extremes of the United Kingdom
and the United States. In the United Kingdom the budget is placed by the
executive before the whole House, without any previous examination except
by the cabinet, and it is scrutinized by the House sitting as a committee;
in the majority of countries, however, the budget undergoes a preliminary
examination by a specially selected committee, which has the power to make
drastic changes in the proposals of the executive. In the United States, on
the other hand, the budget practically emanates from Congress, for there is
no connexion between the executive and the legislative departments. The
estimates prepared by the various executive departments are submitted to
the House of Representatives by the secretary of the treasury. With these
estimates two separate committees deal. The committee on ways and means
deals with taxation, and the committee on appropriations with expenditure.
The latter committee is divided into various sub-committees, each of which
brings in an appropriation bill for the department or subject with which it
is charged.
There are also, in all the greater countries, local and municipal taxations
and expenditures of only less account than the national. In federal
governments such as the United States, the German empire, or the Argentine
republic, the budgets of the several states of the federation have to be
consulted, as well as the federal budgets, for a knowledge of the finances.
AUTHORITIES.--Stourm, _Le Budget, son histoire et son mécanisme_ (1889),
which gives a comparative study of the budgets of different countries, is
the best book upon the subject. See also Siedler, _Budget und
Budgetrecht_(1885); Sendel, _Über Budgetrecht_(1890); Besson, _Le Contrôle
des budgets en France et à l'étranger_ (1899); Bastable, _Public Finance_
(3rd ed., 1903); Eugene E. Agger, _The Budget in American Commonwealths_
(New York, 1907).
[1] It was a name applied also to a leather-covered case or small coffer.
Cotgrave translates _bougette_ "a little coffer or trunk ... covered with
leather." It became a common word for a despatch box in which official
papers were kept. The chancellor of the exchequer thus was said to "open
his budget" when he made his annual statement.
BUDINI, an ancient nation in the N.E. of the Scythia (_q.v._) of Herodotus
(iv, 21, 108, 109), probably on the middle course of the Volga about
Samara. They are described as light-eyed and red-haired, and lived by
hunting in their thick forests. They were probably Finns of the branch now
represented by the Votiaks and Permiaks, forced northwards by later
immigrants. In their country was a wooden city inhabited by a distinct
race, the Geloni, who seem to have spoken an Indo-European tongue. Later
writers add nothing to our knowledge, and are chiefly interested in the
tarandus, an animal which dwelt in the woods of the Budini and seems to
have been the reindeer (Aristotle ap. Aelian, _Hist. Anim._ xv. 33).
(E. H. M.)
BUDWEIS (Czech _Bud[ve]jovice_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 80 m. S.S.W.
of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 39,630. It is situated at the junction of
the Maltsch with the Moldau, which here becomes navigable, and possesses a
beautiful square, lined with fine arcaded buildings, the principal one
being the town-hall, built in 1730 in Renaissance style. Other interesting
buildings are the cathedral with its detached tower, dating from 1500, and
the Marien-Kirche with fine cloisters. Budweis has a large, varied and
growing industry, which comprises the manufacture of chemicals, matches,
paper, machinery, bricks and tiles, corn and saw mills, boat-building,
bell-founding and black-lead pencils. It is the principal commercial centre
of South Bohemia, being an important railway junction, as well as a river
port, and carries on a large trade in corn, timber, lignite, salt,
industrial products and beer, the latter mostly exported to America. It is
the see of a bishop since 1783, and is the centre of a German enclave in
Czech Bohemia. But the Czech element is steadily increasing, and the
population of the town was in 1908 60% Czech. The railway from Budweis to
Linz, laid in 1827 for horse-cars, was the first line constructed in
Austria. A little to the north, in the Moldau valley, stands the beautiful
castle of Frauenberg, belonging to Prince Schwarzenberg. It stands on the
site formerly occupied by a 13th-century castle, and was built in the
middle of the 19th century, after the model of Windsor Castle.
The old town of Budweis was founded in the 13th century by Budivoj
Vitkovec, father of Závi[vs] of Falkenstein. In 1265 Ottokar II. founded
the new town, which was soon afterwards created a royal city. Charles IV.
and his son Wenceslaus granted the town many privileges. Although mainly
Catholic, Budweis declared for King George Pod[ve]brad, and in 1468 was
taken by the crusaders under Zdenko of Stenberg. From this time the town
remained faithful to the royal cause, and in 1547 was granted by the
emperor Ferdinand the privilege of ranking at the diet next to Prague and
Pilsen. After the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War Budweis was confirmed
in all its privileges.
BUELL, DON CARLOS (1818-1898), American soldier, was born near Marietta,
Ohio, on the 23rd of March 1818. He graduated at West Point in 1841, and as
a company officer of infantry took part in the Seminole War of 1841-42 and
the Mexican War, during which he was present at almost all the battles
fought by Generals Taylor and Scott, winning the brevet of captain at
Monterey, and that of major at Contreras-Churubusco, where he was wounded.
From 1848 to 1861 he performed various staff duties, chiefly as
assistant-adjutant-general. On the outbreak of the Civil War he was
appointed lieutenant-colonel on the 11th of May 1861, brigadier-general of
volunteers a few days later, and major-general of volunteers in March 1862.
He aided efficiently in organizing the Army of the Potomac, and, at the
instance of General McClellan, was sent, in November 1861, to Kentucky to
succeed General William T. Sherman in command. Here he employed himself in
the organization and training of the Army of the Ohio (subsequently of the
Cumberland), which to the end of its career retained a standard of
discipline and efficiency only surpassed by that of the Army of the
Potomac. In the spring of 1862 Buell followed the retiring Confederates
under Sidney Johnston, and appeared on the field of Shiloh (_q.v._) at the
end of the first day's fighting. On the following day, aided by Buell's
fresh and well-trained army, Grant carried all before him. Buell
subsequently served under Halleck in the advance on Corinth, and in the
autumn commanded in the campaign in Kentucky against Bragg. After a period
of manoeuvring in which Buell scarcely held his own, this virtually ended
in the indecisive battle of Perryville. The alleged tardiness of his
pursuit, and his objection to a plan of campaign ordered by the Washington
authorities, brought about Buell's removal from command. With all his gifts
as an organizer and disciplinarian, he was haughty in his dealings with the
civil authorities, and, in high command, he showed, on the whole,
unnecessary tardiness of movement and an utter disregard for the
requirements of the political situation. Moreover, as McClellan's friend,
holding similar views, adverse politically to the administration, he
suffered by McClellan's displacement. The complaints made against him were
investigated in 1862-1863, but the result of the investigation was not
published. Subsequently he was offered military employment, which he
declined. He resigned his volunteer commission in May, and his regular
commission in June 1864. He was president of Green River ironworks
(1865-1870), and subsequently engaged in various mining enterprises; he
served (1885-1889) as pension agent at Louisville. He died near Rockport,
Kentucky, on the 19th of November 1898.
BUENAVENTURA, a Pacific port of Colombia, in the department of Cauca, about
210 m. W.S.W. of Bogotá. Pop. about 1200. The town is situated on a small
island, called Cascajal, at the head of a broad estuary or bay projecting
inland from the Bay of Chocó and 10 m. from its mouth. Its geographical
position is lat. 3° 48' N., long. 77° 12' W. The estuary is deep enough for
vessels of 24 ft. draught and affords an excellent harbour. Buenaventura is
a port of call for two lines of steamers (English [v.04 p.0697] and
German), and is the Colombian landing-place of the West Coast cable. The
town is mean in appearance, and has a very unhealthy climate, oppressively
hot and humid. It is the port for the upper basin of the Cauca, an elevated
and fertile region, with two large commercial centres, Popayan and Cali. In
1907 a railway was under construction to the latter, and an extension to
Bogotá was also projected.
BUENOS AIRES, a maritime province of Argentina, South America, bounded N.
by the province of Santa Fé and Entre Rios, E. by the latter, the La Plata
estuary, and the Atlantic, S. by the Atlantic, and W. by the territories
(_gobernaciones_) of Rio Negro and Las Pampas, and the provinces of Córdoba
and Santa Fé. Its area is 117,812 sq. m., making it the largest province of
the republic. It is also the most populous, even excluding the federal
district, an official estimate of 1903 giving it a population of 1,251,000.
Although it has a frontage of over 900 m. on the La Plata and the Atlantic,
the province has but few good natural ports, the best being Bahia Blanca,
where the Argentine government has constructed a naval port, and Ensenada
(La Plata), where extensive artificial basins have been constructed for the
reception of ocean-going steamers. San Nicolas in the extreme north has a
fairly good river port, while at Buenos Aires a costly artificial port has
been constructed.
In its general aspect the province forms a part of the great treeless plain
extending from the Atlantic and La Plata estuary westward to the Andes. A
fringe of small tangled wood covers the low river banks and delta region of
the Paraná between San Nicolas and Buenos Aires; thence southward to Bahia
Blanca the sea-shore is low and sandy, with a zone of lagoons and partially
submerged lands immediately behind. The south-eastern and central parts of
the province are low and marshy, and their effective drainage has long been
an urgent problem. Two ranges of low mountains extend partly across the
southern part of the province--the first from Mar del Plata, on the coast,
in a north-east direction, known at different points as the Sierra del
Volcan (885 ft.), Sierra de Tandil (1476 ft.), and Sierra Baya, and the
second and shorter range nearer Bahia Blanca, having the same general
direction, known at different points as the Sierra Pillahuinco and Sierra
de la Ventana (3543 ft.). The country is well watered with numerous lakes
and small rivers, the largest river being the Rio Salado del Sud, which
rises near the north-western boundary and flows entirely across the
province in a south-easterly direction with a course of about 360 m. The
Rio Colorado crosses the extreme southern extension of the province, a
distance of about 80 m., but its mouth is obstructed, and its lower course
is subject to occasional disastrous inundations.
Cattle-raising naturally became the principal industry of this region soon
after its settlement by the Spaniards, and sheep-raising on a profitable
basis was developed about the middle of the 19th century. Toward the end of
that century the exports of wool, live-stock and dressed meats reached
enormous proportions. There is a large export of jerked beef (_tasajo_) to
Brazil and Cuba, and of live-stock to Europe, South Africa and neighbouring
South American republics. Much attention also has been given to raising
horses, asses, mules, swine and goats, all of which thrive on these grassy
plains. Butter and cheese-making have gained considerable prominence in the
province since 1890, and butter has become an article of export. Little
attention had been given to cereals up to 1875, but subsequently energetic
efforts were made to increase the production of wheat, Indian corn,
linseed, barley, oats and alfalfa, so that by the end of the century the
exports of wheat and flour had reached a considerable value. In 1895 there
were 3,400,000 acres under cultivation in the province, and in 1900 the
area devoted to wheat alone aggregated 1,960,000 acres. Fruit-growing also
has made good progress, especially on the islands of the Paraná delta, and
Argentine peaches, pears, strawberries, grapes and figs are highly
appreciated.
The navigation of the Paraná is at all times difficult, and is impossible
for the larger ocean-going steamers. The greater part of the trade of the
northern and western provinces, therefore, must pass through the ports of
Buenos Aires and Ensenada, at which an immense volume of business is
concentrated. All the great trunk railways of the republic pass through the
province and converge at these ports, and from them a number of
transatlantic steamship lines carry away the products of its fertile soil.
The province is also liberally supplied with branch railways. In the far
south the new port of Bahia Blanca has become prominent in the export of
wool and wheat.
The principal cities and towns of the province (apart from Buenos Aires and
its suburbs of Belgrano and Flores) are its capital La Plata; Bahia Blanca,
San Nicolas, a river port on the Paraná 150 m. by rail north-west of Buenos
Aires, with a population (1901) of 13,000; Campana (pop. 5419 in 1895), the
former river port of Buenos Aires on one of the channels of the Paraná, 51
m. by rail north-west of that city, and the site of the first factory in
Argentina (1883) for freezing mutton for export; Chivilcoy, an important
interior town, with a population (1901) of 15,000; Pergamino (9540 in
1895), a northern inland railway centre; Mar del Plata, a popular seaside
resort 250 m. by rail south of Buenos Aires; Azul (9494), Tandil (7088),
Chascomús (5667), Mercedes (9269), and Barracas al Sud (10,185), once the
centre of the jerked beef industries.
The early history of the province of Buenos Aires was a struggle for
supremacy over the other provinces for a period of two generations. Its
large extent of territory was secured through successive additions by
conquest of adjoining Indian territories south and west, the last additions
being as late as 1879. Buenos Aires became a province of the Confederation
in 1820, and adopted a constitution in 1854, which provides for its
administration by a governor and legislature of two chambers, both chosen
by popular vote. An unsuccessful revolt in 1880 against the national
government led to the federalization of the city of Buenos Aires, and the
selection of La Plata as the provincial capital, the republic assuming the
public indebtedness of the provinces at that time as an indemnification.
Before the new capital was finished, however, the province had incurred
further liabilities of ten millions sterling, and has since then been
greatly handicapped in its development in consequence.
(A. J. L.)
BUENOS AIRES, a city and port of Argentina, and capital of the republic, in
34° 36' 21" S. lat. and 58° 21' 33" W. long., on the west shore of the La
Plata estuary, about 155 m. above its mouth, and 127 m. W. by N. from
Montevideo. The estuary at this point is 34 m. wide, and so shallow that
vessels can enter the docks only through artificial channels kept open by
constant dredging. Previously to the construction of the new port,
ocean-going vessels of over 15 ft. draught were compelled to anchor in the
outer roads some 12 m. from the city, and communication with the shore was
effected by means of steam tenders and small boats, connecting with long
landing piers, or with carts driven out from the beach. The city is built
upon an open grassy plain extending inland from the banks of the estuary,
and north from the Riachuelo or Matanzas river where the "Boca" port is
located. Its average elevation is about 65 ft. above sea-level. The federal
district, which includes the city and its suburbs and covers an area of 72
sq. m., was detached from the province of Buenos Aires by an act of
congress in 1880. With the construction of the new port and reclamation of
considerable areas of the shallow water frontage, the area of the city has
been greatly extended below the line of the original estuary banks. The
streets of the old city, which are narrow and laid out to enclose
rectangular blocks of uniform size, run nearly parallel with the cardinal
points of the compass, but this plan is not closely followed in the new
additions and suburbs. This uniformity in plan, combined with the level
ground and the style of buildings first erected, gave to the city an
extremely monotonous and uninteresting appearance, but with its growth in
wealth and population, greater diversity and better taste in architecture
have resulted.
The prevailing style of domestic architecture is that introduced from Spain
and used throughout all the Spanish colonies--the grouping of one-storey
buildings round one or two _patios_, which open on the street through a
wide doorway. These residences have heavily barred windows on the street,
and flat roofs with [v.04 p.0698] parapets admirably adapted for defence.
The domiciliation of wealthy foreigners, and the introduction of foreign
customs and foreign culture, have gradually modified the style of
architecture, both public and domestic, and modern Buenos Aires is adorned
with many costly and attractive public edifices and residences. French
renaissance, lavishly decorated, has become the prevailing style. The
Avenida Alvear is particularly noted for the elegance of its private
residences, and the new Avenida de Mayo for its display of elaborately
ornamented public and business edifices, while the suburban districts of
Belgrano and Flores are distinguished for the attractiveness of their
country-houses and gardens. A part of the population is greatly
overcrowded, one-fifth living in _conventillos_, or tenement-houses.
Among the city's many _plazas_, or squares, twelve are especially worthy of
mention, viz.: 25 de Mayo (formerly Victoria) on which face the
Government-House and Cathedral, San Martin (or Retiro), Lavalle, Libertad,
Lorea, Belgrano, 6 de Junio, Once de Setiembre, Independencia (formerly
Conceptión), Constitución, Caridad and 29 de Deciembre. These vary in size
from one to three squares, or 4 to 12 acres each, and are handsomely laid
out with flowers, shrubbery, walks and shade trees. There are also two
elaborately laid out _alamedas_, the Recoleta and the Paseo de Julio, the
latter on the river front and partially absorbed by the new port works, and
the great park at Palermo, officially called 3 de Febrero, which contains
840 acres, beautifully laid out in drives, footpaths, lawns, gardens and
artificial lakes. In all, the _plazas_ and parks of Buenos Aires cover an
area of 960 acres.
The cathedral, which is one of the largest in South America, dating from
1752, resembles the Madeleine of Paris in design, and its classical portico
facing the Plaza 25 de Mayo has twelve stately Corinthian columns
supporting an elaborately sculptured pediment. The archbishop's palace
(Buenos Aires became an archiepiscopal see in 1866) adjoins the cathedral.
There are about twenty-five Roman Catholic churches in the city, one of the
richest and most popular of which is the Merced on Calle Reconquista, and
four Protestant churches--English, Scottish Presbyterian, American
Methodist and German Lutheran. Twenty asylums for orphans and indigent
persons and one for lunatics are maintained at public expense and by
private religious associations, while the demand for organized medical and
surgical treatment is met by fifteen well-appointed hospitals, having an
aggregate of 2600 beds, and treating 17,000 patients annually. Of these,
five belong to foreign nationalities. The city has six cemeteries covering
230 acres.
Among the more noteworthy public buildings are the Casa Rosada
(government-house), facing the Plaza 25 de Mayo and occupying in part the
site of the fort built by Garay in 1580; the new congress hall on Calle
Callao and Avenida de Mayo, finished in 1906 at a cost of about £1,300,000;
the new municipal hall on Avenida de Mayo; the _bolsa_ or exchange,
distributing reservoir, mint, and some of the more modern educational
buildings. Higher education is represented by the university of Buenos
Aires, with its several faculties, including law and medicine, and 3562
students (1901), four national colleges, three normal schools and various
technical schools. There are, also, a national library, a national museum,
a zoological garden and an aquarium. The people are fond of music, the
drama and amusements, and devote much time and expense to diversions of a
widely varied character, from Italian opera to horse-racing and _pelota_.
They have two or three large public baths, and a large number of social,
sporting and athletic clubs. The Porteños, as the residents of Buenos Aires
are called, are accustomed to call their city the "Paris of America," and
not without reason. Buenos Aires has become the principal manufacturing
centre of the republic, and its industrial establishments are numbered by
thousands and their capital by hundreds of millions of dollars.
The growth of Buenos Aires since settled conditions have prevailed, and
especially since its federalization, has been very rapid, and the city has
finally outstripped all rivals and become the largest city of South
America. At the time of its first authentic census in 1869, it had a
population of 177,767. In 1887, when the suburbs of Belgrano and Flores
with an aggregate population of 28,000 were annexed, its population without
this increment was estimated at 404,000. In 1895 the national census gave
the population as 663,854, and in 1904 a municipal census increased it to
950,891. At the close of 1905 the national statistical office estimated it
at 1,025,653. The excess of births over deaths is unusually large (about 14
per thousand in 1905). The city has about one-fifth of the population of
the whole republic. The government is vested in an _intendente municipal_
(mayor) appointed by the national executive with the approval of the
senate, and a _concejo deliberante_ (legislative council) elected by the
people and composed of two councillors from each parish. The police force
is a military organization under the control of the national executive, and
the higher municipal courts are subject to the same authority. Every
ratepayer, whether foreigner or native, has the right to vote in municipal
elections and to serve in the municipal council.
The water-supply is drawn from the estuary at Belgrano and conducted 3½ m.
to the Recoleta, where three great settling basins, with an aggregate
capacity of 12,000,000 gallons, and six acres of covered filters, are
located. It is then pumped to the great distributing reservoir at Calles
Córdoba and Viamonte, which covers four acres and has a capacity of
13,500,000 gallons. These works were begun in 1873. Up to 1873, when the
water and drainage works were initiated by English engineers and
contractors, there were no public sewers, and the sanitary state of the
city was indescribably bad. The cholera epidemic of 1867-1868, with 15,000
victims, and the yellow fever epidemic of 1871, with 26,000 victims, were
greatly intensified by these insanitary conditions. The construction of the
sewers lasted about 19 years, when in 1892 the water and drainage works
were taken over by the government, and are now administered at public
expense and at a profit. The main sewer is 16 m. long and extends southward
beyond Quilmes. The total cost of the two systems exceeded six millions
sterling. Buenos Aires is now provided with a good water-supply, and its
sanitary condition compares favourably with that of other great cities, the
annual death-rate being about 18 per thousand, against 27 per thousand in
1887. Its mean annual temperature is 64° Fahr., and its annual rainfall 34
in.
The lighting includes both gas and electricity, the former dating from
1856. Previously to that time street lighting had been effected at first
with lamps burning mares' grease, and then with tallow candles. The streets
were at first paved with cobble-stones, then with dressed granite
paving-stones (parallelepipedons), and finally with wood and asphalt. The
tram service is in the hands of nine private companies, operating 313 m. of
track (31st of December 1905), on almost five-sevenths of which electric
traction is employed. The city is the principal terminus and port for
nearly all the trunk railway lines of the republic, which have large
passenger stations at the Retiro, Once de Setiembre, and Constitución
plazas, and are connected with the central produce market and the new
Madero port. The great central produce market at Barracas al Sud (_Mercado
Central de Frutos_), whose lands, buildings, railway sidings, machinery and
mole cost £750,000, is designed to handle the pastoral and agricultural
products of the country on a large scale, while 20 markets in the city meet
the needs of local consumers.
The most important feature of the port of Buenos Aires is the "Madero
docks," constructed to enlarge and improve its shipping facilities.
Improvements had been, begun in 1872 at the "Boca," as the port on the
Riachuelo is called, and nearly £1,500,000 was spent there in landing
facilities and dredging a channel 12 m. in length, to deep water. These
improvements were found insufficient, and in 1887 work was begun on plans
executed by Sir John Hawkshaw for a series of four docks and two basins in
front of the city, occupying 3 m. of reclaimed shore-line, and connected
with deep water by two dredged channels. The north basin is provided with
two dry docks, and the new quays are equipped with 24 warehouses, hydraulic
cranes, and 28 m. of railway sidings and connexions. The total cost of the
new port works [v.04 p.0699] up to 1908 was about £8,000,000 sterling
($40,000,000 gold). In September of that year it was decided by congress to
borrow £5,000,000 for still further extensions which were found to be
required. The channels to deep water require constant dredging because of
the great quantity of silt deposited by the river, and on this and allied
purposes an expenditure of £560,000 was voted in 1908. In 1907 there were
29,178 shipping entries in the port, with an aggregate of 13,335,737 tons,
the merchandise movement being 4,360,000 tons imports and 2,900,000 tons of
produce exports. The revenues for 1907 were $5,452,000 gold, and working
expenses, $2,213,000 gold, the profit ($3,229,000) being equal to about 8%
on the cost of construction.
_History._--Three attempts were made to establish a colony where the city
of Buenos Aires stands. The first was in 1535 by Don Pedro de Mendoza with
a large and well-equipped expedition from Spain, which, through
mismanagement and the hostility of the Indians, resulted in complete
failure. An expedition sent up the river by Mendoza founded Asunción, and
thither went the colonists from his "Santa Maria de Buenos Ayres" when that
settlement was abandoned. The second was in 1542 by a part of the
expedition from Spain under Cabeza de Vaca, but with as little success. The
third was in 1580 by Don Juan de Garay, governor of Paraguay, who had
already established a half-way post at Santa Fé in 1573, and from this
attempt dates the foundation of the city. The need of a port near the sea,
where supplies from Spain could be received and ships provisioned, was
keenly felt by the Spanish colonists at Asunción, and Garay's expedition
down the Paraná in 1580 had that special object in view. Garay built a fort
and laid out a town in the prescribed Spanish style above Mendoza's
abandoned settlement, giving it the name of "Ciudad de la Santissima
Trinidad," but retaining Mendoza's descriptive name for the port in
appreciation of the agreeable and invigorating atmosphere of that locality.
Buenos Aires remained a dependency of Asunción until 1620, when the Spanish
settlements of the La Plata region were divided into three provinces,
Paraguay, Tucuman and Buenos Aires, and Garay's "city" became the capital
of the latter and also the seat of a new bishopric. The increasing
population and trade of the La Plata settlements naturally contributed to
the importance and prosperity of Buenos Aires, but Spain seems to have
taken very little interest in the town at that time. Peru still dazzled the
imagination with her stores of gold and silver, and the king and his
councillors and merchants had no thought for the little trading station on
the La Plata, for which one small shipment of supplies each year was at
first thought sufficient. The proximity of the Portuguese settlements of
Brazil and the unprotected state of the coast, however, made smuggling
easy, and the colonists soon learned to supply their own needs in that way.
The heavy seigniorage tax on gold and silver, and the costs of
transportation by way of Panama, also sent a stream of contraband metal
from Charcas to Buenos Aires, where it found eager buyers among the
Portuguese traders from Brazil, who even founded the town of Colonia on the
opposite bank of the estuary to facilitate their hazardous traffic. In time
the magnitude of these operations attracted attention at Madrid and efforts
were made to suppress them, but without complete success until more liberal
provisions were made to promote trade between Spain and her colonies. In
1776 the Rio de la Plata provinces were erected into a vice-royalty, and
Buenos Aires became its capital. Two years later the old commercial
restrictions were abolished and a new code was promulgated, so liberal in
character compared with the old that it was called the "free trade
regulations." Under the old system all intercourse with foreign countries
had been prohibited, with the exception of Great Britain and Portugal--the
former having a contract (1715 to 1739) to introduce African slaves, and
permission to send one shipload of merchandise each year to certain
colonial ports, and the latter's Brazilian colonies having permission to
import from Buenos Aires each year 2000 fanegas of wheat, 500 quintals of
jerked beef and 500 of tallow. The African slaves introduced into Buenos
Aires in this way were limited to 800 a year, and were the only slaves of
that character ever received except some from Brazil after 1778, when
greater commercial activity in the port created a sudden demand for
labourers. Under the new regulations 9 ports in Spain and 24 in the
colonies were declared _puertos habilitados_, or ports of entry, and trade
between them was permitted, though under many restrictions. The effect of
this change may be seen in the exportation of hides to the mother country,
which had been only 150,000 a year before 1778, but rose to 700,000 and
800,000 a year after that date. (For the later history of the city see
ARGENTINA.)
(A. J. L.)
BUFF (from Fr. _buffle_, a buffalo), a leather originally made from the
skin of the buffalo, now also from the skins of other animals, of a dull
pale yellow colour, used for making the buffcoat or jerkin, a leathern
military coat. The old 3rd Foot regiment of the line in the British army
(now the East Kent Regiment), and the old 78th Foot (now 2nd battalion
Seaforth Highlanders), are called the "Buffs" and the "Ross-shire Buffs"
respectively, from the yellow or buff-colour of their facings. The term is
commonly used now of the colour alone.
BUFFALO, a city and port of entry, and the county-seat of Erie county, New
York, U.S.A., the second city in population in the state, and the eighth in
the United States, at the E. extremity of Lake Erie, and at the upper end
of the Niagara river; distant by rail from New York City 423 m., from
Boston 499 m., and from Chicago 540 m.
The site of the city, which has an area of 42 sq. m., is a broad,
undulating tract, rising gradually from the lake to an elevation of from 50
to 80 ft., its altitude averaging somewhat less than 600 ft. above
sea-level. The high land and temperate climate, and the excellent drainage
and water-supply systems, make Buffalo one of the most healthy cities in
the United States, its death-rate in 1900 being 14.8 per thousand, and in
1907 15.58. As originally platted by Joseph Ellicott, the plan of Buffalo
somewhat resembled that of Washington, but the plan was much altered and
even then not adhered to. Buffalo to-day has broad and spacious streets,
most of which are lined by trees, and many small parks and squares. The
municipal park system is one of unusual beauty, consisting of a chain of
parks with a total area of about 1030 acres, encircling the city and
connected by boulevards and driveways. The largest is Delaware Park, about
365 acres, including a lake of 46½ acres, in the north part of the city;
the north part of the park was enclosed in the grounds of the Pan-American
Exposition of 1901. Adjoining it is the Forest Lawn cemetery, in which are
monuments to President Millard Fillmore, and to the famous Seneca chief Red
Jacket (1751-1830), a friend of the whites, who was faithful when
approached by Tecumseh and the Prophet, and warned the Americans of their
danger; by many he has been considered the greatest orator of his race.
Among the other parks are Cazenovia Park, Humboldt Park, South Park on the
Lake Shore, and "The Front" on a bluff overlooking the source of the
Niagara river; in the last is Fort Porter (named in honour of Peter B.
Porter), where the United States government maintains a garrison.
_Principal Buildings._--Buffalo is widely known for the beauty of its
residential sections, the houses being for the most part detached, set well
back from the street, and surrounded by attractive lawns. Among the
principal buildings are the Federal building, erected at a cost of
$2,000,000; the city and county hall, costing $1,500,000, with a clock
tower 245 ft. high; the city convention hall, the chamber of commerce, the
builders' exchange, the Masonic temple, two state armouries, the
Prudential, Fidelity Trust, White and Mutual Life buildings, the Teck, Star
and Shea's Park theatres, and the Ellicott Square building, one of the
largest office structures in the world; and, in Delaware Park, the Albright
art gallery, and the Buffalo Historical Society building, which was
originally the New York state building erected for the Pan-American
Exposition held in 1901. Among the social clubs the Buffalo, the
University, the Park, the Saturn and the Country clubs, and among the
hotels the Iroquois, Lafayette, Niagara and Genesee, may be especially
mentioned. There are many handsome churches, including St Joseph's (Roman
Catholic) and St Paul's (Protestant Episcopal) cathedrals, [v.04 p.0700]
and Trinity (Protestant Episcopal), the Westminster Presbyterian, the
Delaware Avenue Baptist, and the First Presbyterian churches.
_Education._--In addition to the usual high and grammar schools, the city
itself supports a city training school for teachers, and a system of night
schools and kindergartens. Here, too, is a state normal school. The
university of Buffalo (organized in 1845) comprises schools of medicine
(1845), law (1887), dentistry (1892), and pharmacy (1886). Canisius College
is a Roman Catholic (Jesuit) institution for men (established in 1870 and
chartered in 1883), having in 1907 a college department and an academic (or
high school) department, and a library of about 26,000 volumes. Martin
Luther Seminary, established in 1854, is a theological seminary of the
Evangelical Lutheran Church. Among the best-known schools are the Academy
of the Sacred Heart, Buffalo Seminary, the Franklin and the Heathcote
schools, Holy Angels and St Mary's academies, St Joseph's Collegiate
Institute, and St Margaret's school for girls. The Buffalo public library,
founded in 1837, is housed in a fine building erected in 1887 (valued at
$1,000,000), and contains about 300,000 books and pamphlets. Other
important libraries, with the approximate number of their books, are the
Grosvenor (founded in 1859), for reference (75,000 volumes and 7000
pamphlets); the John C. Lord, housed in the building of the Historical
Society (10,620); the Law (8th judicial district) (17,000); the Catholic
Institute (12,000); and the library of the Buffalo Historical Society
(founded 1862) (26,600), now in the handsome building in Delaware Park used
as the New York state building during the Pan-American Exposition of 1901.
The Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences has a museum in the public library
building.
_Public Institutions._--The hospitals and the charitable and correctional
institutions are numerous and are well administered. Many private
institutions are richly endowed. Among the hospitals are a state hospital
for the insane, the Erie county, the Buffalo general, the Children's, the
United States marine (maintained by the Federal government), the German,
the Homeopathic, the Women's, the German Deaconess and the Riverside
hospitals, and the Buffalo hospital of the Sisters of Charity. Nurses'
training schools are connected with most of these. Among the charitable
institutions are the Home for the Friendless, the Buffalo, St Vincent's and
St Joseph's orphan asylums, St John's orphan home, St Mary's asylum for
widows and foundlings, and the Ingleside home for erring women. One of the
most noteworthy institutions in the city is the Charity Organisation
Society, with headquarters in Fitch Institute. Founded in 1877, it was the
first in the United States, and its manifold activities have not only
contributed much to the amelioration of social conditions in Buffalo, but
have caused it to be looked to as a model upon which similar institutions
have been founded elsewhere.
The first newspaper, the _Gazette_ (a weekly), was established in 1811 and
became the _Commercial_, a daily, in 1835. The first daily was the
_Courier_, established in 1831. There were in 1908 eleven daily papers
published, three of which were in German and two in Polish. The weekly
papers include several in German, three in Polish, and one in Italian.
_Government and Population._--Buffalo is governed under an amended city
charter of 1896 by which the government is vested in a bicameral city
council, and a mayor elected for a term of four years. The mayor appoints
the heads of the principal executive departments (health, civil service,
parks, police and fire). The city clerk is elected by the city council. The
municipality maintains several well-equipped public baths, and owns its
water-supply system, the water being obtained from Lake Erie. The city is
lighted by electricity generated by the water power of Niagara Falls, and
by manufactured gas. Gas, obtained by pipe lines from the Ohio-Pennsylvania
and the Canadian (Welland) natural gas fields, is also used extensively for
lighting and heating purposes.
From the first census enumeration in 1820 the population has steadily and
rapidly increased from about 2000 till it reached 352,387 inhabitants in
1900, and 423,715 (20% increase) in 1910. In 1900 there were 248,135
native-born and 104,252 foreign-born; 350,586 were white and only 1801
coloured, of whom 1698 were negroes. Of the native-born whites, 155,716 had
either one or both parents foreign-born; and of the total population 93,256
were of unmixed German parentage. Of the foreign-born population 36,720
were German, the other large elements in their order of importance being
Polish, Canadian, Irish, the British (other than Irish). Various sections
of the poorer part of the city are occupied almost exclusively by the
immigrants from Poland, Hungary and Italy.
_Communications and Commerce._--Situated almost equidistant from Chicago,
Boston and New York, Buffalo, by reason of its favourable location in
respect to lake transportation and its position on the principal northern
trade route between the East and West, has become one of the most important
commercial and industrial centres in the Union. Some fourteen trunk lines
have terminals at, or pass through, Buffalo. Tracks of a belt line transfer
company encircle the city, and altogether there are more than 500 m. of
track within the limits of Buffalo. Of great importance also is the lake
commerce. Almost all the great steamship transportation lines of the Great
Lakes have an eastern terminus at Buffalo, which thus has direct passenger
and freight connexion with Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, Milwaukee and the
"Head of the Lakes" (Duluth-Superior). With the latter port it is connected
by the Great Northern Steamship Company, a subsidiary line of the Great
Northern railway, the passenger service of which is carried on by what are
probably the largest and finest inland passenger steamships in existence.
The tonnage of the port of Buffalo is considerably more than 5,000,000 tons
annually. With a water front of approximately 20 m. and with 8 to 10 m. of
wharfs, the shipping facilities have been greatly increased by the
extensive harbour improvements undertaken by the Federal government. These
improvements comprise a series of inner breakwaters and piers and an outer
breakwater of stone and cement, 4 m. in length, constructed at a cost of
more than $2,000,000. Another artery of trade of great importance is the
Erie Canal, which here has its western terminus, and whose completion
(1825) gave the first impetus to Buffalo's commercial growth. With the
Canadian shore Buffalo is connected by ferry, and by the International
bridge (from Squaw Island), which cost $1,500,000 and was completed in
1873.
It is as a distributing centre for the manufactured products of the East to
the West, and for the raw products of the West to the East, and for the
trans-shipment from lake to rail and vice versa, that Buffalo occupies a
position of greatest importance. It is one of the principal grain and flour
markets in the world. Here in 1843 Joseph Dart erected the first grain
elevator ever constructed. In 1906 the grain elevators had a capacity of
between twenty and thirty millions of bushels, and annual receipts of more
than 200,000,000 bushels. The receipts of flour approximate 10,000,000
barrels yearly. More than 10,000,000 head of live stock are handled in a
year in extensive stock-yards (75 acres) at East Buffalo; and the horse
market is the largest in America. Other important articles of commerce are
lumber, the receipts of which average 200,000,000 ft. per annum; fish
(15,000,000 lb annually); and iron ore and coal, part of which, however, is
handled at Tonawanda, really a part of the port of Buffalo. Buffalo is the
port of entry of Buffalo Creek customs district; in 1908 its imports were
valued at $6,708,919, and its exports at $26,192,563.
_Manufactures._--As a manufacturing centre Buffalo ranks next to New York
among the cities of the state. The manufactures were valued in 1900 at
$122,230,061 (of which $105,627,182 was the value of the factory product),
an increase of 22.2% over 1890; value of factory product in 1905,
$147,377,873. The value of the principal products in 1900 was as follows:
slaughtering and meat packing, $9,631,187 (in 1905 slaughtering and
meat-packing $12,216,433, and slaughtering, not including meat-packing,
$3,919,940); foundry and machine shop products, $6,816,057 (1905,
$11,402,855); linseed oil, $6,271,170; cars and shop construction,
$4,513,333 (1905, $3,609,471); malt liquors, $4,269,973 (1905, $5,187,216);
soap and candles, $3,818,571 (in 1905, soap [v.04 p.0701] $4,792,915);
flour and grist mill products, $3,263,697 (1905, $9,807,906); lumber and
planing mill products, $3,095,760 (1905, $4,186,668); clothing, $3,246,723
(1905, $4,231,126); iron and steel products, $2,624,547. Other industrial
establishments of importance include petroleum refineries, ship-yards,
brick, stone and lime works, saddlery and harness factories, lithographing
establishments, patent medicine works, chemical works, and copper smelters
and refineries. Some of the plants are among the largest in existence,
notably the Union and the Wagner Palace car works, the Union dry docks, the
steel plants of the Lackawanna Iron and Steel Company, and the Larkin soap
factory.
_History._--The first white men to visit the site of Buffalo were
undoubtedly the adventurous French trappers and various Jesuit
missionaries. Near here, on the east bank of the Niagara river at the mouth
of Cayuga Creek, La Salle in 1679 built his ship the "Griffin," and at the
mouth of the river built Fort Conti, which, however, was burned in the same
year. In 1687 marquis de Denonville built at the mouth of the river a fort
which was named in his honour and was the predecessor of the fortifications
on or near the same site successively called Fort Niagara; and the
neighbourhood was the scene of military operations up to the close of the
War of Independence. As early as 1784 the present site of the city of
Buffalo came to be known as "the Buffalo Creek region" either from the
herds of buffalo or bison which, according to Indian tradition, had
frequented the salt licks of the creek, or more probably from an Indian
chief. A little later, possibly in 1788-1789, Cornelius Winney, an Indian
trader, built a cabin near the mouth of the creek and thus became the first
permanent white resident. Slowly other settlers gathered. The land was a
part of the original Phelps-Gorham Purchase, and subsequently (about 1793)
came into the possession of the Holland Land Company, being part of the
tract known as the Holland Purchase. Joseph Ellicott, the agent of the
company, who has been called the "Father of Buffalo," laid out a town in
1801-1802, calling it New Amsterdam, and by this name it was known on the
company's books until about 1810. The name of Buffalo Creek or Buffalo,
however, proved more popular; the village became the county-seat of Niagara
county in 1808, and two years later the town of Buffalo was erected. Upon
the outbreak of the second war with Great Britain, Buffalo and the region
about Niagara Falls became a centre of active military operations; directly
across the Niagara river was the British Fort Erie. It was from Buffalo
that Lieutenant Jesse D. Elliott (1782-1845) made his brilliant capture of
the "Detroit" and "Caledonia" in October 1812; and on the 30th and 31st of
December 1813 the settlement was attacked, captured, sacked, and almost
completely destroyed by a force of British, Canadians and Indians under
General Sir Phineas Riall (c. 1769-1851). After the cessation of
hostilities, however, Buffalo, which had been incorporated as a village in
1813, was rapidly rebuilt. Its advantages as a commercial centre were early
recognized, and its importance was enhanced on the opening up of the middle
West to settlement, when Buffalo became the principal gateway for the lake
routes. Here in 1818 was rebuilt the "Walk-in-the-Water," the first
steamboat upon the Great Lakes, named in honour of a famous Wyandot Indian
chief. In 1825 the completion of the Erie Canal with its western terminus
at Buffalo greatly increased the importance of the place, which now rapidly
outstripped and soon absorbed Black Rock, a village adjoining it on the N.,
which had at one time threatened to be a dangerous rival. In 1832 Buffalo
obtained a city charter, and Dr Ebenezer Johnson (1786-1849) was chosen the
first mayor. In that year, and again in 1834, a cholera epidemic caused
considerable loss of life. At Buffalo in 1848 met the Free-Soil convention
that nominated Martin van Buren for the presidency and Charles Francis
Adams for the vice-presidency. Grover Cleveland lived in Buffalo from 1855
until 1884, when he was elected president, and was mayor of Buffalo in
1882, when he was elected governor of New York state. The Pan-American
Exposition, in celebration of the progress of the Western hemisphere in the
nineteenth century, was held there (May 1-November 2, 1901). It was during
a reception in the Temple of Music on the Exposition grounds that President
McKinley was assassinated (September 6th); he died at the home of John G.
Milburn, the president of the Exposition. In the house of Ansley Wilcox
here Vice-President Theodore Roosevelt took the oath of office as
president. A marble shaft 80 ft. high, in memory of McKinley, has been
erected in Niagara Square.
See William Ketchum, _History of Buffalo_ (2 vols., Buffalo, 1864-1865);
H.P. Smith, _History of Buffalo and Erie County_ (Syracuse, 1884);
_Publications of the Buffalo Historical Society_ (Buffalo, 1879 et seq.);
O. Turner, _History of the Holland Purchase_ (Buffalo, 1850); T.H.
Hotchkin, _History of Western New York_ (New York, 1845); and the sketch in
Lyman P. Powell's _Historic Towns of the Middle States_ (New York, 1901).
BUFFALO, a name properly pertaining to an aberrant species of cattle which
has been kept in a state of domestication in India and Egypt from time
immemorial, and had been introduced from the latter country into southern
Europe. It is now taken, however, to include not only this species, whose
native home is India, but all more or less nearly related animals.[1]
Buffaloes are heavily built oxen, with sparsely haired skin, large ears,
long, tufted tails, broad muzzles and massive angulated horns. In having
only 13 pairs of ribs they resemble the typical oxen. African buffaloes all
have the hair of the back directed backwards.
In the Cape buffalo, _Bos (Bubalus) caffer_, the horns do not attain an
excessive length, but in old bulls are so expanded and thickened at the
base as to form a helmet-like mass protecting the whole forehead. Several
more or less nearly allied local races have been named; and in Eastern
Africa the buffaloes (_B. caffer aequinoctialis_) have smaller horns, which
do not meet in the middle line. From this animal, which is brown instead of
black, there seems to be a transition towards the red dwarf buffalo (_B.
nanus_) of West Africa, an animal scarcely more than two-thirds the size of
its gigantic southern cousin, with relatively small, much flattened,
upwardly curved horns. In South Africa buffaloes frequent reedy swamps,
where they associate in herds of from fifty to a hundred or more
individuals. Old bulls may be met with either alone or in small parties of
from two or three to eight or ten. This buffalo formerly roamed in herds
over the plains of Central and Southern Africa, always in the near vicinity
of water, but the numbers are greatly diminished. In Cape Colony some herds
are protected by the government in the eastern forest-districts. This
species has never been domesticated, nor does there appear to have been any
attempt to reduce it to service. Like its Indian ally it is fond of water,
which it visits at regular intervals during the twenty-four hours; it also
plasters itself with mud, which, when hardened by the sun, protects it from
the bite of the gadflies which in spite of its thick hide seem to cause it
considerable annoyance. It is relieved of a portion of the parasitic ticks,
so common on the hides of thick-skinned animals, by means of the red-beaked
rhinoceros birds, _Buphaga erythrorhynca_, a dozen or more of which may be
seen partly perched on its horns and partly moving about on its back, and
picking up the ticks on which they feed. The hunter is often guided by
these birds in his search for the buffalo, but oftener still they give
timely warning to their host of the dangerous proximity of the hunter, and
have thus earned the title of "the buffalo's guardian birds."
In a wild state the typical Indian buffalo, _Bos (Bubalus) bubalis_, seems
to be restricted to India and Ceylon, although some of the buffaloes found
in the Malay Peninsula and Islands probably represent local races. The
species has been introduced into Asia Minor, Egypt, Italy and elsewhere.
The large size and wide separation of the horns, as well as the less
thickly fringed ears, and the more elongated and narrow head, form marked
points of distinction between the Asiatic and South African species.
Moreover, all Asiatic buffaloes are distinguished from the African forms by
having the hair on the fore-part of the back directed forwards; and these
go far to support the views of those who would make them the types of a
distinct subgenus, [v.04 p.0702] or genus, _Buffelus_. In Assam there
formerly existed a local race, _B. bubalis macrocercus_, characterized by
the horns, which are of immense size, being directed mainly outwards,
instead of curving upwards in a circular form. Another Assam race (_B.
bubalis fulvus_) is characterized by the tawny, in place of black, colour
of its hair and hide. The haunts of the Indian buffalo are the
grass-jungles near swamps, in which the grass exceeds 20 ft. in height.
Here the buffaloes--like the Indian rhinoceros--form covered pathways, in
which they are completely concealed. The herds frequently include fifty or
more individuals. These animals are fond of passing the day in marshes,
where they love to wallow in the mud; they are by no means shy, and do much
harm to the crops. The rutting-season occurs in autumn, when several
females follow a single male, forming for the time a small herd. The period
of gestation lasts for ten months, and the female produces one or two
calves at a birth. The bull is capable, it is said, of overthrowing an
elephant, and generally more than a match even for the tiger, which usually
declines the combat when not impelled by hunger. The Indian driver of a
herd of tame buffaloes does not shrink from entering a tiger-frequented
jungle, his cattle, with their massive horns, making short work of any
tiger that may come in their way. Buffalo fights and fights between
buffaloes and tigers were recognized Indian sports in the old days.
Domesticated buffaloes differ from their wild brethren merely by their
inferior size and smaller horns; some of the latter being of the circular
and others of the straight type. The milk is good and nourishing, but of a
ropy consistency and a peculiar flavour.
The tamarao, or Philippine buffalo, _Bos (Bubalus) mindorensis_, is a
smaller animal, in many respects intermediate between the Indian buffalo
and the dwarf anoa, or Celebes buffalo (_B. depressicornis_).
(R. L.*)
[1] In America, it is worth noting, the term "buffalo" is almost
universally taken, at all events in popular parlance, to designate the
American bison, for which see BISON.
BUFFET, LOUIS JOSEPH (1818-1898), French statesman, was born at Mirecourt.
After the revolution of February 1848 he was elected deputy for the
department of the Vosges, and in the Assembly sat on the right, pronouncing
for the repression of the insurrection of June 1848 and for Louis Napoleon
Bonaparte. He was minister of agriculture from August to December 1849 and
from August to October 1851. Re-elected deputy in 1863, he was one of the
supporters of the "Liberal Empire" of Emile Ollivier, being finance
minister in Ollivier's cabinet from January to the 10th of April 1870. He
was president of the National Assembly from the 4th of April 1872 to the
10th of March 1875, and minister of the interior in 1875. Then, elected
senator for life (1876), he pronounced himself in favour of the _coup
d'état_ of the 16th of May 1877. Buffet had some oratorical talent, but
shone most in opposition.
BUFFET, a piece of furniture which may be open or closed, or partly open
and partly closed, for the reception of dishes, china, glass and plate. The
word may also signify a long counter at which one stands to eat and drink,
as at a restaurant, or--which would appear to be the original meaning--the
room in which the counter stands. The word, like the thing it represents,
is French. The buffet is the descendant of the credence, and the ancestor
of the sideboard, and consequently has a close affinity to the dresser. Few
articles of furniture, while preserving their original purpose, have varied
more widely in form. In the beginning the buffet was a tiny apartment, or
recess, little larger than a cupboard, separated from the room which it
served either by a breast-high balustrade or by pillars. It developed into
a definite piece of furniture, varying from simplicity to splendour, but
always provided with one or more flat spaces, or broad shelves, for the
reception of such necessaries of the dining-room as were not placed upon
the table. The early buffets were sometimes carved with the utmost
elaboration; the Renaissance did much to vary their form and refine their
ornament. Often the lower part contained receptacles as in the
characteristic English court-cupboard. The rage for collecting china in the
middle of the 18th century was responsible for a new form--the high glazed
back, fitted with shelves, for the display of fine pieces of crockery-ware.
This, however, was hardly a true buffet, and was the very antithesis of the
primary arrangement, in which the huge goblets and beakers and fantastic
pieces of plate, of which so extremely few examples are left, were
displayed upon the open "gradines." The tiers of shelves, with or without a
glass front, which are still often found in Georgian houses, were sometimes
called buffets--in short, any dining-room receptacle for articles that were
not immediately wanted came at last to bear the name. In France the
variations of type were even more numerous than in England, and it is
sometimes difficult to distinguish a commode from a buffet. In the latter
part of the 18th century the buffet occasionally took the form of a console
table.
BUFFIER, CLAUDE (1661-1737), French philosopher, historian and
educationalist, was born in Poland, on the 25th of May 1661, of French
parents, who returned to France, and settled at Rouen, soon after his
birth. He was educated at the Jesuit college there, and was received into
the order at the age of nineteen. A dispute with the archbishop compelled
him to leave Rouen, and after a short stay in Rome he returned to Paris to
the college of the Jesuits, where he spent the rest of his life. He seems
to have been an admirable teacher, with a great power of lucid exposition.
His object in the _Traité des vérités premières_ (1717), his best-known
work, is to discover the ultimate principle of knowledge. This he finds in
the sense we have of our own existence and of what we feel within
ourselves. He thus takes substantially the same ground as Descartes, but he
rejected the _a priori_ method. In order to know what exists distinct from
the self, "common sense" is necessary. Common sense he defined as "that
disposition which nature has placed in all or most men, in order to enable
them, when they have arrived at the age and use of reason, to form a common
and uniform judgment with respect to objects different from the internal
sentiment of their own perception, which judgment is not the consequence of
any anterior judgment." The truths which this "disposition of nature"
obliges us to accept can be neither proved nor disproved; they are
practically followed even by those who reject them speculatively. But
Buffier does not claim for these truths of "common sense" the absolute
certainty which characterizes the knowledge we have of our own existence or
the logical deductions we make from our thoughts; they possess merely the
highest probability, and the man who rejects them is to be considered a
fool, though he is not guilty of a contradiction. Buffier's aversion to
scholastic refinements has given to his writings an appearance of
shallowness and want of metaphysical insight, and unquestionably he failed
entirely even to indicate the nature of that universality and necessity
which he ascribed to his "eternal verities"; he was, however, one of the
earliest to recognize the psychological as distinguished from the
metaphysical side of Descartes's principle, and to use it, with no
inconsiderable skill, as the basis of an analysis of the human mind,
similar to that enjoined by Locke. In this he has anticipated the spirit
and method as well as many of the results of Reid and the Scottish school.
Voltaire described him as "the only Jesuit who has given a reasonable
system of philosophy."
He wrote also _Éléments de métaphysique_ (1724), a "French Grammar on a new
plan," and a number of historical essays. Most of his works appeared in a
collected form in 1732, and an English translation of the _Traité_ was
published in 1780.
BUFFON, GEORGE LOUIS LECLERC, COMTE DE (1707-1788), French naturalist, was
born on the 7th of September 1707, at Montbard (Côte d'Or), his father,
Benjamin François Leclerc de Buffon (1683-1775), being councillor of the
Burgundian parlement. He studied law at the college of Jesuits at Dijon;
but he soon exhibited a marked predilection for the study of the physical
sciences, and more particularly for mathematics. Whilst at Dijon he made
the acquaintance of a young Englishman, Lord Kingston, and with him
travelled through Italy and then went to England. He published a French
translation of Stephen Hales's _Vegetable Statics_ in 1735, and of Sir I.
Newton's _Fluxions_ in 1740. At twenty-five years of age he succeeded to a
considerable property, inherited from his mother, and from this time onward
his life was devoted to regular scientific labour. At first he directed his
attention more especially to mathematics, physics, [v.04 p.0703] and
agriculture, and his chief original papers are connected with these
subjects. In the spring of 1739 he was elected an associate of the Academy
of Sciences; and at a later period of the same year he was appointed keeper
of the Jardin du Roi and of the Royal Museum. This appears to have finally
determined him to devote himself to the biological sciences in particular,
and he began to collect materials for his _Natural History_. In the
preparation of this voluminous work he associated with himself L.J.M.
Daubenton, to whom the descriptive and anatomical portions of the treaties
were entrusted, and the first three volumes made their appearance in the
year 1749. In 1752 (not in 1743 or 1760, as sometimes stated) he married
Marie Françoise de Saint-Belin. He seems to have been fondly attached to
her, and felt deeply her death at Montbard in 1769. The remainder of
Buffon's life as a private individual presents nothing of special interest.
He belonged to a very long-lived race, his father having attained the age
of ninety-three, and his grandfather eighty-seven. He himself died at Paris
on the 15th of April 1788, at the age of eighty-one, of vesical calculus,
having refused to allow any operation for his relief. He left one son,
George Louis Marie Leclerc Buffon, who was an officer in the French army,
and who died by the guillotine, at the age of thirty, on the 10th of July
1793 (22 Messidor, An II.), having espoused the party of the duke of
Orleans.
Buffon was a member of the French Academy (his inaugural address being the
celebrated _Discours sur le style_, 1753), perpetual treasurer of the
Academy of Sciences, fellow of the Royal Society of London, and member of
the Academies of Berlin, St Petersburg, Dijon, and of most of the learned
societies then existing in Europe. Of handsome person and noble presence,
endowed with many of the external gifts of nature, and rejoicing in the
social advantages of high rank and large possessions, he is mainly known by
his published scientific writings. Without being a profound original
investigator, he possessed the art of expressing his ideas in a clear and
generally attractive form. His chief defects as a scientific writer are
that he was given to excessive and hasty generalization, so that his
hypotheses, however seemingly brilliant, are often destitute of any
sufficient basis in observed facts, whilst his literary style is not
unfrequently theatrical and turgid, and a great want of method and order is
commonly observable in his writings.
His great work is the _Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière_; and
it can undoubtedly claim the merit of having been the first work to present
the previously isolated and apparently disconnected facts of natural
history in a popular and generally intelligible form. The sensation which
was made by its appearance in successive parts was very great, and it
certainly effected much good in its time by generally diffusing a taste for
the study of nature. For a work so vast, however--aiming, as it did, at
being little less than a general encyclopaedia of the sciences--Buffon's
capacities may, without disparagement, be said to have been insufficient,
as is shown by the great weakness of parts of the work (such as those
relating to mineralogy). The _Histoire naturelle_ passed through several
editions, and was translated into various languages. The edition most
highly prized by collectors, on account of the beauty of its plates, is the
first, which was published in Paris (1749-1804) in forty-four quarto
volumes, the publication extending over more than fifty years. In the
preparation of the first fifteen volumes of this edition (1749-1767) Buffon
was assisted by Daubenton, and subsequently by P. Guéneau de Montbéliard,
the abbé G.L.C.A. Bexon, and C.N.S. Sonnini de Manoncourt. The following
seven volumes form a supplement to the preceding, and appeared in
1774-1789, the famous _Époques de la nature_ (1779) being the fifth of
them. They were succeeded by nine volumes on the birds (1770-1783), and
these again by five volumes on minerals (1783-1788). The remaining eight
volumes, which complete this edition, appeared after Buffon's death, and
comprise reptiles, fishes and cetaceans. They were executed by B.G.E. de
Lacépède, and were published in successive volumes between 1788 and 1804. A
second edition begun in 1774 and completed in 1804, in thirty-six volumes
quarto, is in most respects similar to the first, except that the
anatomical descriptions are suppressed and the supplement recast.
See Humbert-Bazile, _Buffon, sa famille, &c._ (1863); M.J.P. Flourens,
_Hist. des travaux et des idées de Buffon_ (1844, 3rd ed., 1870); H.
Nadault de Buffon, _Correspondance de Buffon_ (1860); A.S. Packard,
_Lamarck_ (1901).
BUG, the name of two rivers of Europe. (1) A stream of European Russia,
distinguished sometimes as the Southern Bug, which rises in the S. of the
government of Volhynia, and flows generally S.E. through the governments of
Podolia and Kherson, and after picking up the Ingul from the left at
Nikolayev, enters the _liman_ or lagoon into which the Dnieper also
discharges. Its length is 470 m. Its upper part is beset with rapids, and
its lower is of little value for navigation on account of the numerous
sandbanks and blocks of rock which choke its bed. (2) A river distinguished
as the Western Don, which rises in the E. of Austrian Galicia between
Tarnopol and Brody, and flows N.N.W. as far as Brest-Litovsk, separating
the Polish provinces of Lublin and Siedlce from the Russian governments of
Volhynia and Grodno; it then swings away almost due W., between the
provinces of Warsaw and Lomza, and joins the Vistula, 23 m. below the city
of Warsaw. Length, 470 m. It is navigable from Brest-Litovsk downwards.
BUG, the common name for hemipterous insects of the family _Cimicidae_, of
which the best-known example is the house bug or bed bug (_Cimex
lectularius_). This disgusting insect is of an oval shape, of a rusty red
colour, and, in common with the whole tribe to which it belongs, gives off
an offensive odour when touched; unlike the others, however, it is
wingless. The bug is provided with a proboscis, which when at rest lies
along the inferior side of the thorax, and through which it sucks the blood
of man, the sole food of this species. It is nocturnal in its habits,
remaining concealed by day in crevices of bed furniture, among the
hangings, or behind the wall paper, and shows considerable activity in its
nightly raids in search of food. The female deposits her eggs at the
beginning of summer in crevices of wood and other retired situations, and
in three weeks the young emerge as small, white, and almost transparent
larvae. These change their skin very frequently during growth, and attain
full development in about eleven weeks. Two centuries ago the bed bug was a
rare insect in Britain, and probably owes its name, which is derived from a
Celtic word signifying "ghost" or "goblin," to the terror which its attacks
at first inspired. An allied species, the dove-cote bug (_Cimex
columbaria_), attacks domestic fowls and pigeons.
BUGEAUD DE LA PICONNERIE, THOMAS ROBERT, DUKE OF ISLY (1784-1849), marshal
of France, was born at Limoges on the 15th of October 1784. He came of a
noble family of Périgord, and was the youngest of his parents' thirteen
children. Harsh treatment led to his flight from home, and for some years
about 1800 he lived in the country, engaged in agriculture, to which he was
ever afterwards devoted. At the age of twenty he became a private soldier
in the _Vélites_ of the Imperial Guard (1804), with which he took part in
the Austerlitz campaign of the following year. Early in 1806 he was given a
commission, and as a sub-lieutenant he served in the Jena and Eylau
campaigns, winning his promotion to the rank of lieutenant at Pultusk
(December 1806). In 1808 he was in the first French corps which entered
Spain, and was stationed in Madrid during the revolt of the _Dos Mayo_. At
the second siege of Saragossa he won further promotion to the rank of
captain, and in 1809-1810 found opportunities for winning distinction under
General (Marshal) Suchet in the eastern theatre of the Peninsular War, in
which he rose to the rank of major and the command of a full regiment. At
the first restoration he was made a colonel, but he rejoined Napoleon
during the Hundred Days, and under his old chief Suchet distinguished
himself greatly in the war in the Alps. For fifteen years after the fall of
Napoleon he was not re-employed, and during this time he displayed great
activity in agriculture and in the general development of his district of
Périgord. The July revolution of 1830 reopened his military career, and
after a short tenure of a regimental command he was in 1831 made a
_maréchal de camp_. In the chamber [v.04 p.0704] of deputies, to which he
was elected in the same year, he showed himself to be an inflexible
opponent of democracy, and in his military capacity he was noted for his
severity in police work and the suppression of _émeutes_. His conduct as
gaoler of the duchesse de Berry led to a duel between Bugeaud and the
deputy Dulong, in which the latter was killed (1834); this affair and the
incidents of another _émeute_ exposed Bugeaud to ceaseless attacks in the
Chamber and in the press, but his opinion was sought by all parties in
matters connected with agriculture and industrial development. He was
re-elected in 1834, 1837 and 1839.
About this time Bugeaud became much interested in the question of Algeria.
At first he appears to have disapproved of the conquest, but his
undeviating adherence to Louis Philippe brought him into agreement with the
government, and with his customary decision he proposed to employ at once
whatever forces were necessary for the swift, complete and lasting
subjugation of Algeria. Later events proved the soundness of his views; in
the meantime Bugeaud was sent to Africa in a subordinate capacity, and
proceeded without delay to initiate his war of flying columns. He won his
first victory on the 7th of July 1836, made a brilliant campaign of six
weeks' duration, and returned home with the rank of lieutenant-general. In
the following year he signed the treaty of Tafna (June 1st, 1837), with
Abd-el-Kader, an act which, though justified by the military and political
situation, led to a renewal of the attacks upon him in the chamber, to the
refutation of which Bugeaud devoted himself in 1839. Finally, in 1840, he
was nominated governor-general of Algeria, and early in 1841 he put into
force his system of flying columns. His swiftness and energy drove back the
forces of Abd-el-Kader from place to place, while the devotion of the rank
and file to "Père Bugeaud" enabled him to carry all before him in action.
In 1842 he secured the French positions by undertaking the construction of
roads. In 1843 Bugeaud was made marshal of France, and in this and the
following year he continued his operations with unvarying success. His
great victory of Isly on the 14th of August 1844 won for him the title of
duke. In 1845, however, he had to take the field again in consequence of
the disaster of Sidi Brahim (22nd of September 1845), and up to his final
retirement from Algeria (July 1846) he was almost constantly employed in
the field. His resignation was due to differences with the home government
on the question of the future government of the province. Amidst his other
activities he had found time to study the agricultural characteristics of
the conquered country, and under his régime the number of French colonists
had grown from 17,000 to 100,000. In 1848 the marshal was in Paris during
the revolution, but his orders prevented him from acting effectually to
suppress it. He was asked, but eventually refused, to be a candidate for
the presidency in opposition to Louis Napoleon. His last public service was
the command of the army of the Alps, formed in 1848-1849 to observe events
in Italy. He died in Paris on the 10th of June 1849.
Bugeaud's writings were numerous, including his _Oeuvres militaires_,
collected by Weil (Paris, 1883), many official reports on Algeria and the
war there, and some works on economics and political science. See Comte
d'Ideville, _Le Maréchal Bugeaud_ (Paris, 1881-1882).
BUGENHAGEN, JOHANN (1485-1558), surnamed POMERANUS, German Protestant
reformer, was born at Wollin near Stettin on the 24th of June 1485. At the
university of Greifswald he gained much distinction as a humanist, and in
1504 was appointed by the abbot of the Praemonstratensian monastery at
Belbuck rector of the town school at Treptow. In 1509 he was ordained
priest and became a vicar in the collegiate _Marienkirche_ at Treptow; in
1517 he was appointed lecturer on the Bible and Church Fathers at the abbey
school at Belbuck. In 1520 Luther's _De Captivitate Babylonica_ converted
him into a zealous supporter of the Reformer's views, to which he won over
the abbot among others. In 1521 he went to Wittenberg, where he formed a
close friendship with Luther and Melanchthon, and in 1522 he married. He
preached and lectured in the university, but his zeal and organizing skill
soon spread his reforming influence far beyond its limits. In 1528 he
arranged the church affairs of Brunswick and Hamburg; in 1530 those of
Lübeck and Pomerania. In 1537 he was invited to Denmark by Christian III.,
and remained five years in that country, organizing the church (though only
a presbyter, he consecrated the new Danish bishops) and schools. He passed
the remainder of his life at Wittenberg, braving the perils of war and
persecution rather than desert the place dear to him as the home of the
Reformation. He died on the 20th of April 1558. Among his numerous works is
a history of Pomerania, which remained unpublished till 1728. Perhaps his
best book is the _Interpretatio in Librum Psalmorum_ (1523), and he is also
remembered as having helped Luther in his translation of the Bible.
See Life by H. Hering (Halle, 1888); Emil Görigk, _Bugenhagen und die
Protestantisierung Pommerns_ (1895). O. Vogt published a collection of
Bugenhagen's correspondence in 1888, and a supplement in 1890.
BUGGE, SOPHUS (1833-1907), Norwegian philologist, was born at Laurvik,
Norway, on the 5th of January 1833. He was educated at Christiania,
Copenhagen and Berlin, and in 1866 he became professor of comparative
philology and Old Norse at Christiania University. In addition to
collecting Norwegian folk-songs and traditions, and writing on Runic
inscriptions, he made considerable contributions to the study of the
Celtic, Romance, Oscan, Umbrian and Etruscan languages. He was the author
of a very large number of books on philology and folklore. His principal
work, a critical edition of the elder Edda (_Norroen Fornkvoedi_), was
published at Christiania in 1867. He maintained that the songs of the
_Edda_ and the earlier sagas were largely founded on Christian and Latin
tradition imported into Scandinavian literature by way of England. His
writings also include _Gamle Norske Folkeviser_ (1858), a collection of Old
Norse folk-songs; _Bidrag til den aeldste skaldedigtnings historie_
(Christiania, 1894); _Helge-digtene i den Aeldre Edda_ (Copenhagen, 1896,
Eng. trans., _The Home of the Eddic Poems_, 1899); _Norsk Sagafortaelling
op Sagaskrivning i Island_ (Christiania, 1901), and various books on Runic
inscriptions. He died on the 8th of July 1907.
For a further list of his works see J.B. Halvorsen, _Norsk
Forfatter-Lexikon_, vol. i. (Christiania, 1885).
BUGGY, a vehicle with either two (in England and India) or four wheels (in
America). English buggies are generally hooded and for one horse. American
buggies are for one horse or two, and either covered with a hood or open;
among the varieties are the "Goddard" (the name of the inventor), the
"box," so called from the shape of the body, the "cut under," i.e. cut out
for the front wheels to cramp beneath and so turn in a narrow space, the
"end-spring" and "side-bar," names referring to the style of hanging. A
skeleton buggy, lightly constructed, is used on the American "speedways,"
built and maintained for fast driving. The word is of unknown origin; it
may be connected with "bogie" (_q.v._) a truck. The supposed Hindustani
_bagg[=i]_, a gig, often given as the source, appears to be an invention or
an adaptation into the vernacular of the English word.
BUGIS, or BUGHIS, a people of Malayan stock, originally occupying only the
kingdom of Boni in the south-western peninsula of the island of Celebes.
From this district they spread over the whole island, and founded
settlements throughout the whole Malay Archipelago. They are of middle size
and robust, of very active, enterprising nature and of a complexion
slightly lighter than the average Malay. In disposition they are brave,
haughty and fierce, and are said to be more predisposed towards "running
amuck" than any other Malayans. They speak a language allied to that of the
Macassars, and write it with similar characters. It has been studied, and
its letters reproduced in type by Dr B.F. Mathes of the Netherlands Bible
Society. The Bugis are industrious and ingenious; they practise agriculture
more than the neighbouring tribes, and manufacture cotton-cloth not only
for their own use but for export. They also carry on a considerable trade
in the mineral and vegetable products of Boni, such as gold-dust,
tortoise-shell, pearls, nut-megs and camphor. Thair love of the sea has
given them almost a monopoly of trade around Celebes. Their towns [v.04
p.0705] are well built and they have schools of their own. The king is
elected generally for life, and always from their own number, by the chiefs
of the eight petty states that compose the confederation of Boni, and he
cannot decide on any public measure without their consent. In some of the
states the office of chief is hereditary; in others any member of the
privileged classes may aspire to the dignity, and it not infrequently
happens that the state is governed by a woman. The Bugis have been
Mahommedans since the 17th century. Their original form of nature-worship
had been much affected by Hindu influences, and even now they retain rites
connected with the worship of Siva. See further BONI; CELEBES.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Modern Service Bugle, British Army (Charles
Mahillon).]
BUGLE, BUGLE-HORN, KEYED BUGLE, KENT BUGLE OR REGENT'S BUGLE (Fr. _Bugle_,
_Clairon_, _Cor à clefs_, _Bugle à clefs_; Ger. _Flügelhorn_, _Signalhorn_,
_Bugelhorn_, _Klappenhorn_, _Kenthorn_; Ital. _Corna cromatica_), a treble
brass wind instrument with cup-shaped mouthpiece and conical bore, used as
a military duty and signal instrument. The bugle was originally, as its
name denotes, a bull's horn,[1] of which it has preserved the
characteristic conical bore of rapidly increasing diameter.
Those members of the brass wind such as the horns, bugle, trumpet and
tubas, which, in their simplest form, consist of tubes without lateral
openings, depend for their scale on the harmonic series obtained by
overblowing, i.e. by greater pressure of breath and by the increased
tension of the lips, acting as reeds, across the mouthpiece. The harmonic
series thus produced, which depends on the acoustic principles of the tube
itself, and is absolutely uninfluenced by the manner in which the tube is
bent, forms a natural subdivision in classifying these instruments:--(1)
Those in which the lower harmonics from the second to the sixth or eighth
are employed, such as the bugle, post-horn, the cornet à pistons, the
trombone. (2) Those in which the higher harmonics from the third or fourth
to the twelfth or sixteenth are mostly used, such as the French horn and
trumpet. (3) Those which give out the fundamental tone and harmonics up to
the eighth, such as the tubas and ophicleide.
[Illustration]
We thus find a fundamental difference between the trumpet and the bugle as
regards the harmonic series. But although, to the casual beholder, these
instruments may present a general similarity, there are other important
structural distinctions. The tube of the trumpet is cylindrical, widening
only at the bell, whereas that of the bugle, as stated above, is conical.
Both instruments have cup-shaped mouthpieces outwardly similar. The
peculiar shape of the basins, however, at the place where they open into
the tube, angular in the trumpet and bevelled in the bugle, taken in
conjunction with the bore of the main tube, gives to the trumpet its
brilliant blaring tone, and to the bugle its more veiled but penetrating
quality, characteristic of the whole family.[2] Only five notes are
required for the various bugle-calls, although the actual compass of the
instrument consists of eight, of which the first or fundamental, however,
being of poor quality, is never used. There are bugles in C and in E flat,
but the bugle in B flat is most generally used; the key of C is used in
notation.
In order to increase the compass and musical possibilities of the bugle,
two methods have been adopted, the use of (1) keys and (2) valves. The
application of keys to the bugle produced the Kent bugle, and later the
ophicleide. The application of valves produced the family of saxhorns. The
use of keys for wood wind instruments was known early in the 15th
century,[3] perhaps before. In 1438, the duke of Burgundy paid Hennequin
Haulx, instrument-maker of Brussels, 4 _ridres_ a piece for three tenor
bombards with keys. In the 16th century we find a key applied to the bass
flûte-à-bec[4] and later to the large tenor cornetto.[5] In 1770 a
horn-player named Kölbel, belonging to the imperial Russian band,
experimented with keys on the trumpet, and in 1795 Weidinger of Vienna
produced a trumpet with five keys. In 1810 Joseph Halliday, the bandmaster
of the Cavan militia, patented the keyed bugle, with five keys and a
compass of twenty-five notes, calling it the "Royal Kent Bugle" out of
compliment to the duke of Kent, who was at the time commander-in-chief, and
encouraged the introduction of the instrument into the regimental bands. A
Royal Kent bugle in C, stamped with Halliday's name as inventor, and made
by P. Turton, 5 Wormwood Gate, Dublin, was exhibited by Col. Shaw-Hellier
at the Royal Military Exhibition in 1890.[6] The instrument measures 17
in., and the total length of the tubing, including the mouthpiece, 50½ in.
The diameter at the mouthpiece is ½ in. and at the bell 5¾ in. The
instrument has a chromatic compass of two octaves, [Illustration] the open
notes being [Illustration].
Mahillon (op. cit. p. 117) points out that the tonality of the key-bugle
and kindred instruments is determined by the second harmonic given out by
the open tube, the first key remaining open. To the original instrument
specified in the patent, Halliday added a sixth key, which became the first
and was in the normal position open; this key when closed gave B flat, with
the same series of harmonics as the open tube. The series, however, becomes
shorter with each successive key. Thus, on being opened, the second key
gives [Illustration], the third key [Illustration], the fourth key
[Illustration], the fifth key [Illustration], the sixth key [Illustration].
The bore of the instrument is just wide enough in proportion to its length
to make possible the playing of the fundamental tones in the first two
series, but these notes are never used, and the harmonics above the sixth
are also avoided, being of doubtful intonation. In the ophicleide, the bass
of the key-bugle, the bore is sufficiently wide to produce the fundamentals
of a satisfactory quality.
The keyed bugle was chiefly used in B flat, a crook for B flat being
frequently added to the bugle in C; the soprano bugle in E flat was also
much used in military bands.
The origin of the bugle, in common with that of the hunting horn, is of the
highest antiquity. During the middle ages, the word "bugle" was applied to
the ox and also to its horns, whether used as musical instruments or for
drinking. The _New English Dictionary_ quotes a definition of bugle dating
from c. 1398: "The Bugle ... is lyke to an oxe and is a fyers [v.04 p.0706]
beest."[7] In 1300 a romance[8] contains the word used in both
acceptations, "A thousand bugles of Ynde," and "tweye bugle-hornes and a
bowe." F. Godefroy[9] gives quotations from early French which show that,
as in England, the word bugle was frequently used as an adjective, and as a
verb:--"IIII cors buglieres fist soner de randon" (_Quatre fils Aymon_, ed.
P. Tarbé, p. 32), and "I grant cor buglerenc fit en sa tor soner" (_Aiol_,
7457, _Société des anciens textes français_). Tubas, horns, cornets and
bugles have as common archetype the horn of ram, bull or other animal,
whose form was copied and modified in bronze, wood, brass, ivory, silver,
&c. Of all these instruments, the bugle has in the highest degree retained
the acoustic properties and the characteristic scale of the prototype, and
is still put to the original use for giving military signals. The shofar of
the ancient Hebrews, used at the siege of Jericho, was a cow's horn (Josh.
vi. 4, 5, 8, 13, &c.), translated in the Vulgate _buccina_, in the
paraphrase of the Chaldee _buccina ex cornu_. The directions given for
sounding the trumpets of beaten silver described in Numbers x. form the
earliest code of signals yet known; the narrative shows that the Israelites
had metal wind instruments; if, therefore, they retained the more primitive
cow's horn and ram's horn (shofar), it was from choice, because they
attached special significance to them in connexion with their ritual. The
trumpet of silver mentioned above was the _Khatsotsrah_, probably the long
straight trumpet or tuba which also occurs among the instruments in the
musical scenes of the ancient Egyptians and Assyrians. Gideon's use of a
massed band of three hundred shofars to terrify and defeat the Midianites
(Judges vii. 16), and Saul's call to arms (1 Sam. xiii. 3) show that the
value of the shofar as a military instrument was well understood by the
Jews. The cornu was used by the Roman infantry to sound the military calls,
and Vegetius[10] states that the tuba and buccina were also used for the
same purpose. Mahillon possesses a facsimile of an ancient Etruscan cornu,
the length of which is 1.40 m.; he gives its scale,[11] pitched one tone
below that of the bugle in E flat, as that of D flat, of which the
harmonics [Illustration] from the second to the sixth are available. The
same department of the British Museum was enriched in 1904 with a
terra-cotta model (fig. 2) of a late Roman bugle (c. 4th century A.D.),
bent completely round upon itself to form a coil between the mouthpiece and
the bell-end (the latter has been broken off). This precious relic was
found at Ventoux in France and has been acquired from the collection of M.
Morel. This is precisely the form of bugle now used as a badge by the first
battalion of the King's Own Light Infantry.[12] During the middle ages the
use of the bugle-horn by knights and huntsmen, and perhaps also in naval
warfare, was general in Europe, as the following additional quotations will
show: "XXX cors bugleres, fait l'amirax soner" (_Conq. de Jérusalem_, 6811,
Hippeau); "Two squyers blewe ... with ij grete bugles hornes" (Caxton,
_Chron. Engl. ccix. 192_). The oliphant was a glorified bugle-horn made of
rich material, such as ivory, carved and inlaid with designs in gold and
silver.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Terra Cotta Model of Roman Bugle, 4th cent.
(British Museum).]