In the parliamentary battle, which ended in the concession of the Petition

of Right, Buckingham took an active share as a member of the House of

Lords. He resisted as long as it was possible to resist the demand of the

Commons, that the king should abandon his claim to imprison without showing

cause. When the first unsatisfactory answer to the petition was made by the

king on the 2nd of June, the Commons suspected, probably with truth, that

it had been dictated by Buckingham. They prepared a remonstrance on the

state of the nation, and Coke at last named the duke as the cause of all

the misfortunes that had occurred. "The duke of Bucks is the cause of all

our miseries ... that man is the grievance of grievances." Though on the

7th of June the king granted a satisfactory answer to the petition, the

Commons proceeded with their remonstrance, and on the 11th demanded that he

might no longer continue in office.

Once more Charles refused to surrender Buckingham, and a few days later he

prorogued parliament in anger. The popular feeling was greatly excited.

Lampoons circulated freely from hand to hand, and Dr Lambe, a quack doctor,

who dabbled in astrology, and was believed to exercise influence over

Buckingham, was murdered in the streets of London. Rude doggerel lines

announced that the duke should share the doctor's fate.

With the clouds gathering round him, Buckingham went down to Portsmouth to

take the command of one final expedition for the relief of La Rochelle. For

the first time even he was beginning to acknowledge that he had undertaken

a task beyond his powers. There was a force of inertia in the officials

which resisted his efforts to spur them on to an enterprise which they

believed to be doomed to failure. He entered gladly into a scheme of

pacification proposed by the Venetian ambassador. But before he could know

whether there was to be peace or war, the knife of an assassin put an end

to his career. John Felton, who had served at Ré, had been disappointed of

promotion, and had not been paid that which was due to him for his

services, read the declaration of the Commons that Buckingham was a public

enemy, and eagerly caught at the excuse for revenging his private wrongs

under cover of those of his country. Waiting, on the morning of the 23rd of

August, beside the door of the room in which Buckingham was breakfasting,

he stabbed him to the heart as he came out.

Buckingham married Lady Katherine Manners, daughter of Francis, 6th earl of

Rutland, by whom he left three sons and one daughter, of whom George, the

second son (1628-1687), succeeded to the dukedom.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_, by S.R. Gardiner;

_Life of Buckingham_, by Sir Henry Wotton (1642), reprinted in _Harleian

Miscellany_, viii. 613; _A Parallel between Robert Earl of Essex and George

late Duke of Buckingham_, by the same writer (1641), in the _Thomason

Tracts_, 164 (20); _Characters_ of the same by Edward, Earl of Clarendon

(1706); _Life of George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, &c._ (London, 1740);

_Historical and Biographical Memoirs of George Villiers, Duke of

Buckingham_ (London, 1819); _Letters of the Duke and Duchess of Buckingham_

(Edinburgh, 1834); _Historia Vitae ... Ricardi II., &c._, by Thos. Hearne

(1729); _Documents illustrating the Impeachment of Buckingham_, published

by the Camden Society and edited by S.R. Gardiner (1889); _Epistolae

Hoelianae_ (James Howell), 187, 189, 203; _Poems and Songs relating to

George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham_, ed. by R. W. Fairholt for the Percy

Society (1850); Rous's _Diary_ (Camden Soc., 1856), p. 27; _Gent. Mag._

(1845), ii. 137-144 (portrait of Buckingham dead); _Cal. of State Papers_,

and MSS. in the British Museum (various collections). Hist. MSS. Comm.

Series. See also P. Gibbs, _The Romance of George Villiers, 1st Duke of

Buckingham_ (1908).

(S. R. G.; P. C. Y.)

[1] _i.e._ in the Villiers line; see above.

[2] The _Life_, by Sir Henry Wotton, gives August 28th as the date of his

birth, but, when relating his death on August 23rd, adds, "thus died the

great peer in the 36th year of his age compleat and three days over."

August 28th was therefore probably a misprint for August 20th.

BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 2ND DUKE OF[1] (1628-1687), English statesman,

son of the 1st duke, was born on the 30th of January 1628. He was brought

up, together with his younger brother Francis, by King Charles I. with his

own children, and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he

obtained the degree of M.A. in 1642. He fought for the king in the Civil

War, and took part in the attack on Lichfield Close in April 1643.

Subsequently, under the care of the earl of Northumberland, the two

brothers travelled abroad and lived at Florence and Rome. When the Second

Civil War broke out they joined the earl of Holland in Surrey, in July

1648. Lord Francis was killed near Kingston, and Buckingham and Holland

were surprised at St Neots on the 10th, the duke succeeding in escaping to

Holland. In consequence of his participation in the rebellion, his lands,

which had been restored to him in 1647 on account of his youth, were now

again confiscated, a considerable portion passing into the possession of

Fairfax; and he refused to compound. Charles II. conferred on him the

Garter on the 19th of September 1649, and admitted him to the privy council

on the 6th of April 1650. In opposition to Hyde he supported the alliance

with the Scottish presbyterians, accompanied Charles to Scotland in June,

and allied himself with Argyll, dissuading Charles from joining the

royalist plot of October 1650, and being suspected of betraying the plan to

the convenanting leaders. In May he had been appointed general of the

eastern association in England, and was commissioned to raise forces

abroad; and in the following year he was chosen to lead the projected

movement in Lancashire and to command the Scottish royalists. He was

present with Charles at the battle of Worcester on the 3rd of September

1651, and escaped safely [v.04 p.0670] alone to Rotterdam in October. His

subsequent negotiations with Cromwell's government, and his readiness to

sacrifice the interests of the church, separated him from the rest of

Charles's advisers and diminished his influence; while his estrangement

from the royal family was completed by his audacious courtship of the

king's sister, the widowed princess of Orange, and by a money dispute with

Charles. In 1657 he returned to England, and on the 15th of September

married Mary, daughter of Lord Fairfax, who had fallen in love with him

although the banns of her intended marriage with the earl of Chesterfield

had been twice called in church. Buckingham was soon suspected of

organizing a presbyterian plot against the government, and in spite of

Fairfax's interest with Cromwell an order was issued for his arrest on the

9th of October. He was confined at York House about April 1658, and having

broken bounds was rearrested on the 18th of August and imprisoned in the

Tower, where he remained till the 23rd of February 1659, being then

liberated on his promise not to abet the enemies of the government, and on

Fairfax's security of £20,000. He joined the latter in his march against

Lambert in January 1660, and afterwards claimed to have gained Fairfax to

the cause of the Restoration.

On the king's return Buckingham, who met him at his landing at Dover, was

at first received coldly; but he was soon again in favour, was appointed a

gentleman of the bedchamber, carried the orb at the coronation on the 23rd

of April 1661, and was made lord-lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire

on the 21st of September. The same year he accompanied the princess

Henrietta to Paris on her marriage with the duke of Orleans, but made love

to her himself with such imprudence that he was recalled. On the 28th of

April 1662 he was admitted to the privy council. His confiscated estates

amounting to £26,000 a year were restored to him, and he was reputed the

king's richest subject. He took part in the suppression of the projected

insurrection in Yorkshire in 1663, went to sea in the first Dutch war in

1665, and was employed in taking measures to resist the Dutch or French

invasion in June 1666.

He was, however, debarred from high office by Clarendon's influence.

Accordingly Buckingham's intrigues were now directed to effect the

chancellor's ruin. He organized parties in both houses of parliament in

support of the bill of 1666 prohibiting the import of Irish cattle, partly

to oppose Clarendon and partly to thwart the duke of Ormonde. Having

asserted during the debates that "whoever was against the bill had either

an Irish interest or an Irish understanding," he was challenged by Lord

Ossory. Buckingham avoided the encounter, and Ossory was sent to the Tower.

A short time afterwards, during a conference between the two houses on the

19th of December, he came to blows with the marquess of Dorchester, pulling

off the latter's periwig, while Dorchester at the close of the scuffle "had

much of the duke's hair in his hand."[2] According to Clarendon no

misdemeanour so flagrant had ever before offended the dignity of the House

of Lords. The offending peers were both sent to the Tower, but were

released after apologizing; and Buckingham vented his spite by raising a

claim to the title of Lord Roos held by Dorchester's son-in-law. His

opposition to the government had forfeited the king's favour, and he was

now accused of treasonable intrigues, and of having cast the king's

horoscope. His arrest was ordered on the 25th of February 1667, and he was

dismissed from all his offices. He avoided capture till the 27th of June,

when he gave himself up and was imprisoned in the Tower. He was released,

however, by July 17th, was restored to favour and to his appointments on

the 15 of September, and took an active part in the prosecution of

Clarendon. On the latter's fall he became the chief minister, though

holding no high office except that of master of the horse, bought from the

duke of Albermarle in 1668. In 1671 he was elected chancellor of Cambridge,

and in 1672 high steward of Oxford university. He favoured religious

toleration, and earned the praise of Richard Baxter; he supported a scheme

of comprehension in 1668, and advised the declaration of indulgence in

1672. He upheld the original jurisdiction of the Lords in Skinner's case.

With these exceptions Buckingham's tenure of office was chiefly marked by

scandals and intrigues. His illicit connexion with the countess of

Shrewsbury led to a duel with her husband at Barn Elms on the 16th of

January 1668, in which Shrewsbury was fatally wounded. The tale that the

countess, disguised as a page, witnessed the encounter, appears to have no

foundation; but Buckingham, by installing the "widow of his own creation"

in his own and his wife's house, outraged even the lax opinion of that day.

He was thought to have originated the project of obtaining the divorce of

the childless queen. He intrigued against James, against Sir William

Coventry--one of the ablest statesmen of the time, whose fall he procured

by provoking him to send him a challenge--and against the great duke of

Ormonde, who was dismissed in 1669. He was even suspected of having

instigated Thomas Blood's attempt to kidnap and murder Ormonde, and was

charged with the crime in the king's presence by Ormonde's son, Lord

Ossory, who threatened to shoot him dead in the event of his father's

meeting with a violent end. Arlington, next to Buckingham himself the most

powerful member of the cabal and a favourite of the king, was a rival less

easy to overcome; and he derived considerable influence from the control of

foreign affairs entrusted to him. Buckingham had from the first been an

adherent of the French alliance, while Arlington concluded through Sir

William Temple in 1668 the Triple Alliance. But on the complete

_volte-face_ and surrender made by Charles to France in 1670, Arlington as

a Roman Catholic was entrusted with the first treaty of Dover of the 20th

of May--which besides providing for the united attack on Holland, included

Charles's undertaking to proclaim himself a Romanist and to reintroduce the

Roman Catholic faith into England,--While Buckingham was sent to France to

carry on the sham negotiations which led to the public treaties of the 31st

of December 1670 and the 2nd of February 1672. He was much pleased with his

reception by Louis XIV., declared that he had "more honours done him than

ever were given to any subject," and was presented with a pension of 10,000

livres a year for Lady Shrewsbury. In June 1672 he accompanied Arlington to

the Hague to impose terms on the prince of Orange, and with Arlington

arranged the new treaty with Louis. After all this activity he suffered a

keen disappointment in being passed over for the command of the English

forces in favour of Schomberg. He now knew of the secret treaty of Dover,

and towards the end of 1673 his jealousy of Arlington became open

hostility. He threatened to impeach him, and endeavoured with the help of

Louis to stir up a faction against him in parliament. This, however, was

unsuccessful, and in January 1674 an attack was made upon Buckingham

himself simultaneously in both houses. In the Lords the trustees of the

young earl of Shrewsbury complained that Buckingham continued publicly his

intimacy with the countess, and that a son of theirs had been buried in

Westminster Abbey with the title of earl of Coventry; and Buckingham, after

presenting an apology, was required, as was the countess, to give security

for £10,000 not to cohabit together again. In the Commons he was attacked

as the promoter of the French alliance, of "popery" and arbitrary

government. He defended himself chiefly by endeavouring to throw the blame

upon Arlington; but an address was voted petitioning the king to remove him

from his councils, presence and from employment for ever. Charles, who had

only been waiting for a favourable opportunity, and who was enraged at

Buckingham's disclosures, consented with alacrity. Buckingham retired into

private life, reformed his ways, attended church with his wife, began to

pay his debts, became a "patriot," and was claimed by the country or

opposition party as one of their leaders. In the spring of 1675 he was

conspicuous for his opposition to the Test oath and for his abuse of the

bishops, and on the 16th of November he introduced a bill for the relief of

the nonconformists. On the 15th of February 1677 he was one of the four

lords who endeavoured to embarrass the government by raising the question

whether the parliament, not having assembled according to the act of Edward

III. once in the year, had not been dissolved by [v.04 p.0671] the recent

prorogation. The motion was rejected and the four lords were ordered to

apologize. On their refusing, they were sent to the Tower, Buckingham in

particular exasperating the House by ridiculing its censure. He was

released in July, and immediately entered into intrigues with Barillon, the

French ambassador, with the object of hindering the grant of supplies to

the king; and in 1678 he visited Paris to get the assistance of Louis XIV.

for the cause of the opposition. He took an active part in the prosecution

of those implicated in the supposed Popish Plot, and accused the lord chief

justice (Sir William Scroggs) in his own court while on circuit of

favouring the Roman Catholics. In consequence of his conduct a writ was

issued for his apprehension, but it was never served. He promoted the

return of Whig candidates to parliament, constituted himself the champion

of the dissenters, and was admitted a freeman of the city of London. He,

however, separated himself from the Whigs on the exclusion question,

probably on account of his dislike of Monmouth and Shaftesbury, was absent

from the great debate in the Lords on the 15th of November 1680, and was

restored to the king's favour in 1684.

He took no part in public life after James's accession, but returned to his

manor of Helmsley in Yorkshire, the cause of his withdrawal being probably

exhausted health and exhausted finances. In 1685 he published a pamphlet,

entitled _A short Discourse on the Reasonableness of Man's having a

Religion_ (reprinted in _Somers Tracts_ (1813, ix. 13), in which after

discussing the main subject he returned to his favourite topic, religious

toleration. The tract provoked some rejoinders and was defended, amongst

others, by William Penn, and by the author himself in _The Duke of

Buckingham's Letter to the unknown author of a short answer to the Duke of

Buckingham's Paper_ (1685). In hopes of converting him to Roman Catholicism

James sent him a priest, but Buckingham turned his arguments into ridicule.

He died on the 16th of April 1687, from a chill caught while hunting, in

the house of a tenant at Kirkby Moorside in Yorkshire, expressing great

repentance and feeling himself "despised by my country and I fear forsaken

by my God."[3] The miserable picture of his end drawn by Pope, however, is

greatly exaggerated. He was buried on the 7th of June 1687 in Henry VII.'s

chapel in Westminster Abbey, in greater state, it was said, than the late

king, and with greater splendour. With his death the family founded by the

extraordinary rise to power and influence of the first duke ended. As he

left no legitimate children the title became extinct, and his great estate

had been completely dissipated; of the enormous mansion constructed by him

at Cliveden in Buckinghamshire not a stone remains.

The ostentatious licence and the unscrupulous conduct of the Alcibiades of

the 17th century have been deservedly censured. But even his critics agree

that he was good-humoured, good-natured, generous, an unsurpassed mimic and

the leader of fashion; and with his good looks, in spite of his moral

faults and even crimes, he was irresistible to his contemporaries. Many

examples of his amusing wit have survived. His portrait has been drawn by

Burnet, Count Hamilton in the _Mémoires de Grammont_, Dryden, Pope in the

_Epistle to Lord Bathurst_, and Sir Walter Scott in _Peveril of the Peak_.

He is described by Reresby as "the first gentleman of person and wit I

think I ever saw," and Burnet bears the same testimony. Dean Lockier, after

alluding to his unrivalled skill in riding, dancing and fencing, adds,

"When he came into the presence-chamber it was impossible for you not to

follow him with your eye as he went along, he moved so gracefully." Racing

and hunting were his favourite sports, and his name long survived in the

hunting songs of Yorkshire. He was the patron of Cowley, Sprat, Matthew

Clifford and Wycherley. He dabbled in chemistry, and for some years,

according to Burnet, "he thought he was very near the finding of the

philosopher's stone." He set up glass works at Lambeth the productions of

which were praised by Evelyn; and he spent much money, according to his

biographer Brian Fairfax, in building _insanae substructions_. Dryden

described him under the character of Zimri in the celebrated lines in

_Absalom and Achitophel_ (to which Buckingham replied in _Poetical

Reflections on a late Poem ... by a Person of Honour, 1682_):--

"A man so various, that he seemed to be

Not one, but all mankind's epitome;

Stiff in opinions, always in the wrong,

Was everything by starts and nothing long;

But in the course of one revolving moon,

Was chymist, fiddler, statesman and buffoon....

Beggar'd by fools, whom still he found too late,

He had his jest, but they had his estate."

Buckingham, however, cannot with any truth be called the "epitome of

mankind." On the contrary, the distinguishing features of his life are its

incompleteness, aimlessness, imperfection, insignificance, neglect of

talents and waste of opportunities. "He saw and approved the best," says

Brian Fairfax, "but did too often _deteriora sequi_." He is more severely

but more justly judged by himself. In gay moments indeed he had written--

"Methinks, I see the wanton houres flee,

And as they passe, turne back and laugh at me,"[4]--

but his last recorded words on the approach of death, "O! what a prodigal

have I been of that most valuable of all possessions--Time!" express with

exact truth the fundamental flaw of his character and career, of which he

had at last become conscious.

Buckingham wrote occasional verses and satires showing undoubted but

undeveloped poetical gifts, a collection of which, containing however many

pieces not from his pen, was first published by Tom Brown in 1704; while a

few extracts from a commonplace book of Buckingham of some interest are

given in an article in the _Quarterly Review_ of January 1898. He was the

author of _The Rehearsal_, an amusing and clever satire on the heroic drama

and especially on Dryden (first performed on the 7th of December 1671, at

the Theatre Royal, and first published in 1672), a deservedly popular play

which was imitated by Fielding in _Tom Thumb the Great_, and by Sheridan in

the _Critic_. Buckingham also published two adapted plays, _The Chances_,

altered from Fletcher's play of the same name (1682) and _The Restoration

or Right will take place_, from Beaumont and Fletcher's _Philaster_ (publ.

1714); and also _The Battle of Sedgmoor_ and _The Militant Couple_ (publ.

1704). The latest edition of his works is that by T. Evans (2 vols. 8vo,

1775). Another work is named by Wood _A Demonstration of the Deity_, of

which there is now no trace.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The life of Buckingham has been well and accurately traced

and the chief authorities collected in the article in the _Dict, of Nat.

Biography_ (1899) by C.H. Firth, and in _George Villiers, 2nd Duke of

Buckingham_, by Lady Burghclere (1903). Other biographies are in Wood's

_Athenae Oxon_ (Bliss), iv. 207; in _Biographia Britannica_; by Brian

Fairfax, printed in H. Walpole's _Catalogue of Pictures of George Duke of

Buckingham_ (1758); in Arber's edition of the _Rehearsal_ (1868); and by

the author of _Hudibras_ in _The Genuine Remains of Mr Samuel Butler_, by

R. Thyer (1759), ii. 72. The following may also be mentioned:--_Quarterly

Review, Jan. 1898_ (commonplace book); _A Conference on the Doctrine of

Transubstantiation between ... the Duke of Buckingham and Father

FitzGerald_ (1714); _A Narrative of the Cause and Manner of the

Imprisonment of the Lords_ (1677); _The Declaration of the ... Duke of

Buckingham and the Earls of Holland and Peterborough ... associated for the

King_ (1648); S.R. Gardiner's _Hist. of the Commonwealth_ (1894-1901);

_Hist. of Eng. Poetry_, by W.J. Courthope (1903), iii. 460; Horace

Walpole's _Royal and Noble Authors_, iii. 304; _Miscellania Aulica_, by T.

Brown (1702); and the _Fairfax Correspondence_ (1848-1849). For the

correspondence see _Charles II. and Scotland in 1650_ (Scottish History

Soc., vol. xvii., 1894); _Calendars of St. Pap. Dom.; Hist. MSS. Comm.

Series, MSS. of Duke of Buccleuch at Montagu House, of Mrs

Frankland-Russell-Astley_, of _Marq. of Ormonde_, and _Various

Collections_; and _English Hist. Rev._ (April 1905), xx. 373.

(P. C. Y.)

[1] i.e. in the Villiers line; see above.

[2] Clarendon, _Life and Continuation_, 979.

[3] _Quarterly Review_, January 1898, p. 110.

[4] From his Common place Book (_Quarterly Rev._ vol. 187, p. 87).

BUCKINGHAM, HENRY STAFFORD, 2ND DUKE OF[1] (1454-1483), was the son of

Humphrey Stafford, killed at the first battle of St Albans in 1455, and

grandson of Humphrey the 1st duke (cr. 1444), killed at Northampton in

1460, both fighting for Lancaster. The 1st duke, who bore the title of earl

of Buckingham in right of his mother, was the son of Edmund, 5th earl of

Stafford, and of Anne, daughter of Thomas, duke [v.04 p.0672] of

Gloucester, youngest son of Edward III.; Henry's mother was Margaret,

daughter of Edmund Beaufort, 2nd duke of Somerset, grandson of John of

Gaunt. Thus he came on both sides of the blood royal, and this, coupled

with the vastness of his inheritance, made the young duke's future of

importance to Edward IV. He was recognized as duke in 1465, and next year

was married to Catherine Woodville, the queen's sister. On reaching manhood

he was made a knight of the Garter in 1474, and in 1478 was high steward at

the trial of George, duke of Clarence. He had not otherwise filled any

position of importance, but his fidelity might seem to have been secured by

his marriage. However, after Edward's death, Buckingham was one of the

first persons worked upon by Richard, duke of Gloucester. It was through

his help that Richard obtained possession of the young king, and he was at

once rewarded with the offices of justiciar and chamberlain of North and

South Wales, and constable of all the royal castles in the principality and

Welsh Marches. In the proceedings which led to the deposition of Edward V.

he took a prominent part, and on the 24th of June 1483 he urged the

citizens at the Guildhall to take Richard as king, in a speech of much

eloquence, "for he was neither unlearned and of nature marvellously well

spoken." (More). At Richard's coronation he served as chamberlain, and

immediately afterwards was made constable of England and confirmed in his

powers in Wales. Richard might well have believed that the duke's support

was secured. But early in August Buckingham withdrew from the court to

Brecon. He may have thought that he deserved an even greater reward, or

possibly had dreams of establishing his own claims to the crown. At all

events, at Brecon he fell somewhat easily under the influence of his

prisoner, John Morton (_q.v._), who induced him to give his support to his

cousin Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond. A widespread plot was soon formed,

but Richard had early warning, and on the 15th of October, issued a

proclamation against Buckingham. Buckingham, as arranged, prepared to enter

England with a large force of Welshmen. His advance was stopped by an

extraordinary flood on the Severn, his army melted away without striking a

blow, and he himself took refuge with a follower, Ralph Bannister, at Lacon

Hall, near Wem. The man betrayed him for a large reward, and on the 1st of

November, Buckingham was brought to the king at Salisbury. Richard refused

to see him, and after a summary trial had him executed next day (2nd of

November 1483), though it was a Sunday.

Buckingham's eldest son, Edward (1478-1521), eventually succeeded him as

3rd duke, the attainder being removed in 1485; the second son, Henry, was

afterwards earl of Wiltshire. The 3rd duke played an important part as lord

high constable at the opening of the reign of Henry VIII., and is

introduced into Shakespeare's play of that king, but he fell through his

opposition to Wolsey, and in 1521 was condemned for treason and executed

(17th of May); the title was then forfeited with his attainder, his only

son Henry (1501-1563), who in his father's lifetime was styled earl of

Stafford, being, however, given back his estates in 1522, and in 1547

restored in blood by parliament with the title of Baron Stafford, which

became extinct in this line with Roger, 5th Baron in 1640. In that year the

barony of Stafford was granted to William Howard (1614-1680), who after two

months was created Viscount Stafford; he was beheaded in 1680, and his son

was created earl of Stafford in 1688, a title which became extinct in 1762;

but in 1825 the descent to the barony of 1640 was established, to the

satisfaction of the House of Lords, in the person of Sir G.W. Jerningham,

in whose family it then continued.

The chief original authorities for the life of the 2nd duke of Buckingham

are the _Continuation of the Croyland Chronicle_; Sir Thomas More's

_Richard III._; and Fabyan's _Chronicle_. Amongst modern authorities

consult J. Gairdner's _Richard III._; and Sir. J. Ramsay's _Lancaster and

York_.

(C. L. K.)

[1] i.e. in the Stafford line; see above.

BUCKINGHAM, JAMES SILK (1786-1855), English author and traveller, was born

near Falmouth on the 25th of August 1786, the son of a farmer. His youth

was spent at sea. After years of wandering he established in 1818 the

_Calcutta Journal_. This venture at first proved highly successful, but in

1823 the paper's outspoken criticisms of the East India Company led to the

expulsion of Buckingham from India and to the suppression of the paper by

John Adam, the acting governor-general. His case was brought before

parliament, and a pension of £200 a year was subsequently awarded him by

the East India Company as compensation. Buckingham continued his

journalistic ventures on his return to England, and started the _Oriental

Herald_ (1824) and the _Athenaeum_ (1828) which was not a success in his

hands. In parliament, where he sat as member for Sheffield from 1832-1837,

he was a strong advocate of social reform. He was a most voluminous writer.

He had travelled much in Europe, America and the East, and wrote a great

number of useful books of travel. In 1851 the value of these and of his

other literary work was recognized by the grant of a civil list pension of

£200 a year. At the time of his death in London, on the 30th of June 1855,

Buckingham was at work on his autobiography, two volumes of the intended

four being completed and published (1855).

His youngest son, Leicester Silk Buckingham (1825-1867), achieved no little

popularity as a playwright, several of his free adaptations of French

comedies being produced in London between 1860 and 1867.

BUCKINGHAM, a market town and municipal borough and the county town of

Buckinghamshire, England, in the Buckingham parliamentary division, 61 m.

N.W. of London by a branch of the London & North-Western railway. Pop.

(1901) 3152. It lies in an open valley on the upper part of the river Ouse,

which encircles the main portion of the town on three sides. The church of

St Peter and St Paul, which was extensively restored by Sir Gilbert Scott,

a native of this neighbourhood, is of the 18th century, and stands on the

site of the old castle; the town hall dates from the close of the previous

century; and the grammar school was founded by Edward VI., in part

occupying buildings of earlier date, which retain Perpendicular and

Decorated windows, and a Norman door. A chantry, founded in 1268 by Matthew

Stratton, archdeacon of Buckingham, previously occupied the site; the

Norman work may be a remnant of the chapel of a gild of the Holy Trinity.

The manor house is of the early part of the 17th century, and other old

houses remain. The adjacent mansion of Stowe, approached from the town by a

magnificent avenue of elms, and surrounded by gardens very beautifully laid

out, was the seat of the dukes of Buckingham until the extinction of the

title in 1889. Buckingham is served by a branch of the Grand Junction

Canal, and has agricultural trade, manufactures of condensed milk and

artificial manure, maltings and flour-mills; while an old industry survives

to a modified extent in the manufacture of pillow-lace. The borough is

under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 5006 acres.

Buckingham (Bochingeham, Bukyngham) was an important stronghold in

pre-Conquest times, and in 918 Edward the Elder encamped there with his

army for four weeks, and threw up two forts on either side of the water. At

the time of the Domesday survey there were twenty-six burgesses in

Buckingham, which, together with the hamlet of Bourton, was assessed at one

hide. Although it appears as a borough thus early, the town received no

charter until 1554, when Queen Mary created it a free borough corporate

with a bailiff, twelve principal burgesses and a steward, and defined the

boundaries as extending in width from Dudley bridge to Thornborowe bridge

and in length from Chackmore bridge to Padbury Mill bridge. A charter from

Charles II. in 1684 was very shortly abandoned in favour of the original

grant, which held force until the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835. In

1529 and from 1545 onwards Buckingham returned two members to parliament,

until deprived by the Representation of the People Act of 1867 of one

member, and by the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885 of the other. Early

mentions occur of markets and fairs, and from 1522, when Henry VIII.

granted to Sir Henry Marney the borough of Buckingham with a Saturday

market and two annual fairs, grants of fairs by various sovereigns were

numerous. Buckingham was formerly an important agricultural centre, and

Edward III. fixed here one of the staples for wool, but after the removal

of these to Calais the trade suffered such decay that in an act of 32 Henry

VIII. Buckingham is mentioned among thirty-six impoverished towns.

BUCKINGHAM AND NORMANBY, JOHN SHEFFIELD, 1ST DUKE OF (1648-1721), English

statesman and poet, was born on [v.04 p.0673] the 7th of April 1648. He was

the son of Edmund, 2nd earl of Mulgrave, and succeeded to that title on his

father's death in 1658. At the age of eighteen he joined the fleet, to

serve in the first Dutch war; on the renewal of hostilities in 1672 he was

present at the battle of Southwold Bay, and in the next year received the

command of a ship. He was also made a colonel of infantry, and served for

some time under Turenne. In 1680 he was put in charge of an expedition sent

to relieve the town of Tangier. It was said that he was provided with a

rotten ship in the hope that he would not return, but the reason of this

abortive plot, if plot there was, is not exactly ascertained. At court he

took the side of the duke of York, and helped to bring about Monmouth's

disgrace. In 1682 he was dismissed from the court, apparently for putting

himself forward as a suitor for the princess Anne, but on the accession of

King James he received a seat in the privy council, and was made lord

chamberlain. He supported James in his most unpopular measures, and stayed

with him in London during the time of his flight. He also protected the

Spanish ambassador from the dangerous anger of the mob. He acquiesced,

however, in the Revolution, and in 1694 was made marquess of Normanby. In

1696 he refused in company with other Tory peers to sign an agreement to

support William as their "rightful and lawful king" against Jacobite

attempts, and was consequently dismissed from the privy council. On the

accession of Anne, with whom he was a personal favourite, he became lord

privy seal and lord-lieutenant of the North Riding of Yorkshire, and in

1703 duke of Buckingham and Normanby. During the predominance of the Whigs

between 1705 and 1710, Buckingham was deprived of his office as lord privy

seal, but in 1710 he was made lord steward, and in 1711 lord president of

the council. After the death of Anne he held no state appointment. He died

on the 24th of February 1721 at his house in St James's Park, which stood

on the site of the present Buckingham Palace. Buckingham was succeeded by

his son, Edmund (1716-1735) on whose death the titles became extinct.

Buckingham, who is better known by his inherited titles as Lord Mulgrave,

was the author of "An Account of the Revolution" and some other essays, and

of numerous poems, among them the _Essay on Poetry_ and the _Essay on

Satire_. It is probable that the _Essay on Satire_, which attacked many

notable persons, "sauntering Charles" amongst others, was circulated in MS.

It was often attributed at the time to Dryden, who accordingly suffered a

thrashing at the hands of Rochester's bravoes for the reflections it

contained upon the earl. Mulgrave was a patron of Dryden, who may possibly

have revised it, but was certainly not responsible, although it is commonly

printed with his works. Mulgrave adapted Shakespeare's _Julius Caesar_,

breaking it up into two plays, _Julius Caesar_ and _Marcus Brutus_. He

introduced choruses between the acts, two of these being written by Pope,

and an incongruous love scene between Brutus and Portia. He was a constant

friend and patron of Pope, who expressed a flattering opinion of his _Essay

on Poetry_. This, although smoothly enough written, deals chiefly with

commonplaces.

In 1721 Edmund Curll published a pirated edition of his works, and was

brought before the bar of the House of Lords for breach of privilege

accordingly. An authorized edition under the superintendence of Pope

appeared in 1723, but the authorities cut out the "Account of the

Revolution" and "The Feast of the Gods" on account of their alleged

Jacobite tendencies. These were printed at the Hague in 1727. Pope

disingenuously repudiated any knowledge of the contents. Other editions

reappeared in 1723, 1726, 1729, 1740 and 1753. His _Poems_ were included in

Johnson's and other editions of the British poets.

BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, EARLS OF. The first earl of Buckinghamshire (to be

distinguished from the earls of Buckingham, _q.v._) was John Hobart (c.

1694-1756), a descendant of Sir Henry Hobart (d. 1625), attorney-general

and chief justice of the common pleas under James I., who was made a

baronet in 1611, and who was the great-grandson of Sir James Hobart (d.

1507), attorney-general to Henry VII. The Hobarts had been settled in

Norfolk and Suffolk for many years, when in 1728 John Hobart, who was a son

of Sir Henry Hobart, the 4th baronet (d. 1698), was created Baron Hobart of

Blickling. In 1740 Hobart became lord-lieutenant of Norfolk and in 1746

earl of Buckinghamshire, his sister, Henrietta Howard, countess of Suffolk,

being the mistress of George II. He died on the 22nd of September 1756, and

was succeeded as 2nd earl[1] by his eldest son John (1723-1793), who was

member of parliament for Norwich and comptroller of the royal household

before his accession to the title. From 1762 to 1766 he was ambassador to

Russia, and from 1776 to 1780 lord-lieutenant of Ireland, but he was hardly

equal to the exceptional difficulties with which he had to deal in the

latter position. He died without sons at Blickling Hall, Norfolk, on the

3rd of August 1793, when his half-brother George (c. 1730-1804), became 3rd

earl. Blickling Hall and his Norfolk estates, however, passed to his

daughter, Henrietta (1762-1805), the wife of William Kerr, afterwards 6th

marquess of Lothian.

Robert Hobart, 4th earl of Buckinghamshire (1760-1816), the eldest son of

the 3rd earl, was born on the 6th of May 1760. He was a soldier, and then a

member of both the English and the Irish Houses of Commons; from 1789 to

1793 he was chief secretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, exerting his

influence in this country to prevent any concessions to the Roman

Catholics. In 1793, being known by the courtesy title of Lord Hobart, he

was sent to Madras as governor, but in 1798, after serious differences

between himself and the governor-general of India, Sir John Shore,

afterwards Lord Teignmouth, he was recalled. Returning to British politics,

Hobart was called up to the House of Lords in 1798 (succeeding to the

earldom of Buckinghamshire in 1804); he favoured the union between England

and Ireland; from March 1801 to May 1804 he was secretary for war and the

colonies (his family name being taken for Hobart Town in Tasmania), and in

1805 he became chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster under Pitt. For a short

time he was joint postmaster-general, and from 1812 until his death on the

4th of February 1816 he was president of the Board of Control, a post for

which his Indian experience had fitted him.

The 4th earl left no sons, and his titles passed to his nephew, George

Robert Hobart (1789-1849), a son of George Vere Hobart (1761-1802),

lieutenant-governor of Grenada. In 1824 the 5th earl inherited the

Buckinghamshire estates of the Hampden family and took the name of Hampden,

his ancestor, Sir John Hobart, 3rd baronet, having married Mary Hampden

about 1655. On his death in February 1849 his brother, Augustus Edward

Hobart (1793-1884), who took the name of Hobart-Hampden in 1878, became 6th

earl. His two sons, Vere Henry, Lord Hobart (1818-1875), governor of Madras

from 1872, and Frederick John Hobart (1821-1875), predeceased him, and when

the 6th earl died he was succeeded by his grandson, Sidney Carr

Hobart-Hampden (b. 1860), who became 7th earl of Buckinghamshire, and who

added to his name that of Mercer-Henderson. Another of the 6th earl's sons

was Augustus Charles Hobart-Hampden, generally known as Hobart Pasha

(_q.v._).

See Lord Hobart's _Essays and Miscellaneous Writings_, edited with

biography by Lady Hobart (1885).

[1] Until 1784, when George Grenville, Earl Temple, was created marquess of

Buckingham, the 2nd earl of Buckinghamshire always signed himself

"Buckingham"; his contemporaries knew him by this name, and hence a certain

amount of confusion has arisen.

BUCKINGHAMSHIRE (abbreviated _Bucks_) a south midland county of England,

bounded N. by Northamptonshire, E. by Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire and

Middlesex, S. for a short distance by Surrey, and by Berkshire, and W. by

Oxfordshire. Its area is 743.2 sq. m. The county is divided between the

basins of the rivers Ouse and Thames. The first in its uppermost course

forms part of the north-western boundary, passes the towns of Buckingham,

Stony Stratford, Wolverton, Newport Pagnell and Olney, and before quitting

the county forms a short stretch of the north-eastern boundary. The

principal tributary it receives within the county is the Ouzel. The Thames

forms the entire southern boundary; and of its tributaries Buckinghamshire

includes the upper part of the Thames. To the north-west of Buckingham, and

both east and west of the Ouzel, the land rises in gentle undulations to a

height of nearly 500 ft., and north of the Thames valley a few nearly

isolated hills stand boldly, such as Brill Hill and Muswell Hill, each over

600 ft., but the hilliest [v.04 p.0674] part of the county is the south,

which is occupied by part of the Chiltern system, the general direction of

which is from south-west to north-east. The crest-line of these hills

crosses the county at its narrowest point, along a line, above the towns of

Prince's Risborough and Wendover, not exceeding 11 m. in length. This line

divides the county into two parts of quite different physical character;

for to the south almost the whole land is hilly (the longer slope of the

Chiltern system lying in this direction), well wooded, and pleasantly

diversified with narrow vales. The chief of these are watered by the Wye,

Misbourne and Chess streams. The beech tree is predominant in the woods, in

so much that William Camden, writing c. 1585, supposed the county to take

name from this feature (A.S. _boc_, beech). In the south a remnant of

ancient forest is preserved as public ground under the name of Burnham

Beeches. The Chilterns reach a height of nearly 900 ft. within the county.

_Geology._--The northern half of the county is occupied by Jurassic strata,

in the southern half Cretaceous rocks predominate except in the

south-eastern corner, where they are covered by Tertiary beds. Thus the

oldest rocks are in the north, succeeded continuously by younger strata to

the south; the general dip of all the rocks is south-easterly. A few

patches of Upper Lias Clay appear near the northern boundary near Grafton

Regis and Castle Thorpe, and again in the valley of the Ouse near Stoke

Goldington and Weston Underwood. The Oolitic series is represented by the

Great Oolite, with limestones in the upper part, much quarried for building

stones at Westbury, Thornborough, Brock, Whittlewood Forest, &c.; the lower

portions are more argillaceous. The Forest Marble is seen about Thornton as

a thin bed of clay with an oyster-bearing limestone at the base. Next above

is the Cornbrash, a series of rubbly and occasionally hard limestones and

thin clays. The outcrop runs by Tingwick, Buckingham, Berehampton and

Newport Pagnell, it is quarried at Wolverton and elsewhere for road metal.

Inliers of these rocks occur at Marsh Gibbon and Stan Hill. The Oxford Clay

and Kimmeridge Clay, with the Gault, lie in the vale of Aylesbury. The clay

is covered by numerous outliers of Portland, Purbeck and Lower Greensand

beds. The Portland beds are sandy below, calcareous above; the outcrop

follows the normal direction in the county, from south-west to north-east,

from Thame through Aylesbury; they are quarried at several places for

building stone and fossils are abundant. The Hartwell Clay is in the Lower

Portland. Freshwater Purbeck beds lie below the Portland and Lower

Greensand beds; they cap the ridge between Oving and Whitchurch.

Glass-making sands have been worked from the Lower Greensand at Hartwell,

and phosphatic nodules from the same beds at Brickhill as well as from the

Gault at Towersey. A broad band of Gault, a bluish clay, extends from

Towersey across the county in a north-easterly direction. Resting upon the

Gault is the Upper Greensand; at the junction of the two formations

numerous springs arise, a circumstance which has no doubt determined the

site of several villages. The Chalk rises abruptly from the low lying

argillaceous plain to form the Chiltern Hills. The form of the whole of the

hilly district round Chesham, High Wycombe and the Chalfonts is determined

by the Chalk. Reading beds, mottled clays and sands, repose upon the Chalk

at Woburn, Barnham, Fulmer and Denham, and these are in turn covered by the

London Clay, which is exposed on the slopes about Stoke Common and Iver.

Between the Tertiary-capped Chalk plateau and the Thames, a gentler slope,

covered with alluvial gravel and brick earth, reaches down to the river.

Thick deposits of plateau gravel cover most of the high ground in the

southern corner of the county, while much of the northern part is obscured

by glacial clays and gravels.

_Industries._--The agricultural capacities of the soil vary greatly in

different localities. On the lower lands, especially in the Vale of

Aylesbury, about the headwaters of the Thame, it is extremely fertile;

while on the hills it is usually poor and thin. The proportion of

cultivated land is high, being about 83% of the whole. Of this a large and

growing portion is in permanent pasture; cattle and sheep being reared in

great numbers for the London markets, to which also are sent quantities of

ducks, for which the district round Aylesbury is famous. Wheat and oats are

the principal grain crops, though both decrease in importance. Turnips and

swedes for the cattle are the chief green crops; and dairy-farming is

largely practised. There is no general manufacturing industry, but a

considerable amount of lace-making and straw-plaiting is carried on

locally; and at High Wycombe and in its neighbourhood there is a thriving

trade in various articles of turnery, such as chairs and bowls, from beech

and other hard woods. The introduction of lace-making in this and

neighbouring counties is attributed to Flemish, and later to French

immigrants, but also to Catharine of Aragon during her residence (c. 1532)

at Ampthill. Down to the later part of the 19th century a general holiday

celebrated by lace-makers on the 25th of November was known as "Cattarn's

Day."

_Communications._--The main line of the London & North-Western railway

crosses the north-east part of the county. Bletchley is an important

junction on this system, branches diverging east to Fenny Stratford,

Bedford and Cambridge, and west to Oxford and Banbury, Buckingham being

served by the western branch. There is also a branch from Cheddington to

Aylesbury. The Metropolitan-Great Central joint line serves Amersham,

Chesham (by a branch), and Aylesbury, joining the North-Western Oxford

branch at Verney Junction; this line is used by the Great Central railway,

the main line of which continues north-westward from Quainton Road. A light

railway connects this station with the large village of Brill to the

south-west. The Great Central and the Great Western companies jointly own a

line passing through Beaconsfield, High Wycombe, and Prince's Risborough,

which is connected northward with the Great Central system. Before the

opening of this line in 1906 the Great Western branch from Maidenhead to

Oxford was the only line serving High Wycombe and Prince's Risborough, from

which there are branches to Watlington and Aylesbury. The main line of this

company crosses the extreme south of the county by Slough and Taplow. The

Grand Junction Canal, reaching the valley of the Ouse by way of the Ouzel

valley from the south, has branches to Aylesbury and to Buckingham. Except

the Thames none of the rivers in the county is continuously navigable.

Bletchley is an important junction on this system, branches diverging east

to Fenny Stratford, Bedford and Cambridge, and west to Oxford and Banbury,

Buckingham being served by the western branch. There is also a branch from

Cheddington to Aylesbury. The Metropolitan-Great Central joint line serves

Amersham, Chesham (by a branch), and Aylesbury, joining the North-Western

Oxford branch at Verney Junction; this line is used by the Great Central

railway, the main line of which continues north-westward from Quainton

Road. A light railway connects this station with the large village of Brill

to the south-west. The Great Central and the Great Western companies

jointly own a line passing through Beaconsfield, High Wycombe. and Prince's

Risborough, which is connected northward with the Great Central system.

Before the opening of this line in 1906 the Great Western branch from

Maidenhead to Oxford was the only line serving High Wycombe and Prince's

Risborough, from which there are branches to Watlington and Aylesbury. The

main line of this company crosses the extreme south of the county by Slough

and Taplow. The Grand Junction Canal, reaching the valley of the Ouse by

way of the Ouzel valley from the south, has branches to Aylesbury and to

Buckingham. Except the Thames none of the rivers in the county is

continuously navigable.

_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is 475,682

acres, with a population in 1891 of 185,284, and in 1901 of 195,764. The

area of the administrative county is 479,358 acres. The county contains

eight hundreds, of which three, namely Stoke, Burnham and Desborough, form

the "Chiltern Hundreds" (_q.v._). The hundred of Aylesbury retains its

ancient designation of the "three hundreds of Aylesbury." The municipal

boroughs are Buckingham, the county town (pop. 3152), and Wycombe,

officially Chepping Wycombe, also Chipping or High Wycombe (15,542). The

other urban districts are Aylesbury (9243), Beaconsfield (1570), Chesham

(7245), Eton (3301), Fenny Stratford (4799), Linslade, on the Ouzel

opposite to Leighton Buzzard in Bedfordshire (2157), Marlow (4526), Newport

Pagnell (4028), Slough (11,453). Among the lesser market towns may be

mentioned Amersham (2674), Ivinghoe (808), Olney (2684), Prince's

Risborough (2189), Stony Stratford (2353), Wendover (2009) and Winslow

(1703). At Wolverton (5323) are the carriage works of the London &

North-Western railway. Several of the villages on and near the banks of the

Thames have become centres of residence, such as Taplow, Cookham and Bourne

End, Burnham and Wooburn. Buckinghamshire is in the midland circuit, and

assizes are held at Aylesbury. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is

divided into thirteen petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Buckingham

and Wycombe have separate commissions of the peace. The administrative

county contains 230 civil parishes. Buckinghamshire is almost entirely

within the diocese of Oxford, and 215 ecclesiastical parishes are situated

wholly or in part within it. There are three parliamentary divisions,

Northern or Buckingham, Mid or Aylesbury, and Southern or Wycombe, each

returning one member; and the county contains a small part of the

parliamentary borough of Windsor (chiefly in Berkshire). The most notable

institution within the county is Eton College, the famous public school

founded by Henry VI.

_History._--The district which was to become Buckinghamshire was reached by

the West Saxons in 571, as by a series of victories they pushed their way

north along the Thames valley. With the grouping of the settlements into

kingdoms and the consolidation of Mercia under Offa, Buckinghamshire was

included in Mercia until, with the submission of that kingdom to the

Northmen, it became part of the Danelaw. In the 10th century

Buckinghamshire suffered frequently from the ravages of the Danes, and

numerous barrows and earthworks mark the scenes [v.04 p.0675] of struggles

against the invaders. These relics are especially abundant in the vale of

Aylesbury, probably at this time one of the richest and best protected of

the Saxon settlements. The Chiltern district, on the other hand, is said to

have been an impassable forest infested by hordes of robbers and wild

beasts. In the reign of Edward the Confessor, Leofstan, 12th abbot of St

Albans, cut down large tracts of wood in this district and granted the

manor of Hamstead (Herts) to a valiant knight and two fellow-soldiers on

condition that they should check the depredations of the robbers. The same

reason led at an early period to the appointment of a steward of the

Chiltern Hundreds, and this office being continued long after the necessity

for it had ceased to exist, gradually became the sinecure it is to-day. The

district was not finally disforested until the reign of James I.

At the time of the Norman invasion Buckinghamshire was probably included in

the earldom of Leofwine, son of Godwin, and the support which it lent him

at the battle of Hastings was punished by sweeping confiscations after the

Conquest. The proximity of Buckinghamshire to London caused it to be

involved in most of the great national events of the ensuing centuries.

During the war between King John and his barons William Mauduit held

Hanslape Castle against the king, until in 1216 it was captured and

demolished by Falkes de Bréauté. The county was visited severely by the

Black Death, and Winslow was one of many districts which were almost

entirely depopulated. In the civil war Buckinghamshire was one of the first

counties to join in an association for mutual defence on the side of the

parliament, which had important garrisons at Aylesbury, Brill and

elsewhere. Newport Pagnell was for a short time garrisoned by the royalist

troops, and in 1644 the king fixed his headquarters at Buckingham.

The shire of Buckingham originated with the division of Mercia in the reign

of Edward the Elder, and was probably formed by the aggregation of

pre-existing hundreds round the county town, a fact which explains the

curious irregularities of the boundary line. The eighteen hundreds of the

Domesday survey have now been reduced to eight, of which the three Chiltern

hundreds, Desborough, Burnham and Stoke, are unaltered in extent as well as

in name. The remainder have been formed each by the union of three of the

ancient hundreds, and Aylesbury is still designated "the three hundreds of

Aylesbury." All, except Newport and Buckingham, retain the names of

Domesday hundreds, and the shire has altered little on its outer lines

since the survey. Until the time of Queen Elizabeth Buckinghamshire and

Bedfordshire had a common sheriff. The shire court of the former county was

held at Aylesbury.

The ecclesiastical history of Buckinghamshire is not easy to trace, as

there is no local chronicler, but the earliest churches were probably

subject to the West Saxon see of Dorchester, and when after the Conquest

the bishop's stool was transferred to Lincoln no change of jurisdiction

ensued. After the dissolution of the monasteries it was proposed to form a

new diocese to include Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire, but the project

was abandoned, and both remained in the Lincoln diocese until 1837, when

the latter was transferred to Oxford. The arch-deaconry was probably

founded towards the close of the 11th century by Bishop Rémy, and the

subdivision into rural deaneries followed shortly after. A dean of

Thornborough is mentioned in the 12th century, and in the taxation of

Nicholas IV. eight deaneries are given, comprising 186 parishes. In 1855

the deaneries were reconstructed and made eighteen in number.

On the redistribution of estates after the Conquest only two Englishmen

continued to retain estates of any importance, and the chief landowners at

this date were Walter Giffard, first earl of Buckingham, and Odo, bishop of

Bayeux. Few of the great Buckinghamshire estates, however, remained with

the same proprietors for any length of time. Many became annexed by

religious establishments, while others reverted to the crown and were

disposed of by various grants. The family of Hampden alone claim to have

held the estate from which the name is derived in an unbroken line from

Saxon times.

Buckinghamshire has always ranked as an agricultural rather than a

manufacturing county, and has long been famed for its corn and cattle.

Fuller mentions the vale of Aylesbury as producing the biggest bodied sheep

in England, and "Buckinghamshire bread and beef" is an old proverb.

Lace-making, first introduced into this county by the Fleming refugees from

the Alva persecution, became a very profitable industry. The monopolies of

James I. considerably injured this trade, and in 1623 a petition was

addressed to the high sheriff of Buckinghamshire representing the distress

of the people owing to the decay of bone lace-making. Newport Pagnell and

Olney were especially famous for their lace, and the parish of Hanslape is

said to have made an annual profit of £8000 to £9000 from lace manufacture.

The straw-plait industry was introduced in the reign of George I., and

formerly gave employment to a large number of the population.

The county was first represented in parliament by two members in 1290. The

representation increased as the towns acquired representative rights, until

in 1603 the county with its boroughs made a total return of fourteen

members. By the Reform Act of 1832 this was reduced to eleven, and by the

Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885 the boroughs were deprived of

representation and the county returned three members for three divisions.

_Antiquities._--Buckinghamshire contains no ecclesiastical buildings of the

first rank. Monastic remains are scanty, but two former abbeys may be

noted. At Medmenham, on the Thames above Marlow, there are fragments,

incorporated into a residence, of a Cistercian abbey founded in 1201; which

became notorious in the middle of the 18th century as the meeting-place of

a convivial club called the "Franciscans" after its founder, Sir Francis

Dashwood, afterwards Lord le Despencer (1708-1781), and also known as the

"Hell-Fire Club," of which John Wilkes, Bubb Dodington and other political

notorieties were members. The motto of the club, _fay ce que voudras_ (do

what you will), inscribed on a doorway at the abbey, was borrowed from

Rabelais' description of the abbey of Thelema in _Gargantua_. The remains

of the Augustinian Notley Abbey (1162), incorporated with a farm-house,

deserve mention rather for their picturesque situation by the river Thame

than for their architectural value. Turning to churches, there is

workmanship considered to be of pre-Norman date in Wing church, in the

neighbourhood of Leighton Buzzard, including a polygonal apse and crypt.

Stewkley church, in the same locality, shows the finest Norman work in the

county; the building is almost wholly of the later part of this period, and

the ornamentation is very rich. The Early English work of Chetwode and

Haddenham churches, both in the west of the county, is noteworthy;

especially in the first, which, as it stands, is the eastern part of a

priory church of Augustinians (1244). Good specimens of the Decorated style

are not wanting, though none is of special note; but the county contains

three fine examples of Perpendicular architecture in Eton College chapel

and the churches of Maids Moreton to the north, and Hillesden to the south,

of Buckingham. Ancient domestic architecture is chiefly confined to a few

country houses, of which Chequers Court, dating from the close of the 16th

century, is of interest not only from the architectural standpoint but from

its beautiful situation high among the Chiltern Hills between Prince's

Risborough and Wendover, and from a remarkable collection of relics of

Oliver Cromwell, preserved here as a consequence of the marriage, in 1664,

of John Russell, a grandson of the Protector, into the family to which the

house then belonged. The manor-house of Hampden, among the hills east of

Prince's Risborough, was for many generations the abode of the family of

that name, and is still in the possession of descendants of John Hampden,

who fell at the battle of Chalgrove in 1643, and is buried in Hampden

church. Fine county seats are numerous--there may be mentioned Stowe

(Buckingham), formerly the seat of the dukes of Buckingham; Cliveden and

Hedsor, two among the many beautifully situated mansions by the bank of the

Thames; and Claydon House in the west of the county. Among the Chiltern

Hills, also, there are several [v.04 p.0676] splendid domains. Associations

with eminent men have given a high fame to several towns or villages of

Buckinghamshire. Such are the connexion of Beaconsfield with Edmund Waller

and Edmund Burke, that of Hughenden near Wycombe with Benjamin Disraeli,

Lord Beaconsfield, whose father's residence was at Bradenham; of Olney and

Stoke Pogis with the poets Cowper and Gray respectively. At Chalfont St

Giles a cottage still stands in which Milton completed _Paradise Lost_ and

began _Paradise Regained_. In earlier life he had lived and worked at

Horton, near the Thames below Windsor.

AUTHORITIES.--The original standard history is the laborious work of G.

Lipscomb, _History and Antiquities of the County of Buckingham_ (London,

1831-1847). Other works are: Browne Willis, _History and Antiquities of the

Town, Hundred, and Deanery of Buckingham_ (London, 1755); D. and S. Lysons,

_Magna Britannia_, vol. i.; R. Gibbs, _Buckingham_ (Aylesbury, 1878-1882);

_Worthies of Buckingham_ (Aylesbury, 1886); and _Buckingham Miscellany_

(Aylesbury, 1891); G.S. Roscoe, _Buckingham Sketches_ (London, 1891); P.H.

Ditchfield, _Memorials of Old Buckinghamshire_ (London, 1901); _Victoria

County History_, "Buckinghamshire."

BUCKLAND, FRANCIS TREVELYAN (1826-1880), English zoologist, son of Dean

William Buckland the geologist, was born at Oxford on the 17th of December

1826. He was educated at Winchester and Christ Church, taking his degree in

1848, and then adopted the medical profession, studying at St George's

hospital, London, where he became house-surgeon in 1852. The pursuit of

anatomy led him to a good deal of out-of-the-way research in zoology, and

in 1856 he became a regular writer on natural history for the newly

established _Field_, particularly on the subject of fish. In 1866 he

started _Land and Water_ on similar lines. In 1867 he was appointed

government inspector of fisheries, and in the course of his work travelled

constantly about the country, being largely responsible for the increased

attention paid to the scientific side of pisciculture. Among his

publications, besides articles and official reports, were _Fish Hatching_

(1863), _Curiosities of Natural History_ (4 vols., 1857-1872), _Logbook of

a Fisherman_ (1875), _Natural History of British Fishes_ (1881). He died on

the 19th of December 1880.

See _Life_ by G.C. Bompas (1885).

BUCKLAND, WILLIAM (1784-1856), English divine and geologist, eldest son of

the Rev. Charles Buckland, rector of Templeton and Trusham, in Devon, was

born at Axminster on the 12th of March 1784. He was educated at the grammar

school of Tiverton, and at Winchester, and in 1801 was elected a scholar of

Corpus Christi College, Oxford, becoming B.A. in 1804. In 1809 he was

elected a fellow of his college, and was admitted into holy orders. From

early boyhood he had exhibited a strong taste for natural science, which

was subsequently stimulated by the lectures of Dr John Kidd on mineralogy

and chemistry; and his attention was especially drawn to the then infant

science of geology. He also attended the lectures of Sir Christopher Pegge

(1765-1822) on anatomy. He now devoted himself systematically to an

examination of the geological structure of Great Britain, making

excursions, and investigating the order of superposition of the strata and

the characters of the organic remains which they contained. In 1813, on the

resignation of Dr Kidd, he was appointed reader in mineralogy in Oxford;

and the interest excited by his lectures was so great that in 1819 a

readership in geology was founded and especially endowed by the treasury,

Dr Buckland being the first holder of the new appointment. In 1818 Dr

Buckland was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1824 and again

in 1840 he was chosen president of the Geological Society of London. In

1825 he was presented by his college to the living of Stoke Charity, near

Whitchurch, Hants, and in the same year he was appointed by Lord Liverpool

to a canonry of the cathedral of Christ Church, Oxford, when the degree of

D.D. was conferred upon him. In 1825, also, he married Mary, the eldest

daughter of Mr Benjamin Morland of Sheepstead House, near Abingdon, Berks,

by whose abilities and excellent judgment he was materially assisted in his

literary labours. In 1832 he presided over the second meeting of the

British Association, which was then held at Oxford. In 1845 he was

appointed by Sir Robert Peel to the vacant deanery of Westminster, and was

soon after inducted to the living of Islip, near Oxford, a preferment

attached to the deanery. In 1847 he was appointed a trustee in the British

Museum; and in 1848 he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological

Society of London. In 1849 his health began to give way under the

increasing pressure of his multifarious duties; and the later years of his

life were overshadowed by a serious illness, which compelled him to live in

retirement. He died on the 24th of August 1856, and was buried in a spot

which he had himself chosen, in Islip churchyard.

Buckland was a man many-sided in his abilities, and of a singularly wide

range of attainments. Apart from his published works and memoirs in

connexion with the special department of geology, and in addition to the

work entailed upon him by the positions which he at different times held in

the Church of England, he entered with great enthusiasm into many practical

questions connected with agricultural and sanitary science, and various

social and even medical problems. As a teacher he possessed powers of the

highest order; and the university of Oxford is enriched by the large and

valuable private collections, illustrative of geology and mineralogy, which

he amassed in the course of his active life. It is, however, upon his

published scientific works that Dr Buckland's great reputation is mainly

based. His first great work was the well-known _Reliquiae Diluvianae, or

Observations on the Organic Remains contained in caves, fissures, and

diluvial gravel attesting the Action of a Universal Deluge_, published in

1823 (2nd ed. 1824), in which he supplemented his former observations on

the remains of extinct animals discovered in the cavern of Kirkdale in

Yorkshire, and expounded his views as to the bearing of these and similar

cases on the Biblical account of the Deluge. Thirteen years after the

publication of the _Reliquiae_, Dr Buckland w as called upon, in accordance

with the will of the earl of Bridgewater, to write one of the series of

works known as the _Bridgewater Treatises_. The design of these treatises

was to exhibit the "power, wisdom, and goodness of God, as manifested in

the Creation," and none of them was of greater value, as evinced by its

vitality, than that on "Geology and Mineralogy." Originally published in

1836, it has gone through three editions, and though not a "manual" of

geological science, it still possesses high value as a storehouse of

geological and palaeontological facts bearing upon the particular argument

which it was designed to illustrate. The third edition, issued in 1858, was

edited by his son Francis T. Buckland, and is accompanied by a memoir of

the author and a list of his publications.

Of Dr Buckland's numerous original contributions to the sciences of Geology

and Palaeontology, the following may be mentioned:--(1) "On the Structure

of the Alps and adjoining parts of the Continent, and their relation to the

Secondary and Transition Rocks of England" (_Annals of Phil._, 1821); (2)

"Account of an Assemblage of Fossil Teeth and Bones of Elephant,

Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, &c., discovered in a cave at Kirkdale in

Yorkshire in the year 1821" (_Phil. Trans._); (3) "On the Quartz Rock of

the Lickey Hill in Worcestershire" (_Trans. Geol. Soc._); (4) "On the

Megalosaurus or Great Fossil Lizard of Stonesfield" (Ibid.); (5) "On the

Cycadeoideae, a Family of Plants found in the Oolite Quarries of the Isle

of Portland" (Ibid.); (6) "On the Discovery of a New Species of

Pterodactyle in the Lias of Lyme Regis" (Ibid.); (7) "On the Discovery of

Coprolites or Fossil Faeces in the Lias of Lyme Regis, and in other

Formations" (Ibid.); (8) "On the Evidences of Glaciers in Scotland and the

North of England" (_Proc. Geol. Soc. Lond._); (9) "On the South-Western

Coal District of England" (joint paper with the Rev. W.D. Conybeare,

_Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond._); (10) "On the Geology of the neighbourhood of

Weymouth, and the adjacent parts of the Coast of Dorset" (joint paper with

Sir H. De la Beche, _Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond._).

With regard to the Glacial theory propounded by Agassiz, no one welcomed it

with greater ardour than Buckland, and he zealously sought to trace out

evidences of former glaciation in Britain. A record of the interesting

discussion which took place at the Geological Society's meeting in London

in November 1840, [v.04 p.0677] after the reading of a paper by Buckland,

was printed in the _Midland Naturalist_, October 1883.

BUCKLE, HENRY THOMAS (1821-1862), English historian, author of the _History

of Civilization_, the son of Thomas Henry Buckle, a wealthy London

merchant, was born at Lee, in Kent, on the 24th of November 1821. Owing to

his delicate health he was only a very short time at school, and never at

college, but the love of reading having been early awakened in him, he was

allowed ample means of gratifying it. He gained his first distinctions not

in literature but in chess, being reputed, before he was twenty, one of the

first players in the world. After his father's death in January 1840 he

spent some time with his mother on the continent (1840-1844). He had by

that time formed the resolution to direct all his reading and to devote all

his energies to the preparation of some great historical work, and during

the next seventeen years he bestowed ten hours each day in working out his

purpose. At first he contemplated a history of the middle ages, but by 1851

he had decided in favour of a history of civilization. The six years which

followed were occupied in writing and rewriting, altering and revising the

first volume, which appeared in June 1857. It at once made its author a

literary and even social celebrity,--the lion of a London season. On the

1st of March 1858 he delivered at the Royal Institution a public lecture

(the only one he ever gave) on the _Influence of Women on the Progress of

Knowledge_, which was published in _Fraser's Magazine_ for April 1858, and

reprinted in the first volume of the _Miscellaneous and Posthumous Works_.

On the 1st of April 1859 a crushing and desolating affliction fell upon him

in the death of his mother. It was under the immediate impression of his

loss that he concluded a review he was writing of J.S. Mill's _Essay on

Liberty_ with an argument for immortality, based on the yearning of the

affections to regain communion with the beloved dead,--on the impossibility

of standing up and living, if we believed the separation were final. The

argument is a strange one to have been used by a man who had maintained so

strongly that "we have the testimony of all history to prove the extreme

fallibility of consciousness." The review appeared in _Fraser's Magazine_,

May 1859, and is to be found also in the _Miscellaneous and Posthumous

Works_ (1872). The second volume of his history was published in May 1861.

Soon after he left England for the East, in order to recruit his spirits

and restore his health. From the end of October 1861 to the beginning of

March 1862 was spent by him in Egypt, from which he went over the desert of

Sinai and of Edom to Syria, reaching Jerusalem on the 19th of April 1862.

After staying there eleven days, he set out for Europe by Beyrout, but at

Nazareth he was attacked by fever; and he died at Damascus on the 29th of

May 1862.

Buckle's fame, which must rest wholly on his _History of Civilization in

England_, is no longer what it was in the decade following his death. His

_History_ is a gigantic unfinished introduction, of which the plan was,

first to state the general principles of the author's method and the

general laws which govern the course of human progress; and secondly, to

exemplify these principles and laws through the histories of certain

nations characterized by prominent and peculiar features,--Spain and

Scotland, the United States and Germany. Its chief ideas are--(1) That,

owing partly to the want of ability in historians, and partly to the

complexity of social phenomena, extremely little had as yet been done

towards discovering the principles which govern the character and destiny

of nations, or, in other words, towards establishing a science of history;

(2) That, while the theological dogma of predestination is a barren

hypothesis beyond the province of knowledge, and the metaphysical dogma of

free will rests on an erroneous belief in the infallibility of

consciousness, it is proved by science, and especially by statistics, that

human actions are governed by laws as fixed and regular as those which rule

in the physical world; (3) That climate, soil, food, and the aspects of

nature are the primary causes of intellectual progress,--the first three

indirectly, through determining the accumulation and distribution of

wealth, and the last by directly influencing the accumulation and

distribution of thought, the imagination being stimulated and the

understanding subdued when the phenomena of the external world are sublime

and terrible, the understanding being emboldened and the imagination curbed

when they are small and feeble; (4) That the great division between

European and non-European civilization turns on the fact that in Europe man

is stronger than nature, and that elsewhere nature is stronger than man,

the consequence of which is that in Europe alone has man subdued nature to

his service; (5) That the advance of European civilization is characterized

by a continually diminishing influence of physical laws, and a continually

increasing influence of mental laws; (6) That the mental laws which

regulate the progress of society cannot be discovered by the metaphysical

method, that is, by the introspective study of the individual mind, but

only by such a comprehensive survey of facts as will enable us to eliminate

disturbances, that is, by the method of averages; (7) That human progress

has been due, not to moral agencies, which are stationary, and which

balance one another in such a manner that their influence is unfelt over

any long period, but to intellectual activity, which has been constantly

varying and advancing:--"The actions of individuals are greatly affected by

their moral feelings and passions; but these being antagonistic to the

passions and feelings of other individuals, are balanced by them, so that

their effect is, in the great average of human affairs, nowhere to be seen,

and the total actions of mankind, considered as a whole, are left to be

regulated by the total knowledge of which mankind is possessed"; (8) That

individual efforts are insignificant in the great mass of human affairs,

and that great men, although they exist, and must "at present" be looked

upon as disturbing forces, are merely the creatures of the age to which

they belong; (9) That religion, literature and government are, at the best,

the products and not the causes of civilization; (10) That the progress of

civilization varies directly as "scepticism," the disposition to doubt and

to investigate, and inversely as "credulity" or "the protective spirit," a

disposition to maintain, without examination, established beliefs and

practices.

Unfortunately Buckle either could not define, or cared not to define, the

general conceptions with which he worked, such as those denoted by the

terms "civilization," "history," "science," "law," "scepticism," and

"protective spirit"; the consequence is that his arguments are often

fallacies. Moreover, the looseness of his statements and the rashness of

his inferences regarding statistical averages make him, as a great

authority has remarked, the _enfant terrible_ of moral statisticians. He

brought a vast amount of information from the most varied and distant

sources to confirm his opinions, and the abundance of his materials never

perplexed or burdened him in his argumentation, but examples of

well-conducted historical argument are rare in his pages. He sometimes

altered and contorted the facts; he very often unduly simplified his

problems; he was very apt when he had proved a favourite opinion true to

infer it to be the whole truth. On the other hand, many of his ideas have

passed into the common literary stock, and have been more precisely

elaborated by later writers on sociology and history; and though his own

work is now somewhat neglected, its influence was immensely valuable in

provoking further research and speculation.

See his _Life_ by A.W. Huth (1880).

BUCKNER, SIMON BOLIVAR (1823- ), American soldier and political leader, was

born in Hart county, Kentucky, on the 1st of April 1823. He graduated at

West Point in 1844, and was assistant professor of geography, history and

ethics there in 1845-1846. He fought in several battles of the Mexican War,

received the brevet of first lieutenant for gallantry at Churubusco, where

he was wounded, and later, after the storming of Chapultepec, received the

brevet of captain. In 1848-1850 he was assistant instructor of infantry

tactics at West Point. During the succeeding five years he was in the

recruiting service, on frontier duty, and finally in the subsistence

department. He resigned from the army in March 1855. During the futile

attempt of Governor Beriah Magoffin to maintain Kentucky in a position of

neutrality, he was commander of the state [v.04 p.0678] guard; but in

September 1861, after the entry of Union forces into the state, he openly

espoused the Confederate cause and was commissioned brigadier-general,

later becoming lieutenant-general. He was third in command of Fort Donelson

at the time of General Grant's attack (February 1862), and it fell to him,

after the escape of Generals Floyd and Pillow, to surrender the post with

its large garrison and valuable supplies. General Buckner was exchanged in

August of the same year, and subsequently served under General Bragg in the

invasion of Kentucky and the campaign of Chickamauga. He was governor of

Kentucky in 1887-1891, was a member of the Kentucky constitutional

convention of 1890, and in 1896 was the candidate of the National or "Gold"

Democrats for vice-president of the United States.

BUCKRAM (a word common, in various early forms, to many European languages,

as in the Fr. _bouqueran_ or Ital. _bucherame_, the derivation of which is

unknown), in early usage the name of a fine linen or cotton cloth, but now

only of a coarse fabric of linen or cotton stiffened with glue or other

substances, used for linings of clothes and in bookbinding. Falstaff's "men

in buckram" (Shakespeare, _Henry IV._, pt. i. II. 4) has become a

proverbial phrase for any imaginary persons.

BUCKSTONE, JOHN BALDWIN (1802-1879), English actor and dramatic writer, was

born at Hoxton on the 14th of September 1802. He was articled to a

solicitor, but soon exchanged the law for the stage. After some years as a

provincial actor he made his first London appearance, on the 30th of

January 1823, at the Surrey theatre, as Ramsay in the _Fortunes of Nigel_.

His success led to his engagement in 1827 at the Adelphi, where he remained

as leading low comedian until 1833. At the Haymarket, which he joined for

summer seasons in 1833, and of which he was lessee from 1853 to 1878, he

appeared as Bobby Trot in his own _Luke the Labourer_; and here were

produced a number of his plays and farces, _Ellen Wareham, Uncle Tom_ and

others. After his return from a visit to the United States in 1840 he

played at several London theatres, among them the Lyceum, where he was Box

at the first representation of _Box and Cox_. As manager of the Haymarket

he surrounded himself with an admirable company, including Sothern and the

Kendals. He produced the plays of Gilbert, Planché, Tom Taylor and

Robertson, as well as his own, and in most of these he acted. He died on

the 31st of October 1879. He was the author of 150 plays, some of which

have been very popular. His daughter, Lucy Isabella Buckstone (1858-1893),

was an actress, who made her first London appearance at the Haymarket

theatre as Ada Ingot in _David Garrick_ in 1875.

BUCKTHORN, known botanically as _Rhamnus cathartica_ (natural order

Rhamnaceae), a much-branched shrub reaching 10 ft. in height, with a

blackish bark, spinous branchlets, and ovate, sharply-serrated leaves, 1 to

2 in. long, arranged several together at the ends of the shoots. The small

green flowers are regular and have the parts in fours; male and female

flowers are borne on different plants. The fruit is succulent, black and

globose, and contains four stones. The plant is a native of England,

occurring in woods and thickets chiefly on the chalk; it is rare in Ireland

and not wild in Scotland. It is native in Europe, north Africa and north

Asia, and naturalized in some parts of eastern North America. The fruit has

strong purgative properties, and the bark yields a yellow dye.

An allied species, _Rhamnus Frangula_, is also common in England, and is

known as berry-bearing or black alder. It is distinguished from buckthorn

by the absence of spiny branchlets, its non-serrated leaves, and bisexual

flowers with parts in fives. The fruits are purgative and yield a green dye

when unripe. The soft porous wood, called black dogwood, is used for

gunpowder. Dyes are obtained from fruits and bark of other species of

_Rhamnus_, such as _R. infectoria_, _R. tinctoria_ and _R. davurica_--the

two latter yielding the China green of commerce. Several varieties of _R.

Alaternus_, a Mediterranean species, are grown in shrubberies.

Sea-buckthorn is _Hippophae rhamnoides_, a willow-like shrub, 1 to 8 ft. in

height, with narrow leaves silvery on the underside, and globose

orange-yellow fruits one-third of an inch in diameter. It occurs on sandy

seashores from York to Kent and Sussex, but is not common.

American buckthorns are: _Rhamnus purshiana_ or _Cascara sagrada_, of the

Pacific coast, producing cascara bark, and _R. Caroliniana_, the

alder-buckthorn. _Bumelia lycioides_ (or _lanuginosa_) is popularly called

"southern buckthorn."

BUCKWHEAT, the fruit (so-called seeds) of _Fagopyrum esculentum_ (natural

order Polygonaceae), a herbaceous plant, native of central Asia, but

cultivated in Europe and North America; also extensively cultivated in the

Himalaya, as well as an allied species _F. tataricum_. The fruit has a dark

brown tough rind enclosing the kernel or seed, and is three-sided in form,

with sharp angles, similar in shape to beech-mast, whence the name from the

Ger. _Buchweizen_, beechwheat. Buckwheat is grown in Great Britain only to

supply food for pheasants and to feed poultry, which devour the seeds with

avidity. In the northern countries of Europe, however, the seeds are

employed as human food, chiefly in the form of cakes, which when baked thin

have an agreeable taste, with a darkish somewhat violet colour. The meal of

buckwheat is also baked into crumpets, as a favourite dainty among Dutch

children, and in the Russian army buckwheat groats are served out as part

of the soldiers' rations, which they cook with butter, tallow or hemp-seed

oil. Buckwheat is also used as food in the United States, where "buckwheat

cakes" are a national dish; and by the Hindus it is eaten on "bart" or fast

days, being one of the phalahas, or lawful foods for such occasions. When

it is used as food for cattle the hard sharp angular rind must first be

removed. As compared with the principal cereal grains, buckwheat is poor in

nitrogenous substances and fat; but the rapidity and ease with which it can

be grown render it a fit crop for very poor, badly tilled land. An immense

quantity of buckwheat honey is collected in Russia, bees showing a marked

preference for the flowers of the plant. The plant is also used as a green

fodder.

In the United States buckwheat is sown at the end of June or beginning of

July, the amount of seed varying from 3 to 5 pecks to the acre. The crop

matures rapidly and continues blooming till frosts set in, so that at

harvest, which is usually set to occur just before this period, the grain

is in various stages of ripeness. It is cut by hand or with the

self-delivery reaper, and allowed to lie in the swath for a few days and

then set up in shocks. The stalks are not tied into bundles as in the case

of other grain crops, the tops of the shocks being bound round and held

together by twisting stems round them. The threshing is done on the field

in most cases.

BUCOLICS (from the Gr. [Greek: boukolikos], "pertaining to a herdsman"), a

term occasionally used for rural or pastoral poetry. The expression has

been traced back in English to the beginning of the 14th century, being

used to describe the "Eclogues" of Virgil. The most celebrated collection

of bucolics in antiquity is that of Theocritus, of which about thirty, in

the Doric dialect, and mainly written in hexameter verse, have been

preserved. This was the name, as is believed, originally given by Virgil to

his pastoral poems, with the direct object of challenging comparison with

the writings of Theocritus. In modern times the term "bucolics" has not

often been specifically given by the poets to their pastorals; the main

exception being that of Ronsard, who collected his eclogues under the title

of "Les Bucoliques." In general practice the word is almost a synonym for

pastoral poetry, but has come to bear a slightly more agricultural than

shepherd signification, so that the "Georgics" of Virgil has grown to seem

almost more "bucolic" than his "Eclogues." (See also PASTORAL.)

(E. G.)

BUCYRUS, a city and the county-seat of Crawford county, Ohio, U.S.A., on

the Sandusky river, 62 m. N. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 5974; (1900) 6560

(756 foreign-born); (1910) 8122. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the

Toledo, Walhonding Valley & Ohio (Pennsylvania system), and the Ohio

Central railways, and by interurban electric lines. The Ohio Central, of

which Bucyrus is a division terminal, has shops here. The city lies at an

elevation of about 1000 ft. above sea-level, and is surrounded [v.04

p.0679] by a country well adapted to agriculture and stock-raising. Among

its manufactures are machinery, structural steel, ventilating and heating

apparatus, furniture, interior woodwork, ploughs, wagons, carriages, copper

products and clay-working machines. Bucyrus was first settled in 1817; it

was laid out as a town in 1822, was incorporated as a village in 1830, and

became a city in 1885. The county-seat was permanently established here in

1830.

BUDAPEST, the capital and largest town of the kingdom of Hungary, and the

second town of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, 163 m. S.E. of Vienna by

rail. Budapest is situated on both banks of the Danube, and is formed of

the former towns of Buda (Ger. _Ofen_) together with O-Buda (Ger.

_Alt-Ofen_) on the right bank, and of Pest together with Köbánya (Ger.

_Steinbruch_) on the left bank, which were all incorporated into one

municipality in 1872. It lies at a point where the Danube has definitely

taken its southward course, and just where the outlying spurs of the outer

ramifications of the Alps, namely, the Bakony Mountains, meet the

Carpathians. Budapest is situated nearly in the centre of Hungary, and

dominates by its strategical position the approach from the west to the

great Hungarian plain. The imposing size of the Danube, 300 to 650 yds.

broad, and the sharp contrast of the two banks, place Budapest among the

most finely situated of the larger towns of Europe. On the one side is a

flat sandy plain, in which lies Pest, modern of aspect regularly laid out,

and presenting a long frontage of handsome buildings to the river. On the

other the ancient town of Buda straggles capriciously over a series of

small and steep hills, commanded by the fortress and the Blocksberg (770

ft. high, 390 ft. above the Danube), and backed beyond by spurs of

mountains, which rise in the form of terraces one above the other. The

hills are generally devoid of forests, while those near the towns were

formerly covered with vineyards, which produced a good red wine. The

vineyards have been almost completely destroyed by the phylloxera.

Budapest covers an area of 78 sq. m., and is divided into ten municipal

districts, namely Vár (Festung), Viziváros (Wasserstadt), Ó-Buda

(Alt-Ofen), all on the right bank, belonging to Buda, and Belváros (Inner

City), Lipótváros (Leopoldstadt), Terézváros (Theresienstadt),

Erzsébetváros (Elisabethstadt), Józsefváros (Josephstadt), Ferenczváros

(Franzstadt), and Köbánya (Steinbruch), all on the left bank, belonging to

Pest. Buda, with its royal palace, the various ministries, and other

government offices, is the official centre, while Pest is the commercial

and industrial part, as well as the centre of the nationalistic and

intellectual life of the town. The two banks of the Danube are united by

six bridges, including two fine suspension bridges; the first of them,

generally known as the Ketten-Brücke, constructed by the brothers Tiernay

and Adam Clark in 1842-1849, is one of the largest in Europe. It is 410

yds. long, 39 ft. broad, 36 ft. high above the mean level of the water, and

its chains rest on two pillars 160 ft. high; its ends are ornamented with

four colossal stone lions. At one end is a tunnel, 383 yds. long,

constructed by Adam Clark in 1854, which pierces the castle hill and

connects the quarter known as the Christinenstadt with the Danube. The

other suspension bridge is the Schwurplatz bridge, completed in 1903, 56

ft. broad, with a span of 317 yds. The other bridges are the Margaret

bridge, with a junction bridge towards the Margaret island, the Franz

Joseph bridge, and two railway bridges.

Perhaps the most attractive part of Budapest is the line of broad quays on

the left bank of the Danube, which extend for a distance of 2½ m. from the

Margaret bridge to the custom-house, and are lined with imposing buildings.

The most important of these is the Franz Joseph Quai, 1 m. long, which

contains the most fashionable cafés and hotels, and is the favourite

promenade. The inner town is surrounded by the Innere Ring-Strasse, a

circle of wide boulevards on the site of the old wall. Wide tree-shaded

streets, like the Király Utcza, the Kerrepesi Ut, and the Üllöi Ut, also

form the lines of demarcation between the different districts. The inner

ring is connected by the Váczi Körut (Waitzner-Ring) with the Grosse

Ring-Strasse, a succession of boulevards, describing a semicircle beginning

at the Margaret bridge and ending at the Boráros Platz, near the

custom-house quay, through about the middle of the town. One of the most

beautiful streets in the town is the Andrássy Ut, 1½ m. long, connecting

Váczi Körut with Városliget (_Stadtwäldchen_), the favourite public park of

Budapest. It is a busy thoroughfare, lined in its first half with

magnificent new buildings, and in its second half, where it attains a width

of 150 ft., with handsome villas standing in their own gardens, which give

the impression rather of a fashionable summer resort than the centre of a

great city. Budapest possesses numerous squares, generally ornamented with

monuments of prominent Hungarians, usually the work of Hungarian artists.

_Buildings._--Though of ancient origin, neither Buda nor Pest has much to

show in the way of venerable buildings. The oldest church is the Matthias

church in Buda, begun by King Bela IV. in the 13th century, completed in

the 15th century, and restored in 1890-1896. It was used as a mosque during

the Turkish occupation, and here took place the coronation of Franz Joseph

as king of Hungary in 1867. The garrison church, a Gothic building of the

13th century, and the Reformed church, finished in 1898, are the other

ecclesiastical buildings in Buda worth mentioning. The oldest church in

Pest is the parish church situated in the Eskü-Ter (Schwur-Platz) in the

inner town; it was built in 1500, in the Gothic style, and restored in

1890. The most magnificent church in Pest is the Leopoldstadt Basilica, a

Romanesque building with a dome 315 ft. in height, begun in 1851; next

comes the Franzstadt church, also a Romanesque building, erected in 1874.

Besides several modern churches, Budapest possesses a beautiful synagogue,

in the Moorish style, erected in 1861, and another, in the

Moorish-Byzantine style, built in 1872, while in 1901 the construction of a

much larger synagogue was begun. In Buda, near the Kaiserbad, and not far

from the Margaret bridge, is a small octagonal Turkish mosque, with a dome

25 ft. high, beneath which is the grave of a Turkish monk. By a special

article in the treaty of Karlowitz of 1699 the emperor of Austria undertook

to preserve this monument.

Among the secular buildings the first place is taken by the royal palace in

Buda, which, together with the old fortress, crowns the summit of a hill,

and forms the nucleus of the town. The palace erected by Maria Theresa in

1748-1771 was partly burned in 1849, but has been restored and largely

extended since 1894. In the court chapel are preserved the regalia of

Hungary, namely, the crown of St Stephen, the sceptre, orb, sword and the

coronation robes. It is surrounded by a magnificent garden, which descends

in steep terraces to the Danube, and which offers a splendid view of the

town lying on the opposite bank. New and palatial buildings of the various

ministries, several high and middle schools, a few big hospitals, and the

residences of several Hungarian magnates, are among the principal edifices

in this part of the town.

The long range of substantial buildings fronting the left bank of the

Danube includes the Houses of Parliament (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate IX. fig.

115), a huge limestone edifice in the late Gothic style, covering an area

of 3¾ acres, erected in 1883-1902; the Academy, in Renaissance style,

erected in 1862-1864, containing a lofty reception room, a library, a

historic picture gallery, and a botanic collection; the Redoute buildings,

a large structure in a mixed Romanesque and Moorish style, erected for

balls and other social purposes; the extensive custom-house at the lower

end of the quays, and several fine hotels and insurance offices. In the

beautiful Andrássy Ut are the opera-house (1875-1884), in the Italian

Renaissance style; the academy of music; the old and new exhibition

building; the national drawing school; and the museum of fine arts

(1900-1905), in which was installed in 1905 the national gallery, formed by

Prince Esterházy, bought by the government in 1865 for £130,000, and

formerly housed in the academy, and the collection of modern pictures from

the national museum. At the end of the street is one of the numerous

monuments erected in various parts of the country to commemorate the

thousandth anniversary of the foundation of the kingdom of Hungary. Other

buildings remarkable for their [v.04 p.0680] size and interest are: the

national museum (1836-1844); the town-hall (1869-1875), in the early

Renaissance style; the university, with a baroque façade (rebuilt 1900),

and the university library (opened in 1875), a handsome Renaissance

building; the palace of justice (1896), a magnificent edifice situated not

far from the Houses of Parliament. In its neighbourhood also are the

palatial buildings of the ministries of justice and of agriculture. There

are also the exchange (1905); the Austro-Hungarian bank (1904); the central

post and telegraph office; the art-industrial museum (1893-1897), in

oriental style, with some characteristically Hungarian ornamentations;

several handsome theatres; large barracks; technical and secondary schools;

two great railway termini and a central market (1897) to be mentioned. To

the south-east of the town lies the vast slaughter-house (1870-1872),

which, with the adjacent cattle-market, covers nearly 30 acres of ground.

The building activity of Budapest since 1867 has been extraordinary, and

the town has undergone a thorough transformation. The removal of slums and

the regulation of the older parts of the town, in connexion with the

construction of the two new bridges across the Danube and of the railway

termini, went hand-in-hand with the extension of the town, new quarters

springing up on both banks of the Danube. This process is still going on,

and Budapest has become one of the handsomest capitals of Europe.

_Education._--Budapest is the intellectual capital of Hungary. At the head

of its educational institutions stands the university, which was attended

in 1900 by 4983 students--only about 2000 in 1880--and has a staff of

nearly 200 professors and lecturers. It has been completely transformed

into a national Hungarian seat of learning since 1867, and great efforts

have been made to keep at home the Hungarian students, who before then

frequented other universities and specially that of Vienna. It is well

provided with scientific laboratories, botanic garden, and various

collections, and possesses a library with nearly a quarter of a million

volumes. The university of Budapest, the only one in Hungary proper, was

established at Tyrnau in 1635, removed to Buda in 1777, and transferred to

Pest in 1783. Next to it comes the polytechnic, attended by 1816 students

in 1900, which is also thoroughly equipped for a scientific training. Other

high schools are a veterinary academy, a Roman Catholic seminary, a

Protestant theological college, a rabbinical institute, a commercial

academy, to which has been added in 1899 an academy for the study of

oriental languages, and military academies for the training of Hungarian

officers. Budapest possesses an adequate number of elementary and secondary

schools, as well as a great number of special and technical schools. At the

head of the scientific societies stands the academy of sciences, founded in

1825, for the encouragement of the study of the Hungarian language and the

various sciences except theology. Next to it comes the national museum,

founded in 1807 through the donations of Count Stephan Széchényi, which

contains extensive collections of antiquities, natural history and

ethnology, and a rich library which, in its manuscript department of over

20,000 MSS., contains the oldest specimens of the Hungarian language.

Another society which has done great service for the cultivation of the

Hungarian language is the Kisfaludy society, founded in 1836. It began by

distributing prizes for the best literary productions of the year, then it

started the collection and publication of the Hungarian folklore, and

lastly undertook the translation into the Hungarian language of the

masterpieces of foreign literatures. The influence exercised by this

society is very great, and it has attracted within its circle the best

writers of Hungary. Another society similar in aim with this one is the

Petöfi society, founded in 1875. Amongst the numerous scientific

associations are the central statistical department, and the Budapest

communal bureau of statistics, which under the directorship of Dr Joseph de

Körösy has gained a European reputation.

The artistic life in Budapest is fostered by the academy of music, which

once had Franz Liszt as its director, a _conservatoire_ of music, a

dramatic school, and a school for painting and for drawing, all maintained

by the government. Budapest possesses, besides an opera house, eight

theatres, of which two are subsidized by the government and one by the

municipality. The performances are almost exclusively in Hungarian, the

exceptions being the occasional appearance of French, Italian and other

foreign artists. Performances in German are under a popular taboo, and they

are never given in a theatre at Budapest.

_Trade._---In commerce and industry Budapest is by far the most important

town in Hungary, and in the former, if not also in the latter, it is second

to Vienna alone in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. The principal industries

are steam flour-milling, distilling, and the manufacture of machinery,

railway plant, carriages, cutlery, gold and silver wares, chemicals,

bricks, jute, and the usual articles produced in large towns for home

consumption. The trade of Budapest is mainly in corn, flour, cattle,

horses, pigs, wines, spirits, wool, wood, hides, and in the articles

manufactured in the town. The efforts of the Hungarian government to

establish a great home industry, and the measures taken to that effect,

have benefited Budapest to a greater degree than any other Hungarian town,

and the progress made is remarkable. The increase in the number of

joint-stock companies, and the capital thus invested in industrial

undertakings, furnish a valuable indication. In 1873 there were 28 such

companies with a total capital of £2,224,900; in 1890, 75 with a capital of

£9,352,000; and in 1899 no fewer than 242 with a total capital of

£31,378,655. Budapest owes its great commercial importance to its situation

on the Danube, on which the greater part of its trade is carried. The

introduction of steamboats on the Danube in 1830 was one of the earliest

material causes of the progress of Budapest, and gave a great stimulus to

its corn trade. This still continues to operate, having been promoted by

the flour-milling industry, which was revolutionized by certain local

inventions. Budapest is actually one of the greatest milling centres in the

world, possessing a number of magnificent establishments, fitted with

machinery invented and manufactured in the city. Budapest is, besides,

connected with all the principal places in Austria and Hungary by a

well-developed net of railways, which all radiate from here.

_Population._--Few European towns grew so rapidly as Budapest generally,

and Pest particularly, during the 19th century, and probably none has

witnessed such a thorough transformation since 1867. In 1799 the joint

population of Buda and Pest was 54,179, of which 24,306 belonged to Buda,

and 29,870 belonged to Pest, being the first time that the population of

Pest exceeded that of Buda. By 1840, however, Buda had added but 14,000 to

its population while that of Pest had more than doubled; and of the joint

population of 270,685 in 1869, fully 200,000 fell to the share of Pest. In

1880 the civil population of Budapest was 360,551, an increase since 1869

of 32%; and in 1890 it was 491,938, and increase of 36.57% in the decade.

In the matter of the increase of its population alone, Budapest has only

been slightly surpassed by one European town, namely, Berlin. Both capitals

multiplied their population by nine in the first nine decades of the

century. According to an interesting and instructive comparison of the

growth of twenty-eight European cities made by Dr Joseph de Körösy, Berlin

in 1890 showed an increase, as compared with the beginning of the century,

of 818% and Budapest of 809%. Within the same period the increase of Paris

was 343%, and of London 340%. In 1900 the civil population of Budapest was

716,476 inhabitants, showing an increase of 44.82% in the decade. To this

must be added a garrison of 15,846 men, making a total population 732,322.

Of the total population, civil and military, 578,458 were Magyars, 104,520

were Germans, 25,168 were Slovaks, and the remainder was composed of

Croatians, Servians, Rumanians, Russians, Greeks, Armenians, Gypsies, &c.

According to religion, there were 445,023 Roman Catholics, 5806 Greek

Catholics, 4422 Greek Orthodox; 67,319 were Protestants of the Helvetic,

and 38,811 were Protestants of the Augsburg Confessions; 168,985 were Jews,

and the remainder belonged to various other creeds. A striking feature in

the progress of Budapest is the decline in the death-rate, which sank from

43.4 per thousand in 1874 to 20.6 per thousand in 1900. In addition to the

increased influx of [v.04 p.0681] persons in the prime of life, this is due

largely to the improved water-supply and better sanitary conditions

generally, including increased hospital accommodation.

_Social Position._--Budapest is the seat of the government of Hungary, of

the parliament, and of all the highest official authorities--civil,

military, judicial and financial. It is the meeting-place, alternately with

Vienna, of the Austro-Hungarian delegations, and it was elected to an

equality with Vienna as a royal residence in 1892. It is the see of a Roman

Catholic archbishop. The town is administered by an elected municipal

council, which consists of 400 members. As Paris is sometimes said to be

France, so may Budapest with almost greater truth be said to be Hungary.

Its composite population is a faithful reflection of the heterogeneous

elements in the dominions of the Habsburgs, while the trade and industry of

Hungary are centralized at Budapest in a way that can scarcely be affirmed

of any other European capital. In virtue of its cultural institutions, it

is also the intellectual and artistic centre of Hungary. The movement in

favour of Magyarizing all institutions has found its strongest development

in Budapest, where the German names have all been removed from the

buildings and streets. The wonderful progress of Budapest is undoubtedly

due to the revival of the Hungarian national spirit in the first half of

the 19th century, and to the energetic and systematic efforts of the

government and people of Hungary since the restoration of the constitution.

So far as Hungary was concerned, Budapest in 1867 at once became the

favoured rival of Vienna, with the important additional advantage that it

had no such competitors within its own sphere as Vienna had in the Austrian

provincial capitals. The political, intellectual, and social life of

Hungary was centred in Budapest, and had largely been so since 1848, when

it became the seat of the legislature, as it was that of the Austrian

central administration which followed the revolution. The ideal of a

prosperous, brilliant and attractive Magyar capital, which would keep the

nobles and the intellectual flower of the country at home, uniting them in

the service of the Fatherland, had received a powerful impetus from Count

Stephan Széchényi, the great Hungarian reformer of the pre-Revolutionary

period. His work, continued by patriotic and able successors, was now taken

up as the common task of the government and the nation. Thus the promotion

of the interests of the capital and the centralization of the public and

commercial life of the country have formed an integral part of the policy

of the state since the restoration of the constitution. Budapest has

profited largely by the encouragement of agriculture, trade and industry,

by the nationalization of the railways, by the development of inland

navigation, and also by the neglect of similar measures in favour of

Vienna.

From that time to the present day the record of the Hungarian capital has

been one of uninterrupted advance, not merely in externals, such as the

removal of slums, the reconstruction of the town, the development of

communications, industry and trade, and the erection of important public

buildings, but also in the mental, moral and physical elevation of the

inhabitants; besides another important gain from the point of view of the

Hungarian statesman, namely, the progressive increase and improvement of

status of the Magyar element of the population. When it is remembered that

the ideal of both the authorities and the people is the ultimate monopoly

of the home market by Hungarian industry and trade, and the strengthening

of the Magyar influence by centralization, it is easy to understand the

progress of Budapest.

Politically, this ambitious and progressive capital is the creation of the

Magyar upper classes. Commercially and industrially, it may be said to be

the work of the Jews. The sound judgment of the former led them to welcome

and appreciate the co-operation of the latter. Indeed, a readiness to

assimilate foreign elements is characteristic of Magyar patriotism, which

has, particularly within the last generation, made numerous converts among

the other nationalities of Hungary, and--for national purposes--may be

considered to have quite absorbed the Hungarian Jews. It has thus come to

pass that there is no anti-Semitism in Budapest, although the Hebrew

element is proportionately much larger (21% as compared with 9%) than it is

in Vienna, the Mecca of the Jew-baiter.

Budapest has long been celebrated for its mineral springs and baths, some

of them having been already used during the Roman period. They rise at the

foot of the Blocksberg, and are powerful chalybeate and sulphureous hot

springs, with a temperature of 80°-150° Fahr. The principal baths are the

Bruckbad and the Kaiserbad, both dating from the Turkish period; the St

Lucasbad; and the Raitzenbad, rebuilt in 1860, one of the most magnificent

establishments of its kind, which was connected through a gallery with the

royal palace in the time of Matthias Corvin. There is an artesian well of

sulphureous water with a temperature of 153° Fahr. in the Stadtwäldchen;

and another, yielding sulphureous water with a temperature of 110° Fahr.,

which is used for both drinking and bathing, in the Margaret island. The

mineral springs, which yield bitter alkaline waters, are situated in the

plain south of the Blocksberg, and are over 40 in number. The principal are

the Hunyadi-János spring, of which about 1,000,000 bottles are exported

annually, the Arpad spring, and the Apenta spring.