From a photo by Brogi.]

BUCCINA (more correctly _B[=u]c[)i]na_, Gr. [Greek: Bukanê], connected with

_bucca_, cheek, and Gr. [Greek: Buzô], a brass wind instrument extensively

used in the ancient Roman army. The Roman instrument consisted of a brass

tube measuring some 11 to 12 ft. in length, of narrow cylindrical bore, and

played by means of a cup-shaped mouthpiece. The tube is bent round upon

itself from the mouthpiece to the bell in the shape of a broad C and is

strengthened by means of a bar across the curve, which the performer grasps

while playing, in order to steady the instrument; the bell curves over his

head or shoulder as in the modern helicon. Three Roman buccinas were found

among the ruins of Pompeii and are now deposited in the museum at Naples.

V. C. Mahillon, of Brussels[1] has made a facsimile of one of these

instruments; it is in G and has almost the same harmonic series as the

French horn and the trumpet. The buccina, the cornu (see HORN), and the

tuba were used as signal instruments in the Roman army and camp to sound

the four night watches (hence known as _buccina prima, secunda, &c._), to

summon them by means of the special signal known as _classicum_, and to

give orders.[2] Frontinus relates[3] that a Roman general, who had been

surrounded by the enemy, escaped during the night by means of the stratagem

of leaving behind him a _buccinator_ (trumpeter), who sounded [v.04 p.0657]

the watches throughout the night.[4] Vegetius gives brief descriptions of

the three instruments, which suffice to establish their identity; the tuba,

he says, is straight; the buccina is of bronze bent in the form of a

circle.[5]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Busine, 14th century. (From MS. R. 10 E. IV. Brit.

Mus.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Busine, 14th century. (From MS. R. 10 E. IV. Brit.

Mus.)]

The buccina, in respect of its technical construction and acoustic

properties, was the ancestor of both trumpet and trombone; the connexion is

further established by the derivation of the words Sackbut and _Posaune_

(the German for trombone) from buccina. The relation was fully recognized

in Germany during the 15th and 16th centuries, as two translations of

Vegetius, published at Ulm in 1470, and at Augsburg in 1534, clearly

demonstrate: "Bucina das ist die trumet oder pusan"[6] ("the bucina is the

trumpet or trombone") and ("Bucina ist die trummet die wirt ausz und

eingezogen"[7] ("the bucina is the trumpet which is drawn out and in"). A

French translation by Jean de Meung (Paris, 1488),[8] renders the passage

(chap. iii. 5) thus: "Trompe est longue et droite; buisine est courte et

reflechist en li meisme si comme partie de cercle." On Trajan's column[9]

the tuba, the cornu and the buccina are distinguishable. Other

illustrations of the buccina may be seen in François Mazois' _Les Ruines de

Pompéi_ (Paris, 1824-1838), pt. iv, pl. xlviii. fig. 1, and in J.N. von

Wilmowsky's _Eine römische Villa zu Nennig_ (Bonn, 1865), pl. xii.

(mosaics), where the buccinator is accompanied on the hydraulus. The

military buccina described is a much more advanced instrument than its

prototype the _buccina marina_, a primitive trumpet in the shape of a

conical shell, often having a spiral twist, which in poetry is often called

_concha_. The buccina marina is frequently depicted in the hands of Tritons

(Macrobius i. 8), or of sailors, as for instance on terra-cotta lamp shown

by G.P. Bellori (_Lucernae veterum sepulcrales iconicae_, 1702, iii. 12).

The highly imaginative writer of the apocryphal letter of St Jerome to

Dardanus also has a word to say concerning the buccina among the Semitic

races: "Bucca vocatur tuba apud Hebreos: deinde per diminutionem buccina

dicitur." After the fall of the Roman empire the art of bending metal tubes

was gradually lost, and although the buccina survived in Europe both in

name and in principle of construction during the middle ages, it lost for

ever the characteristic curve like a "C" which it possessed in common with

the cornu, an instrument having a conical bore of wider calibre. Although

we regard the buccina as essentially Roman, an instrument of the same type,

but probably straight and of kindred name, was widely known and used in the

East, in Persia, Arabia and among the Semitic races. After a lapse of years

during which records are almost wanting, the buccina reappeared all over

Europe as the busine, buisine, pusin, busaun, pusun, posaun, busna (Slav),

&c.; whether it was a Roman survival or a re-introduction through the Moors

of Spain in the West and the Byzantine empire in the East, we have no

records to show. An 11th-century mural painting representing the Last

Judgment in the cathedral of S. Angelo in Formis (near Capua), shows the

angels blowing the last trump on busines.[10]

There are two distinct forms of the busine which may be traced during the

middle ages:--(i) a long straight tube (fig. 2) consisting of 3 to 5 joints

of narrow cylindrical bore, the last joint alone being conical and ending

in a pommel-shaped bell, precisely as in the curved buccina (fig. 1); (2) a

long straight cylindrical tube of somewhat wider bore than the busine,

ending in a wide bell curving out abruptly from the cylindrical tube (fig.

3).

The history of the development of the trumpet, the sackbut and the trombone

from the buccina will be found more fully treated under those headings; for

the part played by the buccina in the evolution of the French horn see

HORN.

(K. S.)

[1] See _Catalogue descriptif_ (Ghent, 1880), p. 330, and illustration,

vol. ii. (1896), p. 30.

[2] Livy vii. 35, xxvi. 15; Prop. v. 4, 63; Tac. _Ann._ xv. 30; Vegetius,

_De re militari_, ii. 22, iii. 5; Polyb. vi. 365, xiv. 3, 7.

[3] _Stratagematicon_, i. 5, § 17.

[4] For another instance see Caesar, _Comm. Bell. Civ._ ii. 35.

[5] Vegetius, op. cit. iii. 5.

[6] Idem, ii. 7.

[7] Idem, iii. 5.

[8] A reprint edited by Ulysse Robert has been published by the Soc. des

Anciens Textes Français (Paris, 1897).

[9] See Conrad Cichorius, _Die Reliefs der Traiansaule_, 3 vols. of text

and 2 portfolios of heliogravures (Berlin, 1896, &c.), Bd. i. pl. x.

buccina and tubae; pl. viii. buccina; pl. lxxvi. buccina and two cornua;

pl. xx. cornu, &c.; or W. Froehner, _La Colonne de Trajan_ (Paris, 1872),

vol. i. pl. xxxii., xxxvi., li., tome ii. pl. lxvi., tome iii. pl. cxxxiv.,

&c.

[10] See F.X. Kraus, "Die Wandgemälde von San Angelo in Formis," in

_Jahrbuch der kgl. preuss. Kunstsamml._ (1893), pl. i.

BUCCLEUCH, DUKES OF. The substantial origin of the ducal house of the

Scotts of Buccleuch dates back to the large grants of lands in Scotland to

Sir Walter Scott of Kirkurd and Buccleuch, a border chief, by James II., in

consequence of the fall of the 8th earl of Douglas (1452); but the family

traced their descent back to a Sir Richard le Scott (1240-1285). The estate

of Buccleuch is in Selkirkshire. Sir Walter Scott of Branxholm and

Buccleuch (d. 1552) distinguished himself at the battle of Pinkie (1547),

and furnished material for his later namesake's famous poem, _The Lay of

the Last Minstrel_; and his great-grandson Sir Walter (1565-1611) was

created Lord Scott of Buccleuch in 1606. An earldom followed in 1619. The

second earl's daughter Anne (1651-1732), who succeeded him as a countess in

her own right, married in 1663 the famous duke of Monmouth (_q.v._), who

was then created 1st duke of Buccleuch; and her grandson Francis became 2nd

duke. The latter's son Henry (1746-1812) became 3rd duke, and in 1810

succeeded also, on the death of William Douglas, 4th duke of Queensberry,

to that dukedom as well as its estates and other honours, according to the

entail executed by his own great-grandfather, the 2nd duke of Queensberry,

in 1706; he married the duke of Montagu's daughter, and was famous for his

generosity and benefactions. His son Charles William Henry (d. 1819),

grandson Walter Francis Scott (1806-1884), and great-grandson William Henry

Walter Montagu Douglas Scott (b. 1831), succeeded in turn as 4th, 5th and

6th dukes of Buccleuch and 6th, 7th, and 8th dukes of Queensberry. The 5th

duke was lord privy seal 1842-1846, and president of the council 1846. It

was he who at a cost of over £500,000 made the harbour at Granton, near

Edinburgh. He was president of the Highland and Agricultural Society, the

Society of Antiquaries and of the British Association. The 6th duke sat in

the House of Commons as Conservative M.P. for Midlothian, 1853-1868 and

1874-1880; his wife, a daughter of the 1st duke of Abercorn, held the

office of mistress of the robes.

See Sir W. Fraser, _The Scotts of Buccleuch_ (1878).

BUCENTAUR (Ital. _bucintoro_), the state gallery of the doges of Venice, on

which, every year on Ascension day up to 1789, they put into the Adriatic

in order to perform the ceremony of "wedding the sea." The name _bucintoro_

is derived from the Ital. _buzino d' oro_, "golden bark," latinized in the

middle ages as _bucentaurus_ on the analogy of a supposed Gr. [Greek:

boukentauros], ox-centaur (from [Greek: bous] and [Greek: Kentauros]). This

led to the explanation of the name as derived from the head of an ox having

served as the galley's figurehead. This derivation is, however, fanciful;

the name _bucentaurus_ is unknown in ancient mythology, and the figurehead

of the bucentaurs, of which representations have come down to us, is the

lion of St Mark. [v.04 p.0658] The name bucentaur seems, indeed, to have

been given to any great and sumptuous Venetian galley. Du Cange (_Gloss._,

_s.v._ "Bucentaurus") quotes from the chronicle of the doge Andrea Dandolo

(d. 1354): _cum uno artificioso et solemni Bucentauro, super quo venit

usque ad S. Clementem, quo jam pervenerat principalior et solemnior

Bucentaurus cum consiliariis_, &c. The last and most magnificent of the

bucentaurs, built in 1729, was destroyed by the French in 1798 for the sake

of its golden decorations. Remains of it are preserved at Venice in the

Museo Civico Correr and in the Arsenal; in the latter there is also a fine

model of it.

The "Marriage of the Adriatic," or more correctly "of the sea" (_Sposalizio

del Mar_) was a ceremony symbolizing the maritime dominion of Venice. The

ceremony, established about A.D. 1000 to commemorate the doge Orseolo II.'s

conquest of Dalmatia, was originally one of supplication and placation,

Ascension day being chosen as that on which the doge had set out on his

expedition. The form it took was a solemn procession of boats, headed by

the doge's _maesta nave_, afterwards the Bucentaur (from 1311) out to sea

by the Lido port. A prayer was offered that "for us and all who sail

thereon the sea may be calm and quiet," whereupon the doge and the others

were solemnly aspersed with holy water, the rest of which was thrown into

the sea while the priests chanted "Purge me with hyssop and I shall be

clean." To this ancient ceremony a sacramental character was given by Pope

Alexander III in 1177, in return for the services rendered by Venice in the

struggle against the emperor Frederick I. The pope drew a ring from his

finger and, giving it to the doge, bade him cast such a one into the sea

each year on Ascension day, and so wed the sea. Henceforth the ceremonial,

instead of placatory and expiatory, became nuptial. Every year the doge

dropped a consecrated ring into the sea, and with the words _Desponsamus

te, mare_ (We wed thee, sea) declared Venice and the sea to be indissolubly

one (see H. F. Brown, _Venice_, London, 1893, pp. 69, 110).

BUCEPHALUS (Gr. [Greek: boukephalos]), the favourite Thracian horse of

Alexander the Great, which died in 326 B.C., either of wounds received in

the battle on the Hydaspes, or of old age. In commemoration Alexander built

the city of Bucephala (Boukephala), the site of which is almost certainly

to be identified with a mound on the bank of the river opposite the modern

Jhelum.

See especially Arrian v. 20; other stories in Plutarch, _Alex._ 6; Curtius

vi. 8. For the identification of Bucephala, Vincent A. Smith, _Early Hist.

of India_ (2nd ed., 1908), pp. 65, 66 note.

BUCER (or BUTZER), MARTIN (1491-1551), German Protestant reformer, was born

in 1491 at Schlettstadt in Alsace. In 1506 he entered the Dominican order,

and was sent to study at Heidelberg. There he became acquainted with the

works of Erasmus and Luther, and was present at a disputation of the latter

with some of the Romanist doctors. He became a convert to the reformed

opinions, abandoned his order by papal dispensation in 1521, and soon

afterwards married a nun. In 1522 he was pastor at Landstuhl in the

palatinate, and travelled hither and thither propagating the reformed

doctrine. After his excommunication in 1523 he made his headquarters at

Strassburg, where he succeeded Matthew Zell. Henry VIII of England asked

his advice in connexion with the divorce from Catherine of Aragon. On the

question of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, Bucer's opinions were

decidedly Zwinglian, but he was anxious to maintain church unity with the

Lutheran party, and constantly endeavoured, especially after Zwingli's

death, to formulate a statement of belief that would unite Lutheran, south

German and Swiss reformers. Hence the charge of ambiguity and obscurity

which has been laid against him. In 1548 he was sent for to Augsburg to

sign the agreement, called the _Interim_, between the Catholics and

Protestants. His stout opposition to this project exposed him to many

difficulties, and he was glad to accept Cranmer's invitation to make his

home in England. On his arrival in 1549 he was appointed regius professor

of divinity at Cambridge. Edward VI. and the protector Somerset showed him

much favour and he was consulted as to the revision of the Book of Common

Prayer. But on the 27th of February 1551 he died, and was buried in the

university church, with great state. In 1557, by Mary's commissioners, his

body was dug up and burnt, and his tomb demolished; it was subsequently

reconstructed by order of Elizabeth. Bucer is said to have written

ninety-six treatises, among them a translation and exposition of the Psalms

and a work _Deregno Christi_. His name is familiar in English literature

from the use made of his doctrines by Milton in his divorce treatises.

A collected edition of his writings has never been published. A volume

known as the _Tomus Anglicanus_ (Basel, 1577) contains those written in

England. See J.W. Baum, _Capito and Butzer_ (Strassburg, 1860); A.

Erichson, _Martin Butzer_ (1891); and the articles in the _Dict. Nat.

Biog._ (by A.W. Ward), and in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ (by Paul

Grünberg).

BUCH, CHRISTIAN LEOPOLD VON, BARON (1774-1853), German geologist and

geographer, a member of an ancient and noble Prussian family, was born at

Stolpe in Pomerania on the 26th of April 1774. In 1790-1793 he studied at

the mining school of Freiberg under Werner, one of his fellow-students

there being Alexander von Humboldt. He afterwards completed his education

at the universities of Halle and Göttingen. His _Versuch einer

mineralogischen Beschreibung von Landeck_ (Breslau, 1797) was translated

into French (Paris, 1805), and into English as _Attempt at a Mineralogical

Description of Landeck_ (Edinburgh, 1810); he also published in 1802

_Entwurf einer geognostischen Beschreibung von Schlesien (Geognostische

Beobachtungen auf Reisen durch Deutschland und Italien_, Band i.). He was

at this time a zealous upholder of the Neptunian theory of his illustrious

master. In 1797 he met Humboldt at Salzburg, and with him explored the

geological formations of Styria, and the adjoining Alps. In the spring of

the following year, von Buch extended his excursions into Italy, where his

faith in the Neptunian theory was shaken. In his previous works he had

advocated the aqueous origin of basaltic and other formations. In 1799 he

paid his first visit to Vesuvius, and again in 1805 he returned to study

the volcano, accompanied by Humboldt and Gay Lussac. They had the good

fortune to witness a remarkable eruption, which supplied von Buch with data

for refuting many erroneous ideas then entertained regarding volcanoes. In

1802 he had explored the extinct volcanoes of Auvergne. The aspect of the

Puy de Dôme, with its cone of trachyte and its strata of basaltic lava,

induced him to abandon as untenable the doctrines of Werner on the

formation of these rocks. The scientific results of his investigations he

embodied in his _Geognostische Beobachtungen auf Reisen durch Deutschland

und Italien_ (Berlin, 1802-1809). From the south of Europe von Buch

repaired to the north, and spent two years among the Scandinavian islands,

making many important observations on the geography of plants, on

climatology and on geology. He showed that many of the erratic blocks on

the North German plains must have come from Scandinavia. He also

established the fact that the whole of Sweden is slowly but continuously

rising above the level of the sea from Frederikshald to Abo. The details of

these discoveries are given in his _Reise durch Norwegen und Lappland_

(Berlin, 1810). In 1815 he visited the Canary Islands in company with

Christian Smith, the Norwegian botanist. His observations here convinced

him that these and other islands of the Atlantic owed their existence to

volcanic action of the most intense kind, and that the groups of islands in

the South Sea are the remains of a pre-existing continent. The physical

description of the Canary Islands was published at Berlin in 1825, and this

work alone is regarded as an enduring monument of his labours. After

leaving the Canaries von Buch proceeded to the Hebrides and the coasts of

Scotland and Ireland. Palaeontology also claimed his attention, and he

described in 1831 and later years a number of Cephalopods, Brachiopods and

Cystidea, and pointed out their stratigraphical importance. In addition to

the works already mentioned von Buch published in 1832 the magnificent

_Geological Map of Germany_ (42 sheets, Berlin). His geological excursions

were continued without interruption till his 78th year. Eight months before

his death he visited [v.04 p.0659] the mountains of Auvergne; and on

returning home he read a paper on the Jurassic formation before the Academy

of Berlin. He died at Berlin on the 4th of March 1853. Von Buch had

inherited from his father a fortune more than sufficient for his wants. He

was never married, and was unembarrassed by family ties. His excursions

were always taken on foot, with a staff in his hand, and the large pockets

of his overcoat filled with papers and geological instruments. Under this

guise, the passer-by would not easily have recognized the man whom Humboldt

pronounced the greatest geologist of his time.

A complete edition of his works was published at Berlin (1867-1885).

BUCHAN, EARLS OF. The earldom of Mar and Buchan was one of the seven

original Scottish earldoms; later, Buchan was separated from Mar, and among

the early earls of Buchan were Alexander Comyn (d. 1289), John Comyn (d. c.

1313), both constables of Scotland, and Henry Beaumont (d. 1340), who had

married a Comyn. John Comyn's wife, Isabel, was the countess of Buchan who

crowned Robert the Bruce king at Scone in 1306, and was afterwards

imprisoned at Berwick; not, however, in a cage hung on the wall of the

castle. About 1382 Sir Alexander Stewart (d. c. 1404), the "wolf of

Badenoch," a son of King Robert II., became earl of Buchan, and the

Stewarts appear to have held the earldom for about a century and a half,

although not in a direct line from Sir Alexander.[1] Among the most

celebrated of the Stewart earls were the Scottish regent, Robert, duke of

Albany, and his son John, who was made constable of France and was killed

at the battle of Verneuil in 1424. In 1617 the earldom came to James

Erskine (d. 1640), a son of John Erskine, 2nd (or 7th) earl of Mar, whose

wife Mary had inherited it from her father, James Douglas (d. 1601), and

from that time it has been retained by the Erskines.

Perhaps the most celebrated of the later earls of Buchan was the eccentric

David Steuart Erskine, 11th earl (1742-1829), a son of Henry David, 10th

earl (d. 1767), and brother of Henry Erskine (_q.v._), and of Thomas, Lord

Erskine (_q.v._). His pertinacity was instrumental in effecting a change in

the method of electing Scottish representative peers, and in 1780 he

succeeded in founding the Scottish Society of Antiquaries. Among his

correspondents was Horace Walpole, and he wrote an _Essay on the Lives of

Fletcher of Saltoun and the Poet Thomson_ (1792), and other writings. He

died at his residence at Dryburgh in April 1829, leaving no legitimate

children, and was followed as 12th earl by his nephew Henry David

(1783-1857), the ancestor of the present peer. The 11th earl's natural son,

Sir David Erskine (1772-1837), who inherited his father's unentailed

estates, was an antiquary and a dramatist.

[1] In August 1908, during some excavations at Dunkeld, remains were found

which are supposed to be those of Alexander Stewart, the "wolf of

Badenoch."

BUCHAN, ELSPETH (1738-1791), founder of a Scottish religious sect known as

the Buchanites, was the daughter of John Simpson, proprietor of an inn near

Banff. Having quarrelled with her husband, Robert Buchan, a potter of

Greenock, she settled with her children in Glasgow, where she was deeply

impressed by a sermon preached by Hugh White, minister of the Relief church

at Irvine. She persuaded White and others that she was a saint with a

special mission, that in fact she was the woman, and White the man-child,

described in Revelation xii. White was condemned by the presbytery, and the

sect, which ultimately numbered forty-six adherents, was expelled by the

magistrates in 1784 and settled in a farm, consisting of one room and a

loft, known as New Cample in Dumfriesshire. Mrs Buchan claimed prophetic

inspiration and pretended to confer the Holy Ghost upon her followers by

breathing upon them; they believed that the millennium was near, and that

they would not die, but be translated. It appears that they had community

of wives and lived on funds provided by the richer members. Robert Burns,

the poet, in a letter dated August 1784, describes the sect as idle and

immoral. In 1785 White and Mrs Buchan published a _Divine Dictionary_, but

the sect broke up on the death of its founder in spite of White's attempts

to prove that she was only in a trance. Even White was eventually

undeceived. Andrew Innes, the last survivor, died in 1848. See J. Train,

_The Buchanites from First to Last_ (Edinburgh, 1846).

BUCHAN, PETER (1790-1854), Scottish editor, was born at Peterhead,

Aberdeenshire, in 1790. In 1816 he started in business as a printer at

Peterhead, and was successful enough to be able eventually to retire and

devote himself to the collection and editing of Scottish ballads. His

_Ancient Ballads and Songs of the North of Scotland_ (1828) contained a

large number of hitherto unpublished ballads, and newly discovered versions

of existing ones. Another collection made by him was published by the Percy

Society, under the title _Scottish Traditional Versions of Ancient Ballads_

(1845). Two unpublished volumes of Buchan's ballad collections are in the

British Museum. He died on the 19th of September 1854.

BUCHANAN, CLAUDIUS (1766-1815), English divine, was born at Cambuslang,

near Glasgow, and educated at the universities of Glasgow and Cambridge. He

was ordained in 1795, and after holding a chaplaincy in India at Barrackpur

(1797-1799) was appointed Calcutta chaplain and vice-principal of the

college of Fort William. In this capacity he did much to advance

Christianity and native education in India, especially by organizing

systematic translations of the Scriptures. An account of his travels in the

south and west of India, which added considerably to our knowledge of

nature life, is given in his _Christian Researches in Asia_ (Cambridge,

1811). After his return to England in 1808, he still took an active part in

matters connected with India, and by his book entitled _Colonial

Ecclesiastical Establishment_ (London, 1813), he assisted in settling the

controversy of 1813, which ended in the establishment of the Indian

episcopate.

BUCHANAN, GEORGE (1506-1582), Scottish humanist, was born in February 1506.

His father, a younger son of an old family, was the possessor of the farm

of Moss, in the parish of Killearn, Stirlingshire, but he died at an early

age, leaving his widow and children in poverty. His mother, Agnes Heriot,

was of the family of the Heriots of Trabroun, Haddingtonshire, of which

George Heriot, founder of Heriot's hospital, was also a member. Buchanan is

said to have attended Killearn school, but not much is known of his early

education. In 1520 he was sent by his uncle, James Heriot, to the

university of Paris, where, as he tells us in an autobiographical sketch,

he devoted himself to the writing of verses "partly by liking, partly by

compulsion (that being then the one task prescribed to youth)." In 1522 his

uncle died, and Buchanan being thus unable to continue longer in Paris,

returned to Scotland. After recovering from a severe illness, he joined the

French auxiliaries who had been brought over by John Stewart, duke of

Albany, and took part in an unsuccessful inroad into England (see the

account in his _Hist. of Scotland_). In the following year he entered the

university of St Andrews, where he graduated B.A. in 1525. He had gone

there chiefly for the purpose of attending the celebrated John Major's

lectures on logic; and when that teacher removed to Paris, Buchanan

followed him in 1526. In 1527 he graduated B.A., and in 1528 M.A. at Paris.

Next year he was appointed regent, or professor, in the college of

Sainte-Barbe, and taught there for upwards of three years. In 1529 he was

elected Procurator of the "German Nation" in the university of Paris, and

was re-elected four times in four successive months. He resigned his

regentship in 1531, and in 1532 became tutor to Gilbert Kennedy, 3rd earl

of Cassilis, with whom he returned to Scotland about the beginning of 1537.

At this period Buchanan was content to assume the same attitude towards the

Church of Rome that Erasmus maintained. He did not repudiate its doctrines,

but considered himself free to criticize its practice. Though he listened

with interest to the arguments of the Reformers, he did not join their

ranks before 1553. His first production in Scotland, when he was in Lord

Cassilis's household in the west country, was the poem _Somnium_, a

satirical attack upon the Franciscan friars and monastic life generally.

This assault on the monks was not displeasing to James V., who engaged

Buchanan as tutor to one of his natural [v.04 p.0660] sons, Lord James

Stewart (not the son who was afterwards the regent Murray), and encouraged

him to a still more daring effort. In these circumstances the poems

_Palinodia_ and _Franciscanus & Fratres_ were written, and, although they

remained unpublished for many years, it is not surprising that the author

became an object of bitterest hatred to the order and their friends. Nor

was it yet a safe matter to assail the church. In 1539 there was a bitter

persecution of the Lutherans, and Buchanan among others was arrested. He

managed to effect his escape and with considerable difficulty made his way

to London and thence to Paris. In Paris, however, he found his enemy,

Cardinal David Beaton, who was there as an ambassador, and on the

invitation of André de Gouvéa, proceeded to Bordeaux. Gouvéa was then

principal of the newly founded college of Guienne at Bordeaux, and by his

exertions Buchanan was appointed professor of Latin. During his residence

here several of his best works, the translations of _Medea_ and _Alcestis_,

and the two dramas, _Jephthes (sive Votum)_ and _Baptistes (sive

Calumnia)_, were completed. Montaigne was Buchanan's pupil at Bordeaux and

acted in his tragedies. In the essay _Of Presumption_ he classes Buchanan

with Aurat, Béza, de L'Hopital, Montdore and Turnebus, as one of the

foremost Latin poets of his time. Here also Buchanan formed a lasting

friendship with Julius Caesar Scaliger; in later life he won the admiration

of Joseph Scaliger, who wrote an epigram on Buchanan which contains the

couplet, famous in its day:--

"Imperii fuerat Romani Scotia limes;

Romani eloquii Scotia limes erit?"

In 1542 or 1543 he returned to Paris, and in 1544 was appointed regent in

the college of Cardinal le Moine. Among his colleagues were the renowned

Muretus and Turnebus.

In 1547 Buchanan joined the band of French and Portuguese humanists who had

been invited by André de Gouvéa to lecture in the Portuguese university of

Coimbra. The French mathematician Élie Vinet, and the Portuguese historian,

Jeronimo de Osorio, were among his colleagues; Gouvéa, called by Montaigne

_le plus grand principal de France_, was rector of the university, which

had reached the summit of its prosperity under the patronage of King John

III. But the rectorship had been coveted by Diogo de Gouvéa, uncle of André

and formerly head of Sainte-Barbe. It is probable that before André's death

at the end of 1547 Diogo had urged the Inquisition to attack him and his

staff; up to 1906, when the records of the trial were first published in

full, Buchanan's biographers generally attributed the attack to the

influence of Cardinal Beaton, the Franciscans, or the Jesuits, and the

whole history of Buchanan's residence in Portugal was extremely obscure.

A commission of inquiry was appointed in October 1549 and reported in June

1550. Buchanan and two Portuguese, Diogo de Teive and Jo[=a]o da Costa (who

had succeeded to the rectorship), were committed for trial. Teive and Costa

were found guilty of various offences against public order, and the

evidence shows that there was ample reason for a judicial inquiry. Buchanan

was accused of Lutheran and Judaistic practices. He defended himself with

conspicuous ability, courage and frankness, admitting that some of the

charges were true. About June 1551 he was sentenced to abjure his errors,

and to be imprisoned in the monastery of S[=a]o Bento in Lisbon. Here he

was compelled to listen to edifying discourses from the monks, whom he

found "not unkind but ignorant." In his leisure he began to translate the

Psalms into Latin verse. After seven months he was released, on condition

that he remained in Lisbon; and on the 28th of February 1552 this

restriction was annulled. Buchanan at once sailed for England, but soon

made his way to Paris, where in 1553 he was appointed regent in the college

of Boncourt. He remained in that post for two years, and then accepted the

office of tutor to the son of the Maréchal de Brissac. It was almost

certainly during this last stay in France, where Protestantism was being

repressed with great severity by Francis I., that Buchanan ranged himself

on the side of the Calvinists.

In 1560 or 1561 he returned to Scotland, and in April 1562 we find him

installed as tutor to the young queen Mary, who was accustomed to read Livy

with him daily. Buchanan now openly joined the Protestant, or Reformed

Church, and in 1566 was appointed by the earl of Murray principal of St

Leonard's College, St Andrews. Two years before he had received from the

queen the valuable gift of the revenues of Crossraguel Abbey. He was thus

in good circumstances, and his fame was steadily increasing. So great,

indeed, was his reputation for learning and administrative capacity that,

though a layman, he was made moderator of the general assembly in 1567. He

had sat in the assemblies from 1563.

Buchanan accompanied the regent Murray into England, and his _Detectio_

(published in 1572) was produced to the commissioners at Westminster. In

1570, after the assassination of Murray, he was appointed one of the

preceptors of the young king, and it was through his tuition that James VI.

acquired his scholarship. While discharging the functions of royal tutor he

also held other important offices. He was for a short time director of

chancery, and then became lord privy seal, a post which entitled him to a

seat in the parliament. He appears to have continued in this office for

some years, at least till 1579. He died on the 28th of September 1582.

His last years had been occupied with two of his most important works. The

first was the treatise _De Jure Regni apud Scotos_, published in 1579. In

this famous work, composed in the form of a dialogue, and evidently

intended to instil sound political principles into the mind of his pupil,

Buchanan lays down the doctrine that the source of all political power is

the people, that the king is bound by those conditions under which the

supreme power was first committed to his hands, and that it is lawful to

resist, even to punish, tyrants. The importance of the work is proved by

the persistent efforts of the legislature to suppress it during the century

following its publication. It was condemned by act of parliament in 1584,

and again in 1664; and in 1683 it was burned by the university of Oxford.

The second of his larger works is the history of Scotland, _Rerum

Scoticarum Historia_, completed shortly before his death (1579), and

published in 1582. It is of great value for the period personally known to

the author, which occupies the greater portion of the book. The earlier

part is based, to a considerable extent, on the legendary history of Boece.

Buchanan's purpose was to "purge" the national history "of sum Inglis lyis

and Scottis vanite" (_Letter to Randolph_), but he exaggerated his freedom

from partisanship and unconsciously criticized his work when he said that

it would "content few and displease many."

Buchanan is one of Scotland's greatest scholars. For mastery over the Latin

language he has seldom been surpassed by any modern writer. His style is

not rigidly modelled upon that of any classical author, but has a certain

freshness and elasticity of its own. He wrote Latin as if it had been his

mother tongue. But in addition to this perfect command over the language,

Buchanan had a rich vein of poetical feeling, and much originality of

thought. His translations of the Psalms and of the Greek plays are more

than mere versions; the smaller satirical poems abound in wit and in happy

phrase; his two tragedies, _Baptistes_ and _Jephthes_, have enjoyed from

the first an undiminished European reputation for academic excellence. In

addition to the works already named, Buchanan wrote in prose _Chamaeleon_,

a satire in the vernacular against Maitland of Lethington, first printed in

1711; a Latin translation of Linacre's Grammar (Paris, 1533); _Libettus de

Prosodia_ (Edinburgh, 1640); and _Vita ab ipso scripta biennio ante mortem_

(1608), edited by R. Sibbald (1702). His other poems are _Fratres

Fraterrimi_, _Elegiae_, _Silvae_, two sets of verses entitled

_Hendecasyllabon Liber_ and _Iambon Liber_; three books of _Epigrammata_; a

book of miscellaneous verse; _De Sphaera_ (in five books), suggested by the

poem of Joannes de Sacrobosco, and intended as a defence of the Ptolemaic

theory against the new Copernican view.

There are two editions of Buchanan's works:--(a) _Georgii Buchanani Scoti,

Poetarum sui seculi facile principis, Opera Omnia_, in two vols. fol.,

edited by Ruddiman (Edinburgh, Freebairn, 1715); (b) edited by Burman, 4to,

1725. The _Vernacular Writings_, [v.04 p.0661] consisting of the

_Chamaeleon_ (_u.s._), a tract on the Reformation of St Andrews University,

_Ane Admonitioun to the Trew Lordis_, and two letters, were edited for the

Scottish Text Society by P. Hume Brown. The principal biographies

are:--David Irving, _Memoirs of the Life and Writings of George Buchanan_

(Edinburgh,1807 and 1817); P. Hume Brown, _George Buchanan, Humanist and

Reformer_ (Edinburgh, 1890), _George Buchanan and his Times_ (Edinburgh,

1906); Rev. D. Macmillan, _George Buchanan, a Biography_ (Edinburgh, 1906).

Buchanan's quatercentenary was celebrated at different centres in Scotland

in 1906, and was the occasion of several encomia and studies. The most

important of these are: _George Buchanan: Glasgow Quatercentenary Studies_

(Glasgow, 1906), and _George Buchanan, a Memoir_, edited by D.A. Millar (St

Andrews, 1907). A verse translation of the _Baptistes_, entitled

_Tyrannicall-Government Anatomized_ (1642), has been attributed to Milton;

its authorship is discussed in the _Glasgow Quatercentenary Studies_. The

records of Buchanan's trial, discovered by the Portuguese historian, G.J.C.

Henriques, were published by him under the title _George Buchanan in the

Lisbon Inquisition. The Records of his Trial, with a Translation thereof

into English, Facsimiles of some of the Papers, and an Introduction_

(Lisbon, 1906).

BUCHANAN, JAMES (1791-1868), fifteenth president of the United States, was

born near Foltz, Franklin county, Pennsylvania, on the 23rd of April 1791.

Both parents were of Scottish-Irish Presbyterian descent. He graduated at

Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, in 1809, studied law at

Lancaster in 1809-1812, and was admitted to the bar in 1812. He served in

the lower house of the state legislature in 1814-1816, and as a

representative in Congress from 1821 to 1831. As chairman of the judiciary

committee he conducted the impeachment trial (1830) of Judge James H. Peck,

led an unsuccessful movement to increase the number of Supreme Court judges

and to relieve them of their circuit duties, and succeeded in defeating an

attempt to repeal the twenty-fifth section of the Judiciary Act of 1789,

which gave the Supreme Court appellate jurisdiction by writ of error to the

state courts in cases where federal laws and treaties are in question.

After the dissolution of the Federalist party, of which he had been a

member, he supported the Jackson-Van Buren faction, and soon came to be

definitely associated with the Democrats. He represented the United States

at the court of St Petersburg in 1832-1833, and there negotiated an

important commercial treaty. He was a Democratic member of the United

States Senate from December 1834 until March 1845, ardently supporting

President Jackson, and was secretary of state in the cabinet of President

Polk from 1845 to 1849--a period marked by the annexation of Texas, the

Mexican War, and negotiations with Great Britain relative to the Oregon

question. After four years of retirement spent in the practice of his

profession, he was appointed by President Pierce minister to Great Britain

in 1853.

Up to this time Buchanan's attitude on the slavery question had been that

held by the conservative element among Northern Democrats. He felt that the

institution was morally wrong, but held that Congress could not interfere

with it in the states in which it existed, and ought not to hinder the

natural tendency toward territorial expansion through a fear that the evil

would spread. He voted for the bill to exclude anti-slavery literature from

the mails, approved of the annexation of Texas, the war with Mexico, and

the Compromise of 1850, and disapproved of the Wilmot Proviso. Fortunately

for his career he was abroad during the Kansas-Nebraska debates, and hence

did not share in the unpopularity which attached to Stephen A. Douglas as

the author of the bill, and to President Pierce as the executive who was

called upon to enforce it. At the same time, by joining with J.Y. Mason and

Pierre Soule in issuing the Ostend Manifesto in 1854, he retained the

good-will of the South.[1] Accordingly on his return from England in 1856

he was nominated by the Democrats as a compromise candidate for president,

and was elected, receiving 174 electoral votes to 114 for John C. Frémont,

Republican, and 8 for Millard Fillmore, American or "Know-Nothing."

His high moral character, the breadth of his legal knowledge, and his

experience as congressman, cabinet member and diplomat, would have made

Buchanan an excellent president in ordinary times; but he lacked the

soundness of judgment, the self-reliance and the moral courage needed to

face a crisis. At the beginning of his administration he appointed Robert

J. Walker of Mississippi, territorial governor of Kansas, and Frederick P.

Stanton of Tennessee, secretary, and assured them of his determination to

adhere to the popular sovereignty principle. He soon began to use his

influence, however, to force the admission of Kansas into the Union under

the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution, contrary to the wishes of the

majority of the settlers. Stanton was removed from office for opposing the

scheme, and Walker resigned in disgust. This change of policy was doubtless

the result of timidity rather than of a desire to secure re-election by

gaining the favour of the Southern Democracy. Under the influence of Howell

Cobb of Georgia, secretary of the treasury, and Jacob Thompson of

Mississippi, secretary of the interior, the president was convinced that it

was the only way to avoid civil war. Federal patronage was freely used to

advance the Lecompton measure and the compromise English Bill, and to

prevent Douglas's election to the Senate in 1858. Some of these facts were

brought out in the famous Covode Investigation conducted by a committee of

the House of Representatives in 1860. The investigations, however, were

very partisan in character, and there is reason to doubt the constitutional

power of the House to make it, except as the basis for an impeachment

trial.

The call issued by the South Carolina legislature just after the election

of Lincoln for a state convention to decide upon the advisability of

secession brought forward the most serious question of Buchanan's

administration. The part of his annual message of the 4th of December 1860

dealing with it is based upon a report prepared by Attorney-General

Jeremiah S. Black of Pennsylvania. He argued that a state had no legal

right to secede, but denied that the federal government had any power

forcibly to prevent it. At the same time it was the duty of the president

to call out the army and navy of the United States to protect federal

property or to enforce federal laws. Soon after the secession movement

began the Southern members of the cabinet resigned, and the president

gradually came under the influence of Black, Stanton, Dix, and other

Northern leaders. He continued, however, to work for a peaceful settlement,

supporting the Crittenden Compromise and the work of the Peace Congress. He

disapproved of Major Anderson's removal of his troops from Fort Moultrie to

Fort Sumter in December 1860; but there is probably no basis for the charge

made by Southern writers that the removal itself was in violation of a

pledge given by the president to preserve the _status quo_ in Charleston

harbour until the arrival of the South Carolina commissioners in

Washington. Equally unfounded is the assertion first made by Thurlow Weed

in the London _Observer_ (9th of February 1862) that the president was

prevented from ordering Anderson back to Fort Moultrie only by the threat

of four members of the cabinet to resign.

[v.04 p.0662]

On the expiration of his term of office (March 4, 1861) Buchanan retired to

his home at Wheatland, near Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where he died on the

1st of June 1868. His mistakes as president have been so emphasized as to

obscure the fact that he was a man of unimpeachable honesty, of the highest

patriotism, and of considerable ability. He never married.

See George Ticknor Curtis, _The Life of James Buchanan_ (2 vols., New York,

1883), the standard biography; Curtis, however, was a close personal and

political friend, and his work is too eulogistic. More trustworthy, but at

times unduly severe, is the account given by James Ford Rhodes in the first

two volumes of his _History of the United States since the Compromise of

1850_ (New York, new edition, 1902-1907). John Bassett Moore has edited

_The Works of James Buchanan, comprising his Speeches, State Papers, and

Private Correspondence_ (Philadelphia, 1908-1910).

[1] This "manifesto," which was bitterly attacked in the North, was agreed

upon (October 18, 1854) by the three ministers after several meetings at

Ostend and at Aix-la-Chapelle, arranged in pursuance of instructions to

them from President Pierce to "compare opinions, and to adopt measures for

perfect concert of action in aid of the negotiations at Madrid" on the

subject of reparations demanded from Spain by the United States for alleged

injuries to American commerce with Cuba. In the manifesto the three

ministers asserted that "from the peculiarity of its geographical position,

and the considerations attendant upon it, Cuba is as necessary to the North

American republic as any of its present members"; spoke of the danger to

the United States of an insurrection in Cuba; asserted that "we should be

recreant to our duty, be unworthy of our gallant forefathers, and commit

base treason against our posterity, should we permit Cuba to be Africanized

and become a second Santo Domingo, with all its attendant horrors to the

white race, and suffer the flames to extend to our own neighboring shores,

seriously to endanger or actually destroy the fair fabric of our Union";

and recommended that "the United States ought, if practicable, to purchase

Cuba as soon as possible." To Spain, they argued, the sale of the island

would be a great advantage. The most startling declaration of the manifesto

was that if Spain should refuse to sell "after we shall have offered a

price for Cuba far beyond its present value," and if Cuba, in the

possession of Spain, should seriously endanger "our internal peace and the

existence of our cherished Union," then "by every law, human and divine, we

shall be justified in wresting it from Spain if we have the power."

BUCHANAN, ROBERT WILLIAMS (1841-1901), British poet, novelist and

dramatist, son of Robert Buchanan (1813-1866), Owenite lecturer and

journalist, was born at Caverswall, Staffordshire, on the 18th of August

1841. His father, a native of Ayr, after living for some years in

Manchester, removed to Glasgow, where Buchanan was educated, at the high

school and the university, one of his fellow-students being the poet David

Gray. His essay on Gray, originally contributed to the _Cornhill Magazine_,

tells the story of their close friendship, and of their journey to London

in 1860 in search of fame. After a period of struggle and disappointment

Buchanan published _Undertones_ in 1863. This "tentative" volume was

followed by _Idyls and Legends of Inverburn_ (1865), _London Poems_ (1866),

and _North Coast and other Poems_ (1868), wherein he displayed a faculty

for poetic narrative, and a sympathetic insight into the humbler conditions

of life. On the whole, Buchanan is at his best in these narrative poems,

though he essayed a more ambitious flight in _The Book of Orm: A Prelude to

the Epic_, a study in mysticism, which appeared in 1870. He was a frequent

contributor to periodical literature, and obtained notoriety by an article

which, under the _nom de plume_ of Thomas Maitland, he contributed to the

_Contemporary Review_ for October 1871, entitled "The Fleshly School of

Poetry." This article was expanded into a pamphlet (1872), but he

subsequently withdrew from the criticisms it contained, and it is chiefly

remembered by the replies it evoked from D.G. Rossetti in a letter to the

_Athenaeum_ (16th December 1871), entitled "The Stealthy School of

Criticism," and from Mr Swinburne in _Under the Microscope_ (1872).

Buchanan himself afterwards regretted the violence of his attack, and the

"old enemy" to whom _God and the Man_ is dedicated was Rossetti. In 1876

appeared _The Shadow of the Sword_, the first and one of the best of a long

series of novels. Buchanan was also the author of many successful plays,

among which may be mentioned _Lady Clare_, produced in 1883; _Sophia_

(1886), an adaptation of _Tom Jones; A Man's Shadow_ (1890); and _The

Charlatan_ (1894). He also wrote, in collaboration with Harriett Jay, the

melodrama _Alone in London_. In 1896 he became, so far as some of his work

was concerned, his own publisher. In the autumn of 1900 he had a paralytic

seizure, from which he never recovered. He died at Streatham on the 10th of

June 1901.

Buchanan's poems were collected into three volumes in 1874, into one volume

in 1884; and as _Complete Poetical Works_ (2 vols., 1901). Among his poems

should also be mentioned: "The Drama of Kings" (1871); "St Abe and his

Seven Wives," a lively tale of Salt Lake City, published anonymously in

1872; and "Balder the Beautiful" (1877); "The City of Dream" (1888); "The

Outcast: a Rhyme for the Time" (1891); and "The Wandering Jew" (1893). His

earlier novels, _The Shadow of the Sword_, and _God and the Man_ (1881), a

striking tale of a family feud, are distinguished by a certain breadth and

simplicity of treatment which is not so noticeable in their successors,

among which may be mentioned _The Martyrdom of Madeline_ (1882); _Foxglove

Manor_ (1885); _Effie Hetherington_ (1896); and _Father Anthony_ (1898).

_David Gray and other Essays, chiefly on Poetry_ (1868); _Master Spirits_

(1873); _A Poet's Sketch Book_ (1883), in which the interesting essay on

Gray is reprinted; and _A Look round Literature_ (1887), contain Buchanan's

chief contributions to periodical literature. More valuable is _The Land of

Lorne_ (2 vols., 1871), a vivid record of yachting experiences on the west

coast of Scotland.

See also Harriett Jay, _Robert Buchanan; some Account of his Life_ (1903).

BUCHAREST (_Bucuresci_), also written Bucarest, Bukarest, Bukharest,

Bukorest and Bukhorest, the capital of Rumania, and chief town of the

department of Ilfov. Although _Bucharest_ is the conventional English

spelling, the forms _Bucarest_ and _Bukarest_ more nearly represent the

correct pronunciation. The population in 1900 was 282,071, including 43,274

Jews, and 53,056 aliens, mostly Austro-Hungarian subjects. With its

outlying parts, Bucharest covers more than 20 sq. m. It lies in a hollow,

traversed from north-west to south-east by the river Dimbovitza

(_Dâmbovita_ or _Dîmbovita_), and is built mainly on the left bank. A range

of low hills affords shelter on the west and south-west; but on every other

side there are drained, though still unhealthy, marshes, stretching away to

meet the central Walachian plains. From a distance, the multitude of its

gardens, and the turrets and metal-plated or gilded cupolas of its many

churches give Bucharest a certain picturesqueness. In a few of the older

districts, too, where land is least valuable, there are antique

one-storeyed houses, surrounded by poplars and acacias; while the gipsies

and Rumans, wearing their brightly coloured native costumes, the Russian

coachmen, or sleigh-drivers, of the banished Lipovan sect, and the pedlars,

with their doleful street cries, render Bucharest unlike any western

capital. Nevertheless, the city is modern. Until about 1860, indeed, the

dimly lit lanes were paved with rough stone blocks, imbedded in the clay

soil, which often subsided, so as to leave the surface undulating like a

sea. Drains were rare, epidemics common. Owing to the frequency of

earthquakes, many houses were built of wood, and in 1847 fully a quarter of

the city was laid waste by fire. The plague visited Bucharest in 1718,

1738, 1793, when an earthquake destroyed a number of old buildings, and in

1813, when 70,000 of the inhabitants died in six weeks. From the accession

of Prince Charles, in 1866, a gradual reform began. The river was enclosed

between stone embankments; sewerage and pure water were supplied, gas and

electric light installed; and horse or electric tramways laid down in the

principal thoroughfares, which were paved with granite or wood. The older

houses are of brick, overlaid with white or tinted plaster, and ornamented

with figures or foliage in terra-cotta; but owing to the great changes of

temperature in Rumania, the plaster soon cracks and peels off, giving a

dilapidated appearance to many streets. The chief modern buildings, such as

the Athenaeum, with its Ionic façade and Byzantine dome, are principally on

the quays and boulevards, and are constructed of stone.

Bucharest is often called "The Paris of the East," partly from a supposed

social resemblance, partly from the number of its boulevards and avenues.

Three main thoroughfares, the Plevna, Lipscani, and Vacaresci, skirt the

left bank of the river; the Elizabeth Boulevard, and the Calea Victoriei,

or "Avenue of Victory," which commemorates the Rumanian success at Plevna,

in 1877, radiate east and north, respectively, from the Lipscani, and meet

a broad road which surrounds all sides of Bucharest, except the north-west.

The Lipscani was originally the street of merchants who obtained their

wares from the annual fair at Leipzig; for almost all crafts or gilds,

other than the bakers and tavern-keepers, were long confined to separate

quarters; and the old names have survived, as in the musicians', furriers',

and money-changers' quarters. Continuous with the Calea Victoriei, on the

north, is the Kisilev Park, traversed by the Chausée, a favourite drive,

leading to the pretty Baneasa race-course, where spring and autumn meetings

are held. The Cismegiu or Cismigiu Park, which has a circumference of about

1 m., is laid out between the Plevna road and the Calea Victoriei; and

there are botanical and zoological gardens.

The Orthodox Greek churches are generally small, with very narrow windows,

and are built of brick in a modified Byzantine style. They are usually

surmounted by two or three towers, but the bells are hung in a kind of

wooden porch, resembling a [v.04 p.0663] lych-gate, and standing about

twenty paces from the church. The cathedral, or metropolitan church, where

the metropolitan primate of Rumania officiates, was built between 1656 and

1665. It has the shape of a Greek cross, surrounded by a broad cloister,

with four main entrances, each surmounted by a turret. The whole culminates

in three brick towers. Standing on high ground, the cathedral overlooks all

Bucharest, and commands a view of the Carpathians. Other interesting

churches are St Spiridion the New (1768), the loftiest and most beautiful

of all; the Doamna Balasa (1751), noteworthy for its rich carved work

without, and frescoes within; and the ancient Biserica Bucur, said, in

local traditions, to derive its name from Bucur, a shepherd whom legend

makes the founder of Bucharest. The real founder and date of this church,

and of many others, are unknown, thanks to the frequent obliteration of

Slavonic inscriptions by the Greek clergy. The Protestants, Armenians and

Lipovans worship in their own churches, and the Jews have several

synagogues. Bucharest is also the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop; but

the Roman Catholics, though numbering nearly 37,000 in 1899, possess only

three churches, including the cathedral of St Joseph.

Bucharest is a great educational centre. Besides the ordinary

ecclesiastical seminaries, lyceums, gymnasia and elementary schools, it

possesses schools of commerce, science and art institutes, and training

colleges, for engineers and veterinary surgeons; while the university,

founded in 1864, has faculties of theology, philosophy, literature, law,

science, medicine and pharmacy. Students pay no fees except for board. The

national library, containing many precious Oriental documents, and the

meeting-hall of the Rumanian senate, are both included in the university

buildings, which, with the Athenaeum (used for literary conferences and for

music), and the central girls' school, are regarded as the best example of

modern Rumanian architecture. Other libraries are those of the Nifon

seminary, of the Charles University Foundation (_Fundatiunea universitara

Carol_), which endows research, and rewards literary or scientific merit;

the central library, and the library of the Academy, which also contains a

museum of natural history and antiquities. Among philanthropic institutions

may be mentioned the Coltei, Brancovan, Maternitate, Philantropia and

Pantelimon hospitals; the Marcutza lunatic asylum; and the Princess Elena

refuge (_Asilul Elena Doamna_), founded by Princess Elena Couza in 1862, to

provide for 230 orphan girls. The summer home of these girls is a convent

in the Transylvanian Alps. Hotels and restaurants are numerous. There are

two theatres, the National and the Lyric, which is mainly patronized by

foreign players; but minor places of amusement abound; as also do

clubs--political, social and sporting. Socially, indeed, the progress of

Bucharest is remarkable, its political, literary and scientific circles

being on a level with those of most European capitals.

Bucharest is the winter residence of the royal family, the meeting-place of

parliament, and the seat of an appeal court (_Curtea de Apel_), of the

supreme court (_Curtea de Casatie_), of the ministries, the national bank,

the bank of Rumania, many lesser credit establishments, and a chamber of

commerce. The railway lines which meet on the western limit of the city

give access to all parts, and the telephone system, besides being

internally complete, communicates with Braila, Galatz, Jassy and Sinaia.

Bucharest has a very large transit trade in petroleum, timber and

agricultural produce; above all, in wheat and maize. Its industries include

petroleum-refining, extraction of vegetable oils, cabinet-making,

brandy-distilling, tanning, and the manufacture of machinery, wire, nails,

metal-ware, cement, soap, candles, paste, starch, paper, cardboard, pearl

buttons, textiles, leather goods, ropes, glucose, army supplies, preserved

meat and vegetables, and confectionery. An important fair is held for seven

days in each year. The mercantile community is largely composed of

Austrians, Frenchmen, Germans, Greeks and Swiss, who form exclusive

colonies. Bucharest is the headquarters of the II. army corps, and a

fortress of the first rank. The fortifications were constructed in

1885-1896 on a project drafted by the Belgian engineer, General Brialmont,

in 1883. The mean distance of the forts from the city is 4 m., and the

perimeter of the defences (which are technically of special importance as

embodying the system of Brialmont) is about 48 m., this perimeter being

defended by 36 armoured forts and batteries. There are barracks for over

30,000 cavalry and infantry, an arsenal, a military hospital and three

military academies.

The legend of Bucur is plainly unhistorical, and the meaning of _Bucharest_

has been much disputed. One account derives it from an Albanian word

_Bukur_, meaning joy, in memory of a victory won by Prince Mircea of

Walachia (c. 1383-1419) over the Turks. For this reason Bucharest is often

called "The City of Joy". Like most ancient cities of Rumania, its

foundation has also been ascribed to the first Walachian prince, the

half-mythical Radu Negru (c. 1290-1314). More modern historians declare

that it was originally a fortress, erected on the site of the Daco-Roman

Thyanus, to command the approaches to Tîrgovishtea, formerly the capital of

Walachia. It soon became the summer residence of the court. In 1595 it was

burned by the Turks; but, after its restoration, continued to grow in size

and prosperity, until, in 1698, Prince Constantine Brancovan chose it for

his capital. During the 18th century the possession of Bucharest was

frequently disputed by the Turks, Austrians and Russians. In 1812 it gave

its name to the treaty by which Bessarabia and a third of Moldavia were

ceded to Russia. In the war of 1828 it was occupied by the Russians, who

made it over to the prince of Walachia in the following year. A rebellion

against Prince Bibescu in 1848 brought both Turkish and Russian

interference, and the city was again held by Russian troops in 1853-1854.

On their departure an Austrian garrison took possession and remained till

March 1857. In 1858 the international congress for the organization of the

Danubian principalities was held in the city; and when, in 1861, the union

of Walachia and Moldavia was proclaimed, Bucharest became the Rumanian

capital. Prince Cuza, the first ruler of the united provinces, was driven

from his throne by an insurrection in Bucharest in 1866. For the subsequent

history of the city see RUMANIA: _History_.

BÜCHELER, FRANZ (1837-1908), German classical scholar, was born in

Rheinberg on the 3rd of June 1837, and educated at Bonn. He held

professorships successively at Freiburg (1858), Greifswald (1866), and Bonn

(1870), and in 1878 became joint-editor of the _Rheinisches Museum für

Philologie_. Both as a teacher and as a commentator he was extremely

successful. Among his editions are: _Frontini de aquis urbis Romae_

(Leipzig, 1858); _Pervigilium Veneris_ (Leipzig, 1859); _Petronii satirarum

reliquiae_ (Berlin, 1862; 3rd ed., 1882); _Hymnus Cereris Homericus_

(Leipzig, 1869); _Q. Ciceronis reliquiae_ (1869); _Herondae mimiambi_

(Bonn, 1892). He wrote also _Grundriss der lateinischen Deklination_

(1866); _Das Recht von Gortyn_ (Frankfort, 1885, with Zitelmann); and

supervised the third edition (1893) of O. Jahn's _Persii, Juvenalis,

Sulpiciae saturae_.

BUCHER, LOTHAR (1817-1892), German publicist, was born on the 25th of

October 1817 at Neu Stettin, in Pomerania, his father being master at a

gymnasium. After studying at the university of Berlin he adopted the legal

profession. Elected a member of the National Assembly in Berlin in 1848, he

was an active leader of the extreme democratic party. With others of his

colleagues he was in 1850 brought to trial for having taken part in

organizing a movement for refusal to pay taxes; he was condemned to fifteen

months' imprisonment in a fortress, but left the country before the

sentence was executed. For ten years he lived in exile, chiefly in London;

he acted as special correspondent of the _National Zeitung_, and gained a

great knowledge of English life; and he published a work, _Der

Parliamentarismus wie er ist_, a criticism of parliamentary government,

which shows a marked change in his political opinions. In 1860 he returned

to Germany, and became intimate with Lassalle, who made him his literary

executor. In 1864 he was offered by Bismarck, and accepted, a high position

in the Prussian foreign office. The reasons that led him to a step which

involved so complete a break with his earlier friends and associations are

not clearly known. From this time till his death he acted as Bismarck's

secretary, and was the man who probably enjoyed the greatest [v.04 p.0664]

amount of his confidence. It was he who drew up the text of the

constitution of the North German Confederation; in 1870 he was sent on a

very confidential mission to Spain in connexion with the Hohenzollern

candidature for the Spanish crown; he assisted Bismarck at the final

negotiations for the treaty of Frankfort, and was one of the secretaries to

the congress of Berlin; he also assisted Bismarck in the composition of his

memoirs. Bucher, who was a man of great ability, had considerable

influence, which was especially directed against the economic doctrines of

the Liberals; in 1881 he published a pamphlet criticizing the influence and

principles of the Cobden Club. He identified himself completely with

Bismarck's later commercial and colonial policy, and probably had much to

do with introducing it, and he did much to encourage anti-British feeling

in Germany. He died at Glion, in Switzerland, on the 12th of October 1892.

See Heinrich v. Poschinger, _Ein 48er: Lothar Buchers Leben und Werke_ (3

vols., Berlin, 1890); Busch, _Bismarck: Some Secret Pages of his History_

(London, 1898).

(J. W. HE.)

BUCHEZ, PHILIPPE JOSEPH BENJAMIN (1796-1865), French author and politician,

was born on the 31st of March 1796 at Matagne-la-Petite, now in Belgium,

then in the French department of the Ardennes. He finished his general

education in Paris, and afterwards applied himself to the study of natural

science and medicine. In 1821 he co-operated with Saint-Amand Bazard and

others in founding a secret association, modelled on that of the Italian

Carbonari, with the object of organizing a general armed rising against the

government. The organization spread rapidly and widely, and displayed

itself in repeated attempts at revolution. In one of these attempts, the

affair at Belfort, Buchez was gravely compromised, although the jury which

tried him did not find the evidence sufficient to warrant his condemnation.

In 1825 he graduated in medicine, and soon after he published with Ulisse

Trélat a _Précis élémentaire d'hygiène_. About the same time he became a

member of the Saint-Simonian Society, presided over by Bazard, Barthélemy

Prosper Enfantin, and Olinde Rodrigues, and contributed to its organ, the

_Producteur_. He left it in consequence of aversion to the strange

religious ideas developed by its "Supreme Father," Enfantin, and began to

elaborate what he regarded as a Christian socialism. For the exposition and

advocacy of his principles he founded a periodical called _L'Européen_. In

1833 he published an _Introduction à la science de l'histoire_, which was

received with considerable favour (2nd ed., improved and enlarged, 2 vols.,

1842). Notwithstanding its prolixity, this is an interesting work. The part

which treats of the aim, foundation and methods of the science of history

is valuable; but what is most distinctive in Buchez's theory--the division

of historical development into four great epochs originated by four

universal revelations, of each epoch into three periods corresponding to

desire, reasoning and performance, and of each of these periods into a

theoretical and practical age--is merely ingenious (see Flint's _Philosophy

of History in Europe_, i. 242-252). Buchez next edited, along with M.

Roux-Lavergne (1802-1874), the _Histoire parlementaire de la Révolution

française_ (1833-1838; 40 vols.). This vast and conscientious publication

is a valuable store of material for the early periods of the first French

Revolution. There is a review of it by Carlyle (_Miscellanies_), the first

two parts of whose own history of the French Revolution are mainly drawn

from it. The editors worked under the inspiration of a strong admiration of

the principles of Robespierre and the Jacobins, and in the belief that the

French Revolution was an attempt to realize Christianity. In the _Essai

d'un traité complet de philosophie au point de vue du Catholicisme et du

progrès_ (1839-1840) Buchez endeavoured to co-ordinate in a single system

the political, moral, religious and natural phenomena of existence. Denying

the possibility of innate ideas, he asserted that morality comes by

revelation, and is therefore not only certain, but the only real certainty.

It was partly owing to the reputation which he had acquired by these

publications, but still more owing to his connexion with the _National_

newspaper, and with the secret societies hostile to the government of Louis

Philippe, that he was raised, by the Revolution of 1848, to the presidency

of the Constituent Assembly. He speedily showed that he was not possessed

of the qualities needed in a situation so difficult and in days so

tempestuous. He retained the position only for a very short time. After the

dissolution of the assembly he was not re-elected. Thrown back into private

life, he resumed his studies, and added several works to those which have

been already mentioned. A _Traité de politique_ (published 1866), which may

be considered as the completion of his _Traité de philosophie_, was the

most important of the productions of the last period of his life. His

brochures are very numerous and on a great variety of subjects, medical,

historical, political, philosophical, &c. He died on the 12th of August

1865. He found a disciple of considerable ability in M.A. Ott, who

advocated and applied his principles in various writings.

See also A. Ott, "P.B.J. Buchez," in _Journal des économistes_ for 1865.

BUCHHOLZ, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 1700 ft. above the

sea, on the Sehma, 18 m. S. by E. of Chemnitz by rail. Pop. (1905) 9307. It

has a Gothic Evangelical church and monuments of Frederick the Wise of

Saxony, and Bismarck. There is a school for instruction in lace-making, an

industry dating from 1589, which still forms the chief employment of the

inhabitants.

BÜCHNER, FRIEDRICH KARL CHRISTIAN LUDWIG (1824-1899), German philosopher

and physician, was born at Darmstadt. He studied at Giessen, Strassburg,

Würzburg and Vienna. In 1852 he became lecturer in medicine at the

university of Tübingen, where he published his great work _Kraft und Stoff_

(1855). In this work, the product, according to Lange, of a fanatical

enthusiasm for humanity, he sought to demonstrate the indestructibility of

matter and force, and the finality of physical force. The extreme

materialism of this work excited so much opposition that he was compelled

to give up his post at Tübingen. He retired to Darmstadt, where he

practised as a physician and contributed regularly to pathological and

physiological magazines. He continued his philosophical work in defence of

materialism, and published _Natur und Geist_ (1857), _Aus Natur und

Wissenschaft_ (vol. i., 1862; vol. ii., 1884), _Fremdes und Eigenes aus dem

geistigen Leben der Gegenwart_ (1890), _Darwinismus und Socialismus_

(1894), _Im Dienste der Wahrheit_ (1899). He died at Darmstadt on the 1st

of May 1899. In estimating Büchner's philosophy it must be remembered that

he was primarily a physiologist, not a metaphysician. Matter and force (or

energy) are infinite; the conservation of force follows from the

imperishability of matter, the ultimate basis of all science. Büchner is

not always clear in his theory of the relation between matter and force. At

one time he refuses to explain it, but generally he assumes that all

natural and spiritual forces are indwelling in matter. "Just as a

steam-engine," he says in _Kraft und Stoff_ (7th ed., p. 130), "produces

motion, so the intricate organic complex of force-bearing substance in an

animal organism produces a total sum of certain effects, which, when bound

together in a unity, are called by us mind, soul, thought." Here he

postulates force and mind as emanating from original matter--a

materialistic monism. But in other parts of his works he suggests that mind

and matter are two different aspects of that which is the basis of all

things--a monism which is not necessarily materialistic, and which, in the

absence of further explanation, constitutes a confession of failure.

Büchner was much less concerned to establish a scientific metaphysic than

to protest against the romantic idealism of his predecessors and the

theological interpretations of the universe. Nature according to him is

purely physical; it has no purpose, no will, no laws imposed by extraneous

authority, no supernatural ethical sanction.

See Frauenstädt, _Der Materialismus_ (Leipzig, 1856); Janet, _The

Materialism of the Present Day: A Criticism of Dr Büchner's System_, trans.

Masson (London, 1867).

BUCHON, JEAN ALEXANDRE (1791-1849), French scholar, was born on the 21st of

May 1791 at Menetou-Salon (Cher), and died on the 29th of August 1849. An

ardent Liberal, he took an active part in party struggles under the

Restoration, while [v.04 p.0665] throwing himself with equal vigour into

the great work of historical regeneration which was going on at that

period. During 1822 and the succeeding years he travelled about Europe on

the search for materials for his _Collection des chroniques nationales

françaises écrites en langue vulgaire du XIII^e au XVI^e siècle_ (47 vols.,

1824-1829). After the revolution of 1830 he founded the _Panthéon

litteraire_, in which he published a _Choix d'ouvrages mystiques_ (1843), a

_Choix de monuments primitifs de l'église chrétienne_ (1837), a _Choix des

historiens grecs_ (1837), a collection of _Chroniques étrangères relatives

aux expéditions françaises pendant le XIII^e siècle_ (1840), and, most

important of all, a _Choix de chroniques et mémoires sur l'histoire de

France_ (1836-1841). His travels in southern Italy and in the East had put

him upon the track of the medieval French settlements in those regions, and

to this subject he devoted several important works: _Recherches et

matériaux pour servir a une histoire de la domination française dans les

provinces démembrées de l'empire grec_ (1840); _Nouvelles recherches

historiques sur la principauté française de Morée et ses hautes baronnies_

(2 vols., 1843-1844); _Histoire des conquêtes et de l'établissement des

Français dans les états de l'ancienne Grèce sous es Villehardouin_ (1846,

unfinished). None of the numerous publications which we owe to Buchon can

be described as thoroughly scholarly; but they have been of great service

to history, and those concerning the East have in especial the value of

original research.

BUCHU, or BUKA LEAVES, the produce of several shrubby plants belonging to

the genus Barosma (nat. order Rutaceae), natives of the Cape of Good Hope.

The principal species, _B. crenulata_, has leaves of a smooth leathery

texture, oblong-ovate in shape, from an inch to an inch and a half in

length, with serrulate or crenulate margins, on which as well as on the

under side are conspicuous oil-glands. The other species which yield buchu

are _B. serratifolia_, having linear-lanceolate sharply serrulate leaves,

and _B. betulina_, the leaves of which are cuneate-obovate, with

denticulate margins. They are all, as found in commerce, of a pale

yellow-green colour; they emit a peculiar aromatic odour, and have a

slightly astringent bitter taste. Buchu leaves contain a volatile oil,

which is of a dark yellow colour, and deposits a form of camphor on

exposure to air, a liquid hydro-carbon being the solvent of the camphor

within the oil-glands. There is also present a minute quantity of a bitter

principle. The leaves of a closely allied plant, _Empleurum serratulum_,

are employed as a substitute or adulterant for buchu. As these possess no

glands they are a worthless substitute. The British Pharmacopoeia contains

an infusion and tincture of buchu. The former may be given in doses of an

ounce and the latter in doses of a drachm. The drug has the properties

common to all substances that contain a volatile oil. The infusion contains

very little of the oil and is of very slight value. Until the advent of the

modern synthetic products buchu was valued in diseases of the urinary

tract, but its use is now practically obsolete.

BUCK, CARL DARLING (1866- ), American philologist, was born on the 2nd of

October 1866, at Bucksport, Maine. He graduated at Yale in 1886, was a

graduate student there for three years, and studied at the American School

of Classical Studies in Athens (1887-1889) and in Leipzig (1889-1892). In

1892 he became professor of Sanskrit and Indo-European comparative

philology in the University of Chicago; but it is in the narrower field of

the Italic dialects that his important work lies, including _Der Vocalismus

der oskischen Sprache_ (1892), _The Oscan-Umbrian Verb-System_ (1895), and

_Grammar of Oscan and Umbrian_ (1904), as well as an excellent _précis_ of

the Italic languages in _Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia_. He collaborated

with W.G. Hale (_q.v._) in the preparation of _A Latin Grammar_ (1903). Of

his contributions to reviews on phonological topics, perhaps the most

important is his discussion of "Brugmann's Law."

BUCK, DUDLEY (1839-1909), American musical composer, was born in Hartford,

Connecticut, on the 10th of March 1839, the son of a merchant who gave him

every opportunity for cultivating his musical talents; and for four years

(1858-1862) he studied at Leipzig, Dresden and Paris. On returning to

America he held the position of organist at Hartford, Chicago (1869), and

Boston (1871). In 1875 he went to New York to assist Theodore Thomas as

conductor of the orchestral concerts, and from 1877 to 1903 was organist at

Holy Trinity church. Meanwhile he had become well known as a composer of

church music, a number of cantatas (_Columbus_, 1876; _Golden Legend_,

1880; _Light of Asia_, 1885, &c), a grand opera, _Serapis_, a comic opera,

_Deseret_ (1880), a symphonic overture, _Marmion_, a symphony in E flat,

and other orchestral and vocal works. He died on the 6th of October 1909.

BUCK, (1) (From the O. Eng. _buc_, a he-goat, and _bucca_, a male deer),

the male of several animals, of goats, hares and rabbits, and particularly

of the fallow-deer. During the 18th century the word was used of a

spirited, reckless young man of fashion, and later, with particular

reference to extravagance in dress, of a dandy. (2) (From a root common to

Teutonic and Romance languages, cf. the Ger. _Bauch_, Fr. _buée_, and Ital.

_bucata_), the bleaching of clothes in lye, also the lye itself, and the

clothes to be bleached, so a "buck-basket" means a basket of clothes ready

for the wash. (3) Either from an obsolete word meaning "body," or from the

sense of bouncing or jumping, derived from (1), a word now only found in

compound words, as "buck-board," a light four-wheeled vehicle, the

primitive form of which has one or more seats on a springy board, joining

the front and rear axles and serving both as springs and body; a

"buck-wagon" (Dutch, _bok-wagen_) is a South African cart with a frame

projecting over the wheels, used for the transport of heavy loads. (4)

(Either from "buck" a he-goat, or from a common Teutonic root, to bend, as

seen in the Ger. _bücken_, and Eng. "bow"), a verb meaning "to leap"; seen

especially in the compound "buck-jumper," a horse which leaps clear off the

ground, with feet tucked together and arched back, descending with

fore-feet rigid and head down and drawn inwards.

BUCK-BEAN, or BOG-BEAN (_Menyanthes trifoliata_, a member of the Gentian

family), a bog-plant with a creeping stem, alternately arranged large

leaves each with three leaflets, and spikes of white or pink flowers. The

stout stem is bitter and has tonic and febrifuge properties. The plant is

widely distributed through the north temperate zone.

BÜCKEBURG, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of

Schaumburg-Lippe, pleasantly situated at the foot of the Harrelberg on the

river Aue, 6 m. from Minden, on the main railway from Cologne to Berlin.

Pop. 6000. It has a palace standing in extensive grounds, a gymnasium, a

normal seminary, a library, a synagogue, and three churches, one of which

has the appropriate inscription, _Religionis non structurae exemplum_. The

first houses of Bückeburg began to gather round the castle about 1365; and

it was not till the 17th century that the town was surrounded with walls,

which have given place to a ring of pretty promenades. The poet J.G. von

Herder was court preacher here from 1771 to 1776.

BUCKERIDGE, JOHN (c. 1562-1631), English divine, was a son of William

Buckeridge, and was educated at the Merchant Taylors school and at St

John's College, Oxford. He became a fellow of his college, and acted as

tutor to William Laud, whose opinions were perhaps shaped by him. Leaving

Oxford, Buckeridge held several livings, and was highly esteemed by King

James I., whose chaplain he became. In 1605 he was elected president of St

John's College, a position which he vacated on being made bishop of

Rochester in 1611. He was transferred to the bishopric of Ely in 1628, and

died on the 23rd of May 1631. The bishop won some fame as a theologian and

a controversialist. Among his intimate friends was Bishop Lancelot

Andrewes, whose "Ninety-one Sermons" were published by Laud and Buckeridge

in 1629.

BUCKETSHOP, a slang financial term for the office or business of an

inferior class of stockbroker, who is not a member of an official exchange

and conducts speculative operations for his clients, who deposit a margin

or cover. The operations consist, as a rule, of a simple bet or wager

between the broker and client, no pretence of an actual purchase or sale

being attempted. The term is sometimes, though loosely and wrongfully,

applied to [v.04 p.0666] all stockbrokers who are not members of the

recognized local exchange. The origin of the word is American. According to

the _New English Dictionary_ it is supposed to have arisen in Chicago. The

Board of Trade there forbade dealings in "options" in grain of less than

5000 bushels. An "Open Board of Trade" or unauthorized exchange was opened,

for the purpose of small gamblers, in a neighbouring street below the rooms

of the Board of Trade. The lift used by members of the Board of Trade would

be sent down to bring up from the open Board what was known as a

"bucketful" of the smaller speculators, when business was slack.

BUCKHOLDT [properly BEUKELSZ, or BOCKELSZOON], JOHANN (c. 1508-1535), Dutch

Anabaptist fanatic, better known as JOHN OF LEIDEN, from his place of

birth, was the illegitimate son of Bockel, burgomaster of Soevenhagen, who

afterwards married his mother. He was born about 1508, apprenticed to a

tailor, became infected with the opinions of Thomas Münzer, travelled in

pursuit of his trade (being four years in London), married a widow, became

bankrupt, and in September 1533 joined the Anabaptist movement under Johann

Matthysz (Matthyszoon), baker of Haarlem. He had little education, but some

literary faculty, and had written plays. On the 13th of January 1534 he

appeared in Münster as an apostle of Matthysz. Good-looking and fluent, he

fascinated women, and won the confidence of Bernard Knipperdollinck, a

revolutionary cloth merchant, who gave him his daughter in marriage. The

Münster Anabaptists took up arms on the 9th of February 1534 (see

ANABAPTISTS). On the death of Matthysz (1534), Buckholdt succeeded him as

prophet, added his widow to the number of his wives, and organized a new

constitution for Münster, with twelve elders (suggested by the tribes of

Israel) and other officers of a theocracy, but soon superseded these,

making himself king of the new Zion. His arbitrary rule was marked by pomp

and severity. Münster was retaken (June 25, 1535) by its prince-bishop,

Franz von Waldeck. Buckholdt, after many indignities, was cruelly executed

on the 22nd of January 1536; his body, and those of his companions, were

hung in cages to the tower of the Lamberti church. His portrait is in

_Grouwelen der Hooftketteren_ (Leiden, 1607; an English edition is appended

to Alexander Ross's _Pansebeia_, 2nd ed., 1655); a better example of the

same is given by Arend.

See Arend, _Algemeene Geschiedenis des Vaderlands_ (1846), ii., iii., 629;

Van der Aa, _Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden_ (1853); E. Belfort

Bax, _Rise and Fail of the Anabaptists_ (1903).

(A. GO.*)

BUCKIE, a fishing town and police burgh of Banffshire, Scotland, on the

Moray Firth, at the mouth of Buckie burn, about 17 m. W. of Banff, with a

station on the Great North of Scotland railway. Pop. (1891) 5849; (1901)

6549. Its public buildings include a hall and literary institute with

library and recreation rooms. It attracts one of the largest Scottish

fleets in the herring season, and is also the chief seat of line fishing in

Scotland. The harbour, with an outer and an inner basin, covers an area of

9 acres and has half a mile of quayage. Besides the fisheries, there are

engineering works, distilleries, and works for the making of ropes, sails

and oil. The burn, which divides the town into Nether Buckie and Eastern

Buckie, rises near the Hill of Clashmadin, about 5 m. to the south-west.

Portgordon, 1½ m. west of Buckie, is a thriving fishing village, and

Rathven, some 2 m. east, lies in a fertile district, where there are

several interesting Danish cairns and other relics of the remote past.

BUCKINGHAM, EARLS, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF. The origin of the earldom of

Buckingham (to be distinguished from that of Buckinghamshire, _q.v._) is

obscure. According to Mr J.H. Round (in G.E.C.'s _Peerage_, _s.v._) there

is some charter evidence for its existence under William Rufus; but the

main evidence for reckoning Walter Giffard, lord of Longueville in

Normandy, who held forty-eight lordships in the county, as the first earl,

is that of Odericus Vitalis, who twice describes Walter as "Comes

Bucchingehamensis," once in 1097, and again at his death in 1102. After the

death of Walter Giffard, 2nd earl in 1164, the title was assumed by Richard

de Clare, earl of Pembroke ("Strongbow"), in right of his wife, Rohais,

sister of Walter Giffard I.; and it died with him in 1176. In 1377 Thomas

of "Woodstock" (duke of Gloucester) was created earl of Buckingham at the

coronation of Richard II. (15th of July), and the title of Gloucester

having after his death been given to Thomas le Despenser, his son Humphrey

bore that of earl of Buckingham only. On Humphrey's death, his sister Anne

became countess of Buckingham in her own right. She married Edmund

Stafford, earl of Stafford, and on her death (1438) the title of Buckingham

passed to her son Humphrey Stafford, earl of Stafford, who in 1444 was

created duke of Buckingham. This title remained in the Stafford family

until the attainder and execution of Edward, 3rd duke, in 1521 (see

BUCKINGHAM, HENRY STAFFORD, 2nd duke of).

In 1617 King James I. created George Villiers earl, in 1618 marquess, and

in 1623 duke of Buckingham (see BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 1st duke of).

The marquessate and dukedom became extinct with the death of the 2nd

(Villiers) duke (_q.v._) in 1687; but the earldom was claimed, under the

special remainder in the patent of 1617, by a collateral line of doubtful

legitimacy claiming descent from John Villiers, 1st Viscount Purbeck. The

title was not actually borne after the death of John Villiers, styling

himself earl of Buckingham, in 1723. The claim was extinguished by the

death of George Villiers, a clergyman, in 1774.

In 1703 John Sheffield, marquess of Normanby, was created "duke of the

county of Buckingham and of Normanby" (see below). He was succeeded by his

son Edmund who died in October 1735 when the titles became extinct.

The title of marquess and duke of Buckingham in the Grenville family (to

the holders of which the remainder of this article applies) was derived,

not from the county, but from the town of Buckingham. It originated in

1784, when the 2nd Earl Temple was created marquess of Buckingham "in the

county of Buckingham," this title being elevated into the dukedom of

Buckingham and Chandos for his son in 1822.

GEORGE NUGENT TEMPLE GRENVILLE, 1st marquess of Buckingham (1753-1813), was

the second son of George Grenville, and was born on the 17th of June 1753.

Educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, he was appointed a teller of

the exchequer in 1764, and ten years later was returned to parliament as

one of the members for Buckinghamshire. In the House of Commons he was a

sharp critic of the American policy of Lord North. In September 1779 he

succeeded his uncle as 2nd Earl Temple; in 1782 was appointed

lord-lieutenant of Buckinghamshire; and in July of the same year became a

member of the privy council and lord-lieutenant of Ireland in the ministry

of the earl of Shelburne. On his advice the Renunciation Act of 1783 was

passed, which supplemented the legislative independence granted to Ireland

in 1782. By royal warrant he created the order of St Patrick in February

1783, with himself as the first grand master. Temple left Ireland in 1783,

and again turned his attention to English politics. He enjoyed the

confidence of George III., and having opposed Fox's East India Bill, he was

authorized by the king to say that "whoever voted for the India Bill was

not only not his friend, but would be considered by him as an enemy," a

message which ensured the defeat of the bill. He was appointed a secretary

of state when the younger Pitt formed his ministry in December 1783, but

resigned two days later. In December 1784 he was created marquess of

Buckingham "in the county of Buckingham." In November 1787 he was appointed

lord-lieutenant of Ireland under Pitt, but his second tenure of this office

was hardly as successful as the first. He was denounced by Grattan for

extravagance; was censured by the Irish Houses of parliament for refusing

to transmit to England in address calling upon the prince of Wales to

assume the regency; and he could only maintain his position by resorting to

bribery on a large scale. Having become very unpopular he resigned his

office in September 1789, and subsequently took very little part in

politics, although he spoke in favour of the union with Ireland. He died at

his residence, Stowe House, [v.04 p.0667] Buckingham, on the 11th of

February 1813, and was buried at Wotton. In 1775 he had married Mary

Elizabeth (d. 1812), daughter of Robert, Earl Nugent.

His elder son, RICHARD GRENVILLE, 1st duke of Buckingham and Chandos

(1776-1839), was one of the members of parliament for Buckinghamshire from

1797 to 1813, and, as Earl Temple, took an active part in politics. In

February 1813 he succeeded his father as marquess of Buckingham; and having

married the only child of the 3rd duke of Chandos, he was created duke of

Buckingham and Chandos in 1822. He died in 1839. Owing to financial

embarrassments, the duke lived out of England for some time, and in 1862 an

account of his travels was published, as _The Private Diary of Richard,

Duke of Buckingham and Chandos_.

He was succeeded by his only child, RICHARD GRENVILLE, 2nd duke of

Buckingham and Chandos (1797-1861). Educated at Eton and Oriel College,

Oxford, he was known as Earl Temple and subsequently as marquess of

Chandos. He was member of parliament for Buckinghamshire from 1818 to 1839,

and was responsible for the "Chandos clause" in the Reform Bill of 1832. He

was lord privy seal from September 1841 to January 1842, and partly owing

to his opposition to the repeal of the corn laws was known as the "Farmers'

Friend." He found the estates heavily encumbered when he succeeded to the

dukedom in 1839, and his own generous and luxurious tastes brought matters

to a climax. In 1847 his residences were seized by his creditors, and the

duke left England. His personal property and many of his landed estates

were sold, and returning to England he devoted himself to literature. He

died in London, on the 29th of July 1861. His wife, whom he married in

1819, was Mary (d. 1862), daughter of John, 1st marquess of Breadalbane,

and she obtained a divorce from him in 1850. Buckingham's chief

publications are, _Memoirs of the Court and Cabinets of George III._

(London, 1853-1855); _Memoirs of the Court of England_, 1811-1820 (London,

1856); _Memoirs of the Court of George IV._ (London, 1859); and _Memoirs of

the Court and Cabinets of William IV. and Victoria_ (London, 1861).

RICHARD GRENVILLE, 3rd duke of Buckingham and Chandos (1823-1889), the only

son of the 2nd duke, was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, and,

as marquess of Chandos, represented the borough of Buckingham in parliament

from 1846 to 1857. He was chairman of the London & North-Western railway

from 1853 to 1861. After succeeding to the dukedom he became lord president

of the council, and subsequently secretary for the colonies in the

Conservative government of 1866-1868. From 1875 to 1880 he was governor of

Madras, and in 1886 was chosen chairman of committees in the House of

Lords. He was twice married and left three daughters. As he left no son the

dukedom became extinct on his death; but the Scottish barony of Kinloss (to

which he established his title in 1868) passed to his eldest daughter,

Mary, the wife of Captain L. F. H. C. Morgan; the earldom of Temple to his

nephew, William Stephen Gore-Langton; and the viscounty of Cobham to his

kinsman, Charles George, 5th Baron Lyttelton. His widow married the 1st

Earl Egerton of Tatton in 1894.

BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 1ST DUKE OF[1] (1592-1628), English statesman,

born in August 1592,[2] was a younger son of Sir George Villiers of

Brooksby. His mother, Mary, daughter of Anthony Beaumont of Glenfield,

Leicestershire, who was left a widow early, educated him for a courtier's

life, sending him to France with Sir John Eliot; and the lad, being "by

nature contemplative," took kindly to the training. He could dance well,

fence well, and talk a little French, when in August 1614 he was brought

before the king's notice, in the hope that he would take a fancy to him.

The moment was favourable. Since Salisbury's death James had taken the

business of government upon himself. But he wanted some one who would chat

with him, and amuse him, and would also fill the office of private

secretary, and save him from the trouble of saying no to importunate

suitors. It would be an additional satisfaction if he could train the youth

whom he might select in those arts of statesmanship of which he believed

himself to be a perfect master. His first choice had not proved a happy

one. Robert Carr, who had lately become earl of Somerset, had had his head

turned by his elevation. He had grown peevish toward his master, and had

placed himself at the head of the party which was working for a close

alliance with Spain.

The appearance of Villiers, beaming with animal spirits and good humour,

was therefore welcomed by all who had an interest in opposing the designs

of Spain, and he was appointed cupbearer the same year. For some little

time still Somerset's pre-eminence was maintained. But on the 23rd of April

1615, Villiers, in spite of Somerset, was promoted to be gentleman of the

bedchamber, and was knighted on the 24th; the charge of murdering Overbury,

brought against Somerset in September, completed his downfall, and Villiers

at once stepped into the place which he had vacated. On the 3rd of January

1616 he became master of the horse, on the 24th of April he received the

order of the Garter, and on the 27th of August 1616 was created Viscount

Villiers and Baron Waddon, receiving a grant of land valued at £80,000,

while on the 5th of January 1617 he was made earl, and on the 1st of

January 1618 marquess of Buckingham. With the exception of the earl of

Pembroke he was the richest nobleman in England.

Those who expected him to give his support to the anti-Spanish party were

at first doomed to disappointment. As yet he was no politician, and he

contented himself with carrying out his master's orders, whatever they

were. In his personal relations he was kindly and jovial towards all who

did not thwart his wishes. But James had taught him to consider that the

patronage of England was in his hands, and he took good care that no man

should receive promotion of any kind who did not in one way or another pay

court to him. As far as can be ascertained, he cared less for money than

for the gratification of his vanity. But he had not merely himself to

consider. His numerous kinsfolk were to be enriched by marriage, if in no

other way, and Bacon, the great philosopher and statesman, was all but

thrust from office because he had opposed a marriage suggested for one of

Buckingham's brothers, while Cranfield, the first financier of the day, was

kept from the treasury till he would forsake the woman whom he loved, to

marry a penniless cousin of the favourite. On the 19th of January 1619

James made him lord high admiral of England, hoping that the ardent,

energetic youth would impart something of his own fire to those who were

entrusted with the oversight of that fleet which had been almost ruined by

the peculation and carelessness of the officials. Something of this, no

doubt, was realized under Buckingham's eye. But he himself never pretended

to the virtues of an administrator, and he was too ready to fill up

appointments with men who flattered him, and too reluctant to dismiss them,

if they served their country ill, to effect any permanent change for the

better.

It was about this time that he first took an independent part in politics.

All England was talking of the revolution in Bohemia in the year before,

and men's sympathy with the continental Protestants was increased when it

was known that James's son-in-law had accepted the crown of Bohemia, and

that in the summer of 1620 a Spanish force was preparing to invade the

Palatinate. Buckingham at first had thrown himself into the popular

movement. Before the summer of 1620 was at end, incensed by injuries

inflicted on English sailors by the Dutch in the East Indies, he had swung

round, and was in close agreement with Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador. He

had now married Lady Katherine Manners, the daughter of the earl of

Rutland, who was at heart a Roman Catholic, though she outwardly conformed

to the English Church, and this alliance may have had something to do with

the change.

Buckingham's mistakes were owing mainly to his levity. If he passed briskly

from one camp to the other, an impartial [v.04 p.0668] observer might

usually detect some personal motive at the bottom. But it is hardly

probable that he was himself conscious of anything of the sort. When he was

in reality acting under the influence of vanity or passion it was easy for

him to persuade himself that he was doing his duty to his country.

The parliament which met in 1621, angry at discovering that no help was to

be sent to the Palatinate, broke out into a loud outcry against the system

of monopolies, from which Buckingham's brothers and dependants had drawn a

profit, which was believed to be greater than it really was. At first he

pleaded for a dissolution. But he was persuaded by Bishop Williams that it

would be a wiser course to put himself at the head of the movement, and at

a conference of the Commons with the Lords acknowledged that his two

brothers had been implicated, but declared that his father had begotten a

third who would aid in punishing them. In the impeachment of Bacon which

soon followed, Buckingham, who owed much to his wise counsels, gave him

that assistance which was possible without imperilling his own position and

influence. He at first demanded the immediate dissolution of parliament,

but afterwards, when the cry rose louder against the chancellor, joined in

the attack, making however some attempt to mitigate the severity of the

charges against him during the hearing of his case before the House of

Lords. Notwithstanding, he took advantage of Bacon's need of assistance to

wring from him the possession of York House.

In the winter of 1621, and the succeeding year, Buckingham was entirely in

Gondomar's hands; and it was only with some difficulty that in May 1622

Laud argued him out of a resolution to declare himself a Roman Catholic. In

December 1621 he actively supported the dissolution of parliament, and

there can be little doubt that when the Spanish ambassador left England the

following May, he had come to an understanding with Buckingham that the

prince of Wales should visit Madrid the next year, on which occasion the

Spanish court hoped to effect his conversion to the Roman Catholic Church

before giving him the hand of the infanta Maria. They set out on their

adventurous expedition on the 17th of February 1623, arriving at Madrid,

after passing through Paris on the 7th of March. Each party had been the

dupe of the other. Charles and Buckingham were sanguine in hoping for the

restitution of the Palatinate to James's son-in-law, as a marriage gift to

Charles; while the Spaniards counted on the conversion of Charles to Roman

Catholicism and other extreme concessions (see CHARLES I.). The political

differences were soon accentuated by personal disputes between Buckingham

and Olivares and the grandees, and when the two young men sailed together

from Santander in September, it was with the final resolution to break

entirely with Spain.

James had gratified his favourite in his absence by raising him to a

dukedom. But the splendour which now gathered round Buckingham was owing to

another source than James's favour. He had put himself at the head of the

popular movement against Spain, and when James, acknowledging sorely

against his will that the Palatinate could only be recovered by force,

summoned the parliament which met in February 1624, Buckingham, with the

help of the heir apparent, took up an independent political position. James

was half driven, half persuaded to declare all negotiations with Spain at

an end. For the moment Buckingham was the most popular man in England.

It was easier to overthrow one policy than to construct another. The

Commons would have been content with sending some assistance to the Dutch,

and with entering upon a privateering war with Spain. James, whose object

was to regain the Palatinate, believed this could only be accomplished by a

continental alliance, in which France took part. As soon as parliament was

prorogued, negotiations were opened for a marriage between Charles and the

sister of Louis XIII., Henrietta Maria. But a difficulty arose. James and

Charles had engaged to the Commons that there should be no concessions to

the English Roman Catholics, and Louis would not hear of the marriage

unless very large concessions were made. Buckingham, impatient to begin the

war as soon as possible, persuaded Charles, and the two together persuaded

James to throw over the promises to the Commons, and to accept the French

terms. It was no longer possible to summon parliament to vote supplies for

the war till the marriage had been completed, when remonstrances to its

conditions would be useless.

Buckingham, for Buckingham was now virtually the ruler of England, had thus

to commence war without money. He prepared to throw 12,000 Englishmen,

under a German adventurer, Count Mansfeld, through France into the

Palatinate. The French insisted that he should maroh through Holland. It

mattered little which way he took. Without provisions, and without money to

buy them, the wretched troops sickened and died in the winter frosts.

Buckingham's first military enterprise ended in disastrous failure.

Buckingham had many other schemes in his teeming brain. He had offered to

send aid to Christian IV., king of Denmark, who was proposing to make war

in Germany, and had also a plan for sending an English fleet to attack

Genoa, the ally of Spain, and a plan for sending an English fleet to attack

Spain itself.

Before these schemes could be carried into operation James died on the 27th

of March 1625. The new king and Buckingham were at one in their aims and

objects. Both were anxious to distinguish themselves by the chastisement of

Spain, and the recovery of the Palatinate. Both were young and

inexperienced. But Charles, obstinate when his mind was made up, was

sluggish in action and without fertility in ideas, and he had long

submitted his mind to the versatile and brilliant favourite, who was never

at a loss what to do next, and who unrolled before his eyes visions of

endless possibilities in the future. Buckingham was sent over to Paris to

urge upon the French court the importance of converting its alliance into

active co-operation.

There was a difficulty in the way. The Huguenots of La Rochelle were in

rebellion, and James had promised the aid of English ships to suppress that

rebellion. Buckingham, who seems at first to have consented to the scheme,

was anxious to mediate peace between the king of France and his subjects,

and to save Charles from compromising himself with his parliament by the

appearance of English ships in an attack upon Protestants. When he returned

his main demands were refused, but hopes were given him that peace would be

made with the Huguenots. On his way through France he had the insolence to

make love to the queen of France.

Soon after his return parliament was opened. It would have been hard for

Charles to pass through the session with credit. Under Buckingham's

guidance he had entered into engagements involving an enormous expenditure,

and these engagements involved a war on the continent, which had never been

popular in the House of Commons. The Commons, too, suspected the marriage

treaty contained engagements of which they disapproved. They asked for the

full execution of the laws against the Roman Catholics, and voted but

little money in return. Before they reassembled at Oxford on the 1st of

August, the English ships had found their way into the hands of the French,

to be used against La Rochelle. The Commons met in an ill-humour. They had

no confidence in Buckingham, and they asked that persons whom they could

trust should be admitted to the king's council before they would vote a

penny. Charles stood by his minister, and on the 12th of August he

dissolved his first parliament.

Buckingham and his master set themselves to work to conquer public opinion.

On the one hand, they threw over their engagements to France on behalf of

the English Roman Catholics. On the other hand they sent out a large fleet

to attack Cadiz, and to seize the Spanish treasure-ships. Buckingham went

to the Hague to raise an immediate supply by pawning the crown jewels, to

place England at the head of a great Protestant alliance, and to enter into

fresh obligations to furnish money to the king of Denmark. It all ended in

failure. The fleet returned from Cadiz, having effected nothing. The crown

jewels produced but a small sum, and the money for the king of Denmark

could only be raised by an appeal to parliament. In the meanwhile the king

of France was deeply offended by the treatment of [v.04 p.0669] the Roman

Catholics, and by the seizure of French vessels on the ground that they

were engaged in carrying goods for Spain.

When Charles's second parliament met on the 6th of February 1626, it was

not long before, under Eliot's guidance, it asked for Buckingham's

punishment. He was impeached before the House of Lords on a long string of

charges. Many of these charges were exaggerated, and some were untrue. His

real crime was his complete failure as the leader of the administration.

But as long as Charles refused to listen to the complaints of his

minister's incompetency, the only way in which the Commons could reach him

was by bringing criminal charges against him. Charles dissolved his second

parliament as he had dissolved his first. Subsequently the Star Chamber

declared the duke innocent of the charges, and on the 1st of June

Buckingham was elected chancellor of Cambridge University.

To find money was the great difficulty. Recourse was had to a forced loan,

and men were thrown into prison for refusing to pay it. Disasters had

occurred to Charles's allies in Germany. The fleet sent out under Lord

Willoughby (earl of Lindsey) against the Spaniards returned home shattered

by a storm, and a French war was impending in addition to the Spanish one.

The French were roused to reprisals by Charles's persistence in seizing

French vessels. Unwilling to leave La Rochelle open to the entrance of an

English fleet, Richelieu laid siege to that stronghold of the French

Huguenots. On the 27th of June 1627 Buckingham sailed from Portsmouth at

the head of a numerous fleet, and a considerable land force, to relieve the

besieged city.

His first enterprise was the siege of the fort of St Martin's, on the Isle

of Ré. The ground was hard, and the siege operations were converted into a

blockade. On the 27th of September the defenders of the fort announced

their readiness to surrender the next morning. In the night a fresh gale

brought over a flotilla of French provision boats, which dashed through the

English blockading squadron. The fort was provisioned for two months more.

Buckingham resolved to struggle on, and sent for reinforcements from

England. Charles would gladly have answered to his call. But England had

long since ceased to care for the war. There was no money in the exchequer,

no enthusiasm in the nation to supply the want. Before the reinforcements

could arrive the French had thrown a superior force upon the island, and

Buckingham was driven to retreat on the 29th of October with heavy loss,

only 2989 troops out of nearly 7000 returning to England.

His spirits were as buoyant as ever. Ill luck, or the misconduct of others,

was the cause of his failure. He had new plans for carrying on the war. But

the parliament which met on the 17th of March 1628 was resolved to exact

from the king an obligation to refrain from encroaching for the future on

the liberties of his subjects.