_Sedimentary._
( 1. Alluvium and superficial sands.
Recent < 2. Modern lake deposits, living coral rock.
( 3. Raised coral rock, conglomerate of Mombasa Island.
Pleistocene ( 4. Gravels with flint implements.
( 5. Glacial beds of Kenya
Jurassic 6. Shales and limestones of Changamwe.
Karroo ( 7. Flags and sandstones.
( 8. Grits and shales of Masara and Taru.
Carboniferous? 9. Shales of the Sabaki river.
Archaean ( 10. Schists and quartzites of Nandi.
( 11. Gneisses, schists, granites.
_Igneous and Volcanic._
Recent Active, dormant and extinct volcanoes.
Post-Jurassic ( Kibo and volcanoes of the rift-valley.
to Pleistocene( Kimawenzi, Kenya and plateau eruptions.
_Archaean._--These rocks prevail in the districts of Taru, Nandi and
throughout Ukamba. A course gneiss is the predominant rock, but is
associated with garnetiferous mica-schists and much intrusive granite.
Hornblende schists and beds of metamorphic limestone are rare. Cherty
quartzites interbedded with mylonites occur on the flanks of the Nandi
hills, but their age is not known.
_Carboniferous?_--From shales on the Sabaki river Dr Gregory obtained
fish-scales and specimens of _Palaeanodonta Fischeri._
_Karroo._--The grits of Masara, near Rabai mission station and Mombasa,
have yielded specimens of _Glossopteris browniana_ var. _indica_, thus
indicating their Karroo age.
_Jurassic._--Shales and limestones of this age are well seen along the
railway near Changamwe. They contain gigantic ammonites. According to Dr
Waagen the ammonites show a striking analogy to forms from the Acanthicus
zone of East India. Belemnites are plentiful.
_Pleistocene._--These are feebly represented by some boulder beds on the
higher slopes of Kilimanjaro and Kenya. They show that in Pleistocene times
the glaciers of Kilimanjaro and Kenya extended much farther down the
mountain slopes.
_Recent._--The ancient and more modern lake deposits have so far yielded no
mammalian or other organic remains of interest.
_Igneous and Volcanic._--A belt of volcanic rocks, over 150,000 sq. m. in
area, extends from beyond the southern to beyond the northern territorial
limits. They belong to an older and a newer set. The older group commenced
with a series of fissure eruptions along the site of the present
rift-valley and parallel with it. From these fissures immense and repeated
flows of lava spread over the Kapte and Laikipia plateaus. At about the
same time, or a little later, Kenya and Kimawenzi, Elgon and Chibcharagnani
were in eruption. The age of these volcanic outbursts cannot be more
definitely stated than that they are post-Jurassic, and probably extended
through Cretaceous into early Tertiary times. This great volcanic period
was followed by the eruptions of Kibo and some of the larger volcanoes of
the rift-valley. The flows from Kibo include nepheline and leucite basanite
lavas rich in soda felspars. They bear a close resemblance to the Norwegian
"Rhombenporphyrs." The chain of volcanic cones along the northern lower
slopes of Kilimanjaro, those of the Kyulu mountains, Donyo Longonot and
numerous craters in the rift-valley region, are of a slightly more recent
date. A few of the volcanoes in the latter region have only recently become
extinct; a few may be only dormant. Donyo Buru still emits small quantities
of steam, while Mount Teleki, in the neighbourhood of Lake Rudolf, was in
eruption at the close of the 19th century.]
_Climate, Flora and Fauna._--In its climate and vegetation British East
Africa again shows an arrangement of zones parallel to the coast. The coast
region is hot but is generally more healthy than the coast lands of other
tropical countries, this being due to the constant breeze from the Indian
Ocean and to the dryness of the soil. The rainfall on the coast is about 35
in. a year, the temperature tropical. The succeeding plains and the outer
plateaus are more arid. Farther inland the highlands--in which term may be
included all districts over 5000 ft. high--are very healthy, fever being
almost unknown. The average temperature is about 66° F. in the cool season
and 73° F. in the hot season. Over 7000 ft. the climate becomes distinctly
colder and frosts are experienced. The average rainfall in the highlands is
between 40 and 50 in. The country bordering Victoria Nyanza is typically
tropical; the rainfall exceeds 60 in. in the year, and this region is quite
unsuitable to Europeans. The hottest period throughout the protectorate is
December to April, the coolest, July to September. The "greater rains" fall
from March to June, the "smaller rains" in November and December. The
rainfall is not, however, as regular as is usual in countries within the
tropics, and severe droughts are occasionally experienced.
In the districts bordering Victoria Nyanza the flora resembles that of
Uganda (_q.v._). The characteristic trees of the coast regions are the
mangrove and coco-nut palm. Ebony grows in the scrub-jungle. Vast forests
of olives and junipers are found on the Mau escarpment; the cotton, fig and
bamboo on the Kikuyu escarpment; and in several regions are dense forests
of great trees whose lowest branches are 50 ft. from the ground. Two
varieties of the valuable rubber-vine, _Landolphia florida_ and _Landolphia
Kirkii_, are found near the coast and in the forests. The higher mountains
preserve distinct species, the surviving remnants of the flora of a cooler
period.
The fauna is not abundant except in large mammals, which are very numerous
on the drier steppes. They include the camel (confined to the arid northern
regions), elephant (more and more restricted to unfrequented districts),
rhinoceros, buffalo, many kinds of antelope, zebra, giraffe, hippopotamus,
lion and other carnivora, and numerous monkeys. In many parts the
rhinoceros is particularly abundant and dangerous. Crocodiles are common in
the larger rivers and in Victoria Nyanza. Snakes are somewhat rare, the
most dangerous being the puff-adder. Centipedes and scorpions, as well as
mosquitoes and other insects, are also less common than in most tropical
countries. In some districts bees are exceedingly numerous. The birds
include the ostrich, stork, bustard and secretary-bird among the larger
varieties, the guinea fowl, various kinds of spur fowl, and the lesser
bustard, the wild pigeon, weaver and hornbill. By the banks of lakes and
rivers are to be seen thousands of cranes, pelicans and flamingoes.
_Inhabitants._--The white population is chiefly in the Kikuyu uplands, the
rift-valley, and in the Kenya region. The whites are mostly agriculturists.
There are also numbers of Indian settlers in the same districts. The
African races include representatives of various stocks, as the country
forms a borderland between the Negro and Hamitic peoples, and contains many
tribes of doubtful affinities. The Bantu division of the negroes is
represented chiefly in the south, the principal tribes being the Wakamba,
Wakikuyu and Wanyika. By the north-east shores of Victoria Nyanza dwell the
Kavirondo (_q.v._), a race remarkable among the tribes of the protectorate
for their nudity. Nilotic tribes, including the Nandi (_q.v._), Lumbwa, Suk
and Turkana, are found in the north-west. Of Hamitic strain are the Masai
(_q.v._), a race of cattle-rearers speaking a Nilotic language, who occupy
part of the uplands bordering on the eastern rift-valley. A branch of the
Masai which has adopted the settled life of agriculturists is known as the
Wakuafi. The Galla section of the Hamites is represented, among others, by
Borani living [v.04 p.0603] south of the Goro Escarpment (though the true
Boran countries are Liban and Dirri in Abyssinian territory), while Somali
occupy the country between the Tana and Juba rivers. Of the Somali tribes
the Herti dwell near the coast and are more or less stationary. Further
inland is the nomadic tribe of Ogaden Somali. The Gurre, another Somali
tribe, occupy the country south of the lower Daua. Primitive hunting tribes
are the Wandorobo in Masailand, and scattered tribes of small stature in
various parts. The coast-land contains a mixed population of Swahili, Arab
and Indian immigrants, and representatives of numerous interior tribes.
_Provinces and Towns._--The protectorate has been divided into the
provinces of Seyyidie (the south coast province, capital Mombasa); Ukamba,
which occupies the centre of the protectorate (capital Nairobi); Kenya, the
district of Mt. Kenya (capital Fort Hall); Tanaland, to the north of the
two provinces first named (capital Lamu); Jubaland, the northern region
(capital Kismayu); Naivasha (capital Naivasha); and Kisumu (capital
Kisumu); each being in turn divided into districts and sub-districts.
Naivasha and Kisumu, which adjoin the Victoria Nyanza, formed at first the
eastern province of Uganda, but were transferred to the East Africa
protectorate on the 1st of April 1902. The chief port of the protectorate
is Mombasa (_q.v._) with a population of about 30,000. The harbour on the
south-west side of Mombasa island is known as Kilindini, the terminus of
the Uganda railway. On the mainland, nearly opposite Mombasa town, is the
settlement of freed slaves named Freretown, after Sir Bartle Frere.
Freretown (called by the natives Kisaoni) is the headquarters in East
Africa of the Church Missionary Society. It is the residence of the bishop
of the diocese of Mombasa and possesses a fine church and mission house.
Lamu, on the island of the same name, 150 m. north-east of Mombasa, is an
ancient settlement and the headquarters of the coast Arabs. Here are some
Portuguese ruins, and a large Arab city is buried beneath the sands. The
other towns of note on the coast are Malindi, Patta, Kipini and Kismayu. At
Malindi, the "Melind" of _Paradise Lost_, is the pillar erected by Vasco da
Gama when he visited the port in 1498. The harbour is very shallow.
Kismayu, the northernmost port of the protectorate, 320 m. north-east of
Mombasa, is the last sheltered anchorage on the east coast and is
invaluable as a harbour of refuge. Flourishing towns have grown up along
the Uganda railway. The most important, Nairobi (_q.v._), 327 m. from
Mombasa, 257 from Port Florence, was chosen in 1907 as the administrative
capital of the protectorate. Naivasha, 64 m. north-north-west of Nairobi,
lies in the rift-valley close to Lake Naivasha, and is 6230 ft. above the
sea. It enjoys an excellent climate and is the centre of a European
agricultural settlement. Kisumu or Port Florence (a term confined to the
harbour) is a flourishing town built on a hill overlooking Victoria Nyanza.
It is the entrepôt for the trade of Uganda.
_Communications._--Much has been done to open up the country by means of
roads, including a trunk road from Mombasa, by Kibwezi in the upper Sabaki
basin, and Lake Naivasha, to Berkeley Bay on Victoria Nyanza. But the most
important engineering work undertaken in the protectorate was the
construction of a railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza, for which a
preliminary survey was executed in 1892, and on which work was begun in
1896. The line chosen roughly coincides with that of the road, until the
equator is reached, after which it strikes by a more direct route across
the Mau plateau to the lake, which it reaches at Port Florence on Kavirondo
Gulf. The railway is 584 m. long and is of metre (3.28 ft.) gauge, the
Sudan, and South and Central African lines being of 3 ft. 6 in. gauge. The
Uganda railway is essentially a mountain line, with gradients of one in
fifty and one in sixty. From Mombasa it crosses to the mainland by a bridge
half a mile long, and ascends the plateau till it reaches the edge of the
rift-valley, 346 m. from its starting point, at the Kikuyu Escarpment,
where it is 7600 ft. above the sea. It then descends across ravines bridged
by viaducts to the valley floor, dropping to a level of 6011 ft., and next
ascending the opposite (Mau) escarpment to the summit, 8321 ft. above
sea-level--the highest point on the line. In the remaining 100 m. of its
course the level sinks to 3738 ft., the altitude of the station at Port
Florence. The railway was built by the British government at a cost of
£5,331,000, or about £9500 per mile. The first locomotive reached Victoria
Nyanza on the 26th of December 1901; and the permanent way was practically
completed by March 1903, when Sir George Whitehouse, the engineer who had
been in charge of the construction from the beginning, resigned his post.
The railway, by doing away with the carriage of goods by men, gave the
final death-blow to the slave trade in that part of East Africa. It also
facilitated the continued occupation and development of Uganda, which was,
previous to its construction, an almost impossible task, owing to the
prohibitive cost of the carriage of goods from the coast--£60 per ton. The
two avowed objects of the railway--the destruction of the slave trade and
the securing of the British position in Uganda--have been attained;
moreover, the railway by opening up land suitable for European settlement
has also done much towards making a prosperous colony of the protectorate,
which was regarded before the advent of the line as little better than a
desert (see below, _History_). The railway also shows a fair return on the
capital expenditure, the surplus after defraying all working expenses being
£56,000 in 1905-1906 and £76,000 in 1906-1907.
Mombasa is visited by the boats of several steamship companies, the German
East Africa line maintaining a fortnightly service from Hamburg. There is
also a regular service to and from India. A cable connecting Mombasa with
Zanzibar puts the protectorate in direct telegraphic communication with the
rest of the world. There is also an inland system of telegraphs connecting
the chief towns with one another and with Uganda.
_Agriculture and other Industries._--In the coast region and by the shores
of Victoria Nyanza the products are tropical, and cultivation is mainly in
the hands of the natives or of Indian immigrants. There are, however,
numerous plantations owned by Europeans. Rice, maize and other grains are
raised in large quantities; cotton and tobacco are cultivated. The coco-nut
palm plantations yield copra of excellent quality, and the bark of the
mangrove trees is exported for tanning purposes. In some inland districts
beans of the castor oil plant, which grows in great abundance, are a
lucrative article of trade. The sugar-cane, which grows freely in various
places, is cultivated by the natives. The collection of rubber likewise
employs numbers of people.
Among the European settlers in the higher regions much attention is devoted
to the production of vegetables, and very large crops of potatoes are
raised. Oats, barley, wheat and coffee are also grown. The uplands are
peculiarly adapted for the raising of stock, and many of the white settlers
possess large flocks and herds. Merino sheep have been introduced from
Australia. Ostrich farms have also been established. Clover, lucerne,
ryegrass and similar grasses have been introduced to improve and vary the
fodder. Other vegetable products of economic value are many varieties of
timber trees, and fibre-producing plants, which are abundant in the scrub
regions between the coast and the higher land bordering the rift-valley.
Over the greater part of the country the soil is light reddish loam; in the
eastern plains it is a heavy black loam. As a rule it is easily cultivated.
While the majority of the African tribes in the territory are not averse
from agricultural labour, the number of men available for work on European
holdings is small. Moreover, on some of the land most suited for
cultivation by white men there is no native population.
In addition to the fibre industry and cotton ginning there are factories
for the curing of bacon. Native industries include the weaving of cloth and
the making of mats and baskets. Stone and lime quarries are worked, and
copper is found in the Tsavo district. Diamonds have been discovered in the
Thika river, one of the headstreams of the Tana.
_Trade._--The imports consist largely of textiles, hardware and
manufactured goods from India and Europe; Great Britain and India between
them supplying over 50% of the total imports. Of other countries Germany
has the leading share in the trade. The exports, which include the larger
part of the external trade of Uganda, are chiefly copra, hides and skins,
grains, potatoes, rubber, ivory, chillies, beeswax, cotton and fibre. The
retail trade is largely in the hands of Indians. The value of the exports
rose from £89,858 in 1900-1901 to £234,664 in 1904-1905, in which year the
value of the imports for the first time exceeded £500,000. In 1906-1907 the
volume of trade was £1,194,352, imports being valued at £753,647 and
exports at £440,705. The United States takes 33% of the exports, Great
Britain coming next with 15%.
_Government._--The system of government resembles that of a British crown
colony. At the head of the administration is a governor, who has a deputy
styled lieutenant-governor, provincial commissioners presiding over each
province. There are also executive and legislative councils, unofficial
nominated members serving on the last-named council. In the "ten-mile
strip" (see below, _History_), the sultan of Zanzibar being territorial
sovereign, the laws of Islam apply to the native and Arab population. The
extra-territorial jurisdiction granted by the sultan to various Powers was
in 1907 transferred to Great Britain. Domestic slavery formerly existed;
but on the advice of the British government a decree was issued by the
sultan on the 1st of August 1890, enacting that no one born after that date
could be a slave, and this was followed in 1907 by a decree abolishing the
legal status of slavery. In the rest of the protectorate slavery is not
recognized in any form. Legislation is by ordinances made by the governor,
with the assent of the legislative council. The judicial system is based on
Indian models, though in cases in which Africans are concerned regard is
had to [v.04 p.0604] native customs. Europeans have the right to trial by
jury in serious cases. There is a police force of about 2000 men, and two
battalions of the King's African Rifles are stationed in the protectorate.
Revenue is derived chiefly from customs, licences and excise, railway
earnings, and posts and telegraphs. Natives pay a hut tax. Since the
completion of the Uganda railway, trade, and consequently revenue, has
increased greatly. In 1900-1901 the revenue was £64,275 and the expenditure
£193,438; in 1904-1905 the figures were: revenue £154,756, expenditure
£302,559; in 1905-1906 the totals were £270,362 and £418,839, and in
1906-1907 (when the railway figures were included for the first time)
£461,362 and £616,088. The deficiencies were made good by grants-in-aid
from the imperial exchequer. The standard coin used is the rupee (16d.).
Education is chiefly in the hands of the missionary societies, which
maintain many schools where instruction is given in handicrafts, as well as
in the ordinary branches of elementary education. There are Arab schools in
Mombasa, and government schools for Europeans and Indians at Nairobi.
_History._--From the 8th century to the 11th Arabs and Persians made
settlements along the coast and gained political supremacy at many places,
leading to the formation of the so-called Zenj empire. The history of the
coast towns from that time until the establishment of British rule is
identified with that of Zanzibar (_q.v._). The interior of what is now
British East Africa was first made known in the middle of the 19th century
by the German missionaries Ludwig Krapf and Johannes Rebmann, and by Baron
Karl von der Decken (1833-1865) and others. Von der Decken and three other
Europeans were murdered by Somali at a town called Bardera in October 1865,
whilst exploring the Juba river. The countries east of Victoria Nyanza
(Masailand, &c.) were, however, first traversed throughout their whole
extent by the Scottish traveller Joseph Thomson (_q.v._) in 1883-1884. In
1888 Count S. Teleki (a Hungarian) discovered Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie.
The growth of British interests in the country now forming the protectorate
arises from its connexion with the sultanate of Zanzibar. At Zanzibar
British influence was very strong in the last quarter of the 19th century,
and the seyyid or sultan, Bargash, depended greatly on the advice of the
British representative, Sir John Kirk. In 1877 Bargash offered to Mr
(afterwards Sir) William Mackinnon (1823-1893), chairman of the British
India Steam Navigation Company, a merchant in whom he had great confidence,
or to a company to be formed by him, a lease for 70 years of the customs
and administration of the whole of the mainland dominions of Zanzibar
including, with certain reservations, rights of sovereignty. This was
declined owing to a lack of support by the foreign office, and concessions
obtained in 1884 by Mr (afterwards Sir) H.H. Johnston in the Kilimanjaro
district were, at the time, disregarded. The large number of concessions
acquired by Germans in 1884-1885 on the East African coast aroused,
however, the interest of those who recognized the paramount importance of
the maintenance of British influence in those regions. A British claim,
ratified by an agreement with Germany in 1886, was made to the districts
behind Mombasa; and in May 1887 Bargash granted to an association formed by
Mackinnon a concession for the administration of so much of his mainland
territory as lay outside the region which the British government had
recognized as the German sphere of operations. By international agreement
the mainland territories of the sultan were defined as extending 10 m.
inland from the coast. Mackinnon's association, whose object [Sidenote: A
chartered company formed.] was to open up the hinterland as well as this
ten-mile strip, became the Imperial British East Africa Company by a
founder's agreement of April 1888, and received a royal charter in
September of the same year. To this company the sultan made a further
concession dated October 1888. On the faith of these concessions and the
charters a sum of £240,000 was subscribed, and the company received formal
charge of their concessions. The path of the company was speedily beset
with difficulties, which in the first instance arose out of the aggressions
of the German East African Company. This company had also received a grant
from the sultan in October 1888, and its appearance on the coast was
followed by grave disturbances among the tribes which had welcomed the
British. This outbreak led to a joint British and German blockade, which
seriously hampered trade operations. It had also been anticipated, in
reliance on certain assurances of Prince Bismarck, emphasized by Lord
Salisbury, that German enterprise in the interior of the country would be
confined to the south of Victoria Nyanza. Unfortunately this expectation
was not realized. Moreover German subjects put forward claims to coast
districts, notably Lamu, within the company's sphere and in many ways
obstructed the company's operations. In all these disputes the German
government countenanced its own subjects, while the British foreign office
did little or nothing to assist the company, sometimes directly
discouraging its activity. Moreover, the company had agreed by the
concession of October 1888 to pay a high revenue to the sultan--Bargash had
died in the preceding March and the Germans were pressing his successor to
give them a grant of Lamu--in lieu of the customs collected at the ports
they took over. The disturbance caused by the German claims had a
detrimental effect on trade and put a considerable strain on the resources
of the company. The action of the company in agreeing to onerous financial
burdens was dictated partly by regard for imperial interests, which would
have been seriously weakened had Lamu gone to the Germans.
By the hinterland doctrine, accepted both by Great Britain and Germany in
the diplomatic correspondence of July 1887, Uganda would fall within Great
Britain's "sphere of influence"; but German public opinion did not so
regard the matter. German maps assigned the territory to Germany, while in
England public opinion as strongly expected British influence to be
paramount. In 1889 Karl Peters, a German official, led what was practically
a raiding expedition into that country, after running a blockade of the
ports. An expedition under F.J. Jackson had been sent by the company in the
same year to Victoria Nyanza, but with instructions to avoid Uganda. In
consequence of representations from Uganda, and of tidings he received of
Peters's doings, Jackson, however, determined to go to that country. Peters
retired at Jackson's approach, claiming, nevertheless, to have made certain
treaties which constituted "effective occupation." Peters's treaty was
dated the 1st of March 1890: Jackson concluded another in April. Meantime
negotiations were proceeding in Europe; and by the Anglo-German agreement
of the 1st of July 1890 Uganda was assigned to the British sphere. To
consolidate their position in Uganda--the French missionaries there were
hostile to Great Britain--the company sent thither Captain F.D. Lugard, who
reached Mengo, the capital, in December 1890 and established the authority
of the company despite French intrigues. In July 1890 representatives of
the powers assembled at Brussels had agreed on common efforts for the
suppression of the slave trade. The interference of the company in Uganda
had been a material step towards that object, which they sought to further
and at the same time to open up the country by the construction of a
railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza. But their resources being
inadequate for such an undertaking they sought imperial aid. Although Lord
Salisbury, then prime minister, paid the highest tribute to the company's
labours, and a preliminary grant for the survey had been practically agreed
upon, the scheme was wrecked in parliament. At a later date, however, the
railway was built entirely at government cost (_supra_, §
_Communications_). Owing to the financial strain imposed upon it the
company decided to withdraw Captain Lugard and his forces in August 1891;
and eventually the British government assumed a protectorate over the
country (see UGANDA).
Further difficulties now arose which led finally to the extinction of the
company. Its pecuniary interests sustained a severe [Sidenote: The company
and the crown.] blow owing to the British government--which had taken
Zanzibar under its protection in November 1890--declaring (June 1892) the
dominions of the sultan within the free trade zone. This act extinguished
the treaties regulating all tariffs and duties with foreign powers, and
gave free trade all along the coast. The result for the company was that
dues were now swept away without compensation, and the company was left
saddled with the payment of the rent, and with the cost, in addition, of
administration, [v.04 p.0605] the necessary revenue for which had been
derived from the dues thus abolished. Moreover, a scheme of taxation which
it drew up failed to gain the approval of the foreign office.
In every direction the company's affairs had drifted into an _impasse_.
Plantations had been taken over on the coast and worked at a loss, money
had been advanced to native traders and lost, and expectations of trade had
been disappointed. At this crisis Sir William Mackinnon, the guiding spirit
of the company, died (June 1893). At a meeting of shareholders on the 8th
of May 1894 an offer to surrender the charter to the government was
approved, though not without strong protests. Negotiations dragged on for
over two years, and ultimately the terms of settlement were that the
government should purchase the property, rights and assets of the company
in East Africa for £250,000. Although the company had proved unprofitable
for the shareholders (when its accounts were wound up they disclosed a
total deficit of £193,757) it had accomplished a great deal of good work
and had brought under British sway not only the head waters of the upper
Nile, but a rich and healthy upland region admirably adapted for European
colonization. To the judgment, foresight and patriotism of Sir William
Mackinnon British East Africa practically owes its foundation. Sir William
and his colleagues of the company were largely animated by humanitarian
motives--the desire to suppress slavery and to improve the condition of the
natives. With this aim they prohibited the drink traffic, started
industrial missions, built roads, and administered impartial justice. In
the opinion of a later administrator (Sir C. Eliot), their work and that of
their immediate successors was the greatest philanthropic achievement of
the latter part of the 19th century.
On the 1st of July 1895 the formal transfer to the British crown of the
territory administered by the company took place at Mombasa, the foreign
office assuming responsibility for its administration. The territory,
hitherto known as "Ibea," from the initials of the company, was now styled
the East Africa protectorate. The small sultanate of Witu (_q.v._) on the
mainland opposite Lamu, from 1885 to 1890 a German protectorate, was
included in the British protectorate. Coincident with the transfer of the
administration to the imperial government a dispute as to the succession to
a chieftainship in the Mazrui, the most important Arab family on the coast,
led to a revolt which lasted ten months and involved much hard fighting. It
ended in April 1896 in the flight of the rebel leaders to German territory,
where they were interned. The rebellion marks an important epoch in the
history of the protectorate as its suppression definitely substituted
European for Arab influence. "Before the rebellion," says Sir C. Eliot,
"the coast was a protected Arab state; since its suppression it has been
growing into a British colony."
From 1896, when the building of the Mombasa-Victoria Nyanza railway was
begun, until 1903, when the line was [Sidenote: A white man's country.]
practically completed, the energies of the administration were largely
absorbed in that great work, and in establishing effective control over the
Masai, Somali, and other tribes. The coast lands apart, the protectorate
was regarded as valuable chiefly as being the high road to Uganda. But as
the railway reached the high plateaus the discovery was made that there
were large areas of land--very sparsely peopled--where the climate was
excellent and where the conditions were favourable to European
colonization. The completion of the railway, by affording transport
facilities, made it practicable to open the country to settlers. The first
application for land was made in April 1902 by the East Africa Syndicate--a
company in which financiers belonging to the Chartered Company of South
Africa were interested--which sought a grant of 500 sq. m.; and this was
followed by other applications for considerable areas, a scheme being also
propounded for a large Jewish settlement.
During 1903 the arrival of hundreds of prospective settlers, chiefly from
South Africa, led to the decision to entertain no more applications for
large areas of land, especially as questions were raised concerning the
preservation for the Masai of their rights of pasturage. In the carrying
out of this policy a dispute arose between Lord Lansdowne, foreign
secretary, and Sir Charles Eliot, who had been commissioner since 1900. The
foreign secretary, believing himself bound by pledges given to the
syndicate, decided that they should be granted the lease of the 500 sq. m.
they had applied for; but after consulting officials of the protectorate
then in London, he refused Sir Charles Eliot permission to conclude leases
for 50 sq. m. each to two applicants from South Africa. Sir Charles
thereupon resigned his post, and in a public telegram to the prime
minister, dated Mombasa, the 21st of June 1904, gave as his reason:--"Lord
Lansdowne ordered me to refuse grants of land to certain private persons
while giving a monopoly of land on unduly advantageous terms to the East
Africa Syndicate. I have refused to execute these instructions, which I
consider unjust and impolitic."[1]
On the day Sir Charles sent this telegram the appointment of Sir Donald W.
Stewart, the chief commissioner of Ashanti, to succeed him was announced.
Sir Donald induced the Masai whose grazing rights were threatened to remove
to another district, and a settlement of the land claims was arranged. An
offer to the Zionist Association of land for colonization by Jews was
declined in August 1905 by that body, after the receipt of a report by a
commissioner sent to examine the land (6000 sq. m.) offered. Sir Donald
Stewart died on the 1st of October 1905, and was succeeded by Colonel Hayes
Sadler, the commissioner of Uganda. Meantime, in April 1905, the
administration of the protectorate had been transferred from the foreign to
the colonial office. By the close of 1905 considerably over a million acres
of land had been leased or sold by the protectorate authorities--about half
of it for grazing purposes. In 1907, to meet the demands of the increasing
number of white inhabitants, who had formed a Colonists' Association[2] for
the promotion of their interests, a legislative council was established,
and on this council representatives of the settlers were given seats. The
style of the chief official was also altered, "governor" being substituted
for "commissioner". In the same year a scheme was drawn up for assisting
the immigration of British Indians to the regions adjacent to the coast and
to Victoria Nyanza, districts not suitable for settlement by Europeans.
In general the relations of the British with the tribes of the interior
have been satisfactory. The Somali in Jubaland have given some trouble, but
the Masai, notwithstanding their warlike reputation, accepted peaceably the
control of the whites. This was due, in great measure, to the fact that at
the period in question plague carried off their cattle wholesale and
reduced them for years to a state of want and weakness which destroyed
their warlike habits. One of the most troublesome tribes proved to be the
Nandi, who occupied the southern part of the plateau west of the Mau
escarpment. They repeatedly raided their less warlike neighbours and
committed wholesale thefts from the railway and telegraph lines. In
September 1905 an expedition was sent against them which reduced the tribe
to submission in the following November; and early in 1906 the Nandi were
removed into a reserve. The majority of the natives, unaccustomed to
regular work, showed themselves averse from taking service under the white
farmers. The inadequacy of the labour supply was an early cause of trouble
to the settlers, while the labour regulations enforced led, during
1907-1908, to considerable friction between the colonists and the
administration.
For several years after the establishment of the protectorate the northern
region remained very little known and no attempt was made to administer the
district. The natives were frequently raided by parties of Gallas and
Abyssinians, and in the absence of a defined frontier Abyssinian government
posts were pushed south to Lake Rudolf. The Abyssinians also made
themselves masters of the Boran country. After long negotiations an
agreement as to the boundary line between the lake and [v.04 p.0606] the
river Juba was signed at Adis Ababa on the 6th of December 1907, and in
1908-1909 the frontier was delimited by an Anglo-Abyssinian commission,
Major C.W. Gwynn being the chief British representative. Save for its
north-eastern extremity Lake Rudolf was assigned to the British, Lake
Stefanie falling to Abyssinia, while from about 4° 20' N. the Daua to its
junction with the Juba became the frontier.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most comprehensive account of the protectorate to the
close of 1904, especially of its economic resources, is _The East Africa
Protectorate_, by Sir Charles Eliot (London, 1905). The progress of the
protectorate is detailed in the _Reports_ by the governor issued annually
by the British government since 1896, and in _Drumkey's Year Book for East
Africa_ (Bombay), first issued in 1908. The _Précis of Information_
concerning the British East Africa Protectorate (issued by the War Office,
London, 1901) is chiefly valuable for its historical information. The work
of the Imperial British East Africa Company is concisely and
authoritatively told from official documents in _British East Africa or
Ibea_, by P.L. McDermont (new ed., London, 1895). Another book, valuable
for its historical perspective, is _The Foundation of British East Africa_,
by J.W. Gregory (London, 1901). Bishop A.R. Tucker's _Eighteen Years in
Uganda and East Africa_ (London, 1908) contains a summary of missionary
labours. Of the works of explorers _Through Masai Land_, by Joseph Thomson
(London, 1886), is specially valuable. For the northern frontier see Capt.
P. Maud's report in _Africa No. 13_ (1904). For geology see, besides
Thomson's book, _The Great Rift Valley_, by J.W. Gregory (London, 1896);
_Across an East African Glacier_, by Hans Meyer (London and Leipzig, 1890);
and _Report relating to the Geology of the East Africa Protectorate_, by
H.B. Muff (Colonial Office, London, 1908). For big game and ornithology see
_On Safari_, by A. Chapman (London, 1908). The story of the building of the
Uganda railway is summarized in the _Final Report of the Uganda Railway
Committee, Africa, No. 11_ (1904), published by the British government.
(F. R. C.)
[1] See _Correspondence relating to the Resignation of Sir C. Eliot,
Africa, No. 8_ (1904).
[2] The Planters and Farmers' Association, as this organization was
originally called, dates from 1903.
BRITISH EMPIRE, the name now loosely given to the whole aggregate of
territory, the inhabitants of which, under various forms of government,
ultimately look to the British crown as the supreme head. The term "empire"
is in this connexion obviously used rather for convenience than in any
sense equivalent to that of the older or despotic empires of history.
The land surface of the earth is estimated to extend over about 52,500,000
sq. m. Of this area the British empire occupies [Sidenote: Extent.] nearly
one-quarter, extending over an area of about 12,000,000 sq. m. By far the
greater portion lies within the temperate zones, and is suitable for white
settlement. The notable exceptions are the southern half of India and
Burma; East, West and Central Africa; the West Indian colonies; the
northern portion of Australia; New Guinea, British Borneo and that portion
of North America which extends into Arctic regions. The area of the
territory of the empire is divided almost equally between the southern and
the northern hemispheres, the great divisions of Australasia and South
Africa covering between them in the southern hemisphere 5,308,506 sq. m.,
while the United Kingdom, Canada and India, including the native states,
cover between them in the northern hemisphere 5,271,375 sq. m. The
alternation of the seasons is thus complete, one-half of the empire
enjoying summer, while one-half is in winter. The division of territory
between the eastern and western hemispheres is less equal, Canada occupying
alone in the western hemisphere 3,653,946 sq. m., while Australasia, South
Africa, India and the United Kingdom occupy together in the eastern
hemisphere 6,925,975 sq. m. As a matter of fact, however, the eastern
portions of Australasia border so nearly upon the western hemisphere that
the distribution of day and night throughout the empire is, like the
alternations of the seasons, almost complete, one-half enjoying daylight,
while the other half is in darkness. These alternations of time and of
seasons, combined with the variety of soils and climates, are calculated to
have an increasingly important effect upon the material and industrial, as
well as upon the social and political developments of the empire. This will
become evident in considering the industrial productions of the different
divisions, and the harvest seasons which permit the summer produce of one
portion of the empire to supply the winter requirements of its other
markets, and conversely.
[Illustration]
The empire contains or is bounded by some of the highest mountains, the
greatest lakes, and the most important rivers of the world. Its climates
may be said to include all the known climates of the world; its soils are
no less various. In the prairies of central Canada it possesses some of the
most valuable wheat-producing land; in the grass lands of the interior of
Australia the best pasture country; and in the uplands of South Africa the
most valuable gold- and diamond-bearing beds which exist. The United
Kingdom at present produces more coal than any other single country except
the United States. The effect of climate throughout the empire in modifying
the type of the Anglo-Saxon race has as yet received only partial
attention, and conclusions regarding it are of a somewhat empiric nature.
The general tendency in Canada is held to be towards somewhat smaller size,
and a hardy active habit; in Australia to a tall, slight, pale development
locally known as "cornstalkers," characterized by considerable nervous and
intellectual activity. In New Zealand the type preserves almost exactly the
characteristics of the British Isles. The South African, both Dutch and
British, is readily recognized by an apparently sun-dried, lank and hard
habit of body. In the tropical possessions of the empire, where white
settlement does not take place to any considerable extent, the individual
alone is affected. The type undergoes no modification. It is to be observed
in reference to this interesting aspect of imperial development, that the
multiplication and cheapening of channels of communication and means of
travel throughout the empire will tend to modify the future accentuation of
race difference, while the variety of elements in the vast area occupied
should have an important, though as yet not scientifically traced, effect
upon the British imperial type.
The white population of the empire[1] reached in 1901 a total of over
53,000,000, or something over one-eighth of its entire [Sidenote:
Population.] population, which, including native races, is estimated at
about 400,000,000. The white population includes some French, Dutch and
Spanish peoples, but is mainly of Anglo-Saxon race. It is distributed
roughly as follows:--
United Kingdom and home dependencies 41,608,791
Australasia 4,662,000
British North America 5,500,000
Africa (Dutch and British) 1,000,000[2]
India 169,677
West Indies and Bermuda 100,000
----------
53,040,468
The native population of the empire includes types of the principal black,
yellow and brown races, classing with these the high-type races of the
East, which may almost be called white. The native population of India,
mainly high type, brown, was returned at the census of 1901 as 294,191,379.
The population of India is divided into 118 groups on the basis of
language. These may, however, be collected into the following principal
groups:--
(A) Malayo-Polynesian.
(B) Indo-Chinese:
i. Mon-Khmer.
ii. Tibeto-Burman.
iii. Siamese-Chinese.
(C) Dravido-Mu[n.][d.][=a]:
i. Mu[n.][d.][=a] (Kolarian).
ii. Dravidian.
(D) Indo-European.
Indo-Aryan sub-family.
(E) Semitic.
(F) Hamitic.
(G) Unclassed, e.g. Gipsy.
_Eastern Colonies_
Ceylon, high type, brown and mixed 3,568,824
Straits Settlements, brown, mixed and Chinese 570,000
Hong-Kong, Chinese and brown 306,130
North Borneo, mixed brown and Sarawak 700,000
---------
5,144,954
[v.04 p.0607] Of the various races which inhabit these Eastern dependencies
the most important are the 2,000,000 Sinhalese and the 954,000 Tamil that
make up the greater part of the population of Ceylon. The rest is made up
of Arabs, Malays, Chinese (in the Straits Settlements and Hong-Kong),
Dyaks, Eurasians and others.
_West Indies._
The West Indies, including the continental colonies of British Guiana and
Honduras, and seventeen islands or groups of islands, have a total coloured
population of about 1,912,655. The colonies of this group which have the
largest coloured populations are:--
Jamaica--Chiefly black, some brown and yellow 790,000
Trinidad and Tobago--Black and brown 250,000
British Guiana--Black and brown 286,000
---------
1,326,000
The populations of the West Indies are very various, being made up largely
of imported African negroes. In Jamaica these contribute four-fifths of the
population. There are also in the islands a considerable number of imported
East Indian coolies and some Chinese. The aboriginal races include American
Indians of the mainland and Caribs. With these there has been intermixture
of Spanish and Portuguese blood, and many mixed types have appeared. The
total European population of this group of colonies amounts to upwards of
80,000, to which 15,000 on account of Bermuda may be added.
_Africa._
Chiefly black, estimated
South 5,211,329
Central 2,000,000
The aboriginal races of South Africa were the Bushmen and Hottentots. Both
these races are rapidly diminishing in numbers, and in British South Africa
it is expected that they will in the course of the twentieth century become
extinct. Besides these primitive races there are the dark-skinned negroids
of Bantu stock, commonly known in their tribal groups as Kaffirs, Zulu,
Bechuana and Damara, which are again subdivided into many lesser groups.
The Bantu compose the greater part of the native population. There are also
in South Africa Malays and Indians and others, who during the last two
hundred years have been introduced from Java, Ceylon, Madagascar,
Mozambique and British India, and by intermarriage with each other and with
the natives have produced a hybrid population generally classed together
under the heading of the Mixed Races. These are of all colours, varying
from yellow to dark brown. The tribes of Central Africa are as yet less
known. Many of them exhibit racial characteristics allied to those of the
tribes of South Africa, but with in some cases an admixture of Arab blood.
_East Africa._
Protectorate--Black and brown:
Natives (estimated) 4,000,000
Asiatics (estimated) 25,000
Zanzibar--Black and brown 200,000
Uganda 3,200,000
---------
Total 7,425,000
_West Africa._
Estimated.
Nigeria (including Lagos)--Black and brown 15,000,000
Gold Coast and hinterland--Chiefly black 2,700,000
Sierra Leone " " 1,000,000
Gambia " " 163,000
----------
18,863,000
From east to west across Africa the aboriginal nations are mostly of the
black negroid type, their varieties being only imperfectly known. The
tendency of some of the lower negroid types has been to drift towards the
west coast, where they still practise cannibalistic and fetish rites. On
the east coast are found much higher types approaching to the Christian
races of Abyssinia, and from east to west there has been a wide admixture
of Arab blood producing a light-brown type. In Uganda and Nigeria a large
proportion of the population is Arab and relatively light-skinned.
_Australasia_.
Australia--Black, very low type 200,000
Chinese and half castes, yellow 50,000
New Zealand--Maoris, brown, Chinese and half castes 53,000
Fiji--Polynesian, black and brown 121,000
Papua--Polynesian, black and brown 400,000
-------
824,000
The native races of Australia and the Polynesian groups of islands are
divided into two main types known as the dark and light Polynesian. The
dark type, which is black, is of a very low order, and in some of the
islands still retains its cannibal habits. The aboriginal tribes of
Australia are of a low-class black race, but generally peaceful and
inoffensive in their habits. The white Polynesian races are of a very
superior type, and exhibit, as in the Maoris of New Zealand,
characteristics of a high order. The natives of Papua (New Guinea) are in a
very low state of civilization. The estimate given of their numbers is
approximate, as no census has been taken.
_Canada._