1. _History._--The history of Britain after the withdrawal of the Roman
troops is extremely obscure, but there can be little doubt that for many
years the inhabitants of the provinces were exposed to devastating raids by
the Picts and Scots. According to Gildas it was for protection against
these incursions that the Britons decided to call in the Saxons. Their
allies soon obtained a decisive victory; but subsequently they turned their
arms against the Britons themselves, alleging that they had not received
sufficient payment for their services. A somewhat different account,
probably of English origin, may be traced in the _Historia Brittonum_,
according to which the first leaders of the Saxons, Hengest and Horsa, came
as exiles, seeking the protection of the British king, Vortigern. Having
embraced his service they quickly succeeded in expelling the northern
invaders. Eventually, however, they overcame the Britons through treachery,
by inducing the king to allow them to send for large bodies of their own
countrymen. It was to these adventurers, according to tradition, that the
kingdom of Kent owed its origin. The story is in itself by no means
improbable, while the dates assigned to the first invasion by various
Welsh, Gaulish and English authorities, with one exception all fall within
about a quarter of a century, viz. between the year 428 and the joint reign
of Martian and Valentinian III. (450-455).
For the subsequent course of the invasion our information is of the most
meagre and unsatisfactory character. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
the kingdom of Sussex was founded by a certain Ella or Ælle, who landed in
477, while Wessex owed its origin to Cerdic, who arrived some eighteen
years later. No value, however, can be attached to these dates; indeed, in
the latter case the story itself is open to suspicion on several grounds
(see WESSEX). For the movements which led to the foundation of the more
northern kingdoms we have no evidence worth consideration, nor do we know
even approximately when they took place. But the view that the invasion was
effected throughout by small bodies of adventurers acting independently of
one another, and that each of the various kingdoms owes its origin to a
separate enterprise, has little probability in its favour. Bede states that
the invaders belonged to three different nations, Kent and southern
Hampshire being occupied by Jutes (_q.v._), while Essex, Sussex and Wessex
were founded by the Saxons, and the remaining kingdoms by the Angli
(_q.v._). The peculiarities of social organization in Kent certainly tend
to show that this kingdom had a different origin from the rest; but the
evidence for the distinction between the Saxons and the Angli is of a much
less satisfactory character (see ANGLO-SAXONS). The royal family of Essex
may really have been of Saxon origin (see ESSEX), but on the other hand the
West Saxon royal family claimed to be of the same stock as that of
Bernicia, and their connexions in the past seem to have lain with the
Angli.
We need not doubt that the first invasion was followed by a long period of
warfare between the natives and the invaders, in which the latter gradually
strengthened their hold on the conquered territories. It is very probable
that by the end of the 5th century all the eastern part of Britain, at
least as far as the Humber, was in their hands. The first important check
was received at the siege of "Mons Badonicus" in the year 517 (_Ann.
Cambr._), or perhaps rather some fifteen or twenty years earlier. According
to Gildas this event was followed by a period of peace for at least
forty-four years. In the latter part of the 6th century, however, the
territories occupied by the invaders seem to have been greatly extended. In
the south the West Saxons are said to have conquered first Wiltshire and
then all the upper part of the Thames valley, together with the country
beyond as far as the Severn. The northern frontier also seems to have been
pushed considerably farther forward, perhaps into what is now Scotland, and
it is very probable that the basin of the Trent, together with the central
districts between the Trent and the Thames, was conquered about the same
time, though of this we have no record. Again, the destruction of Chester
about 615 was soon followed by the overthrow of the British kingdom of
Elmet in south-west Yorkshire, and the occupation of Shropshire and the
Lothians took place perhaps about the same period, that of Herefordshire
probably somewhat later. In the south, Somerset is said to have been
conquered by the West Saxons shortly after the middle of the 7th century.
Dorset had probably been acquired by them before this time, while part of
Devon seems to have come into their hands soon afterwards.
The area thus conquered was occupied by a number of separate kingdoms, each
with a royal family of its own. The districts north of the Humber contained
two kingdoms, Bernicia (_q.v._) and Deira (_q.v._), which were eventually
united in Northumbria. South of the Humber, Lindsey seems to have had a
dynasty of its own, though in historical times it was apparently always
subject to the kings of Northumbria or Mercia. The upper basin of the Trent
formed the nucleus of the kingdom of Mercia (_q.v._), while farther down
the east coast was the kingdom of East Anglia (_q.v._). Between these two
lay a territory called Middle Anglia, which is sometimes described as a
kingdom, though we do not know whether it ever had a separate dynasty.
Essex, Kent and Sussex (see articles on these kingdoms) preserve the names
of ancient kingdoms, while the old diocese of Worcester grew out of the
kingdom of the Hwicce (_q.v._), with which it probably coincided in area.
The south of England, between Sussex and "West Wales" (eventually reduced
to Cornwall), was occupied by Wessex, which originally also possessed some
territory to the north of the Thames. Lastly, even the Isle of Wight
appears to have had a dynasty of its own. But it must not be supposed that
all these kingdoms were always, or even normally, independent. When history
begins, Æthelberht, king of Kent, was supreme over all the kings south of
the Humber. He was followed by the East Anglian king Raedwald, and the
latter again by a series of Northumbrian kings with an even wider
supremacy. Before Æthelberht a similar position had been held by the West
Saxon king Ceawlin, and at a much earlier period, according to tradition,
by Ella or Ælle, the first king of Sussex. The nature of this supremacy has
been much discussed, but the true explanation seems to be furnished by that
principle of personal allegiance which formed such an important element in
Anglo-Saxon society.
2. _Government._--Internally the various states seem to have been organized
on very similar lines. In every case we find kingly government from the
time of our earliest records, and there is no doubt that the institution
goes back to a date anterior to the invasion of Britain (see OFFA;
WERMUND). The royal title, however, was frequently borne by more than one
person. Sometimes we find one supreme king together with a number of
under-kings (_subreguli_); sometimes again, especially in the smaller
kingdoms, Essex, Sussex and Hwicce, we meet with two [v.04 p.0590] or more
kings, generally brothers, reigning together apparently on equal terms.
During the greater part of the 8th century Kent seems to have been divided
into two kingdoms; but as a rule such divisions did not last beyond the
lifetime of the kings between whom the arrangement had been made. The kings
were, with very rare exceptions, chosen from one particular family in each
state, the ancestry of which was traced back not only to the founder of the
kingdom but also, in a remoter degree, to a god. The members of such
families were entitled to special wergilds, apparently six times as great
as those of the higher class of nobles (see below).
The only other central authority in the state was the king's council or
court (_þeod_, _witan_, _plebs_, _concilium_). This body consisted partly
of young warriors in constant attendance on the king, and partly of senior
officials whom he called together from time to time. The terms used for the
two classes by Bede are _milites_ (_ministri_) and _comites_, for which the
Anglo-Saxon version has _þegnas_ and _gesiðas_ respectively. Both classes
alike consisted in part of members of the royal family. But they were by no
means confined to such persons or even to born subjects of the king.
Indeed, we are told that popular kings like Oswine attracted young nobles
to their service from all quarters. The functions of the council have been
much discussed, and it has been claimed that they had the right of electing
and deposing kings. This view, however, seems to involve the existence of a
greater feeling for constitutionalism than is warranted by the information
at our disposal. The incidents which have been brought forward as evidence
to this effect may with at least equal probability be interpreted as cases
of profession or transference of personal allegiance. In other respects the
functions of the council seem to have been of a deliberative character. It
was certainly customary for the king to seek their advice and moral support
on important questions, but there is nothing to show that he had to abide
by the opinion of the majority.
For administrative purposes each of the various kingdoms was divided into a
number of districts under the charge of royal reeves (_cyninges gerefa_,
_praefectus_, _praepositus_). These officials seem to have been located in
royal villages (_cyninges tun_, _villa regalis_) or fortresses (_cyninges
burg_, _urbs regis_), which served as centres and meeting-places (markets,
&c.) for the inhabitants of the district, and to which their dues, both in
payments and services had to be rendered. The usual size of such districts
in early times seems to have been 300, 600 or 1200 hides.[1] In addition to
these districts we find mention also of much larger divisions containing
2000, 3000, 5000 or 7000 hides. To this category belong the shires of
Wessex (Hampshire, Wiltshire, Berkshire, &c.), each of which had an earl
(_aldormon_, _princeps_, _dux_) of its own, at all events from the 8th
century onwards. Many, if not all, of these persons were members of the
royal family, and it is not unlikely that they originally bore the kingly
title. At all events they are sometimes described as _subreguli_.
3. _Social Organization._--The officials mentioned above, whether of royal
birth or not, were probably drawn from the king's personal retinue. In
Anglo-Saxon society, as in that of all Teutonic nations in early times, the
two most important principles were those of kinship and personal
allegiance. If a man suffered injury it was to his relatives and his lord,
rather than to any public official, that he applied first for protection
and redress. If he was slain, a fixed sum (_wergild_), varying according to
his station, had to be paid to his relatives, while a further but smaller
sum (_manbot_) was due to his lord. These principles applied to all classes
of society alike, and though strife within the family was by no means
unknown, at all events in royal families, the actual slaying of a kinsman
was regarded as the most heinous of all offences. Much the same feeling
applied to the slaying of a lord--an offence for which no compensation
could be rendered. How far the armed followers of a lord were entitled to
compensation when the latter was slain is uncertain, but in the case of a
king they received an amount equal to the wergild. Another important
development of the principle of allegiance is to be found in the custom of
heriots. In later times this custom amounted practically to a system of
death-duties, payable in horses and arms or in money to the lord of the
deceased. There can be little doubt, however, that originally it was a
restoration to the lord of the military outfit with which he had presented
his man when he entered his service. The institution of thegnhood, _i.e._
membership of the _comitatus_ or retinue of a prince, offered the only
opening by which public life could be entered. Hence it was probably
adopted almost universally by young men of the highest classes. The thegn
was expected to fight for his lord, and generally to place his services at
his disposal in both war and peace. The lord, on the other hand, had to
keep his thegns and reward them from time to time with arms and treasure.
When they were of an age to marry he was expected to provide them with the
means of doing so. If the lord was a king this provision took the form of a
grant, perhaps normally ten hides, from the royal lands. Such estates were
not strictly hereditary, though as a mark of favour they were not
unfrequently re-granted to the sons of deceased holders.
The structure of society in England was of a somewhat peculiar type. In
addition to slaves, who in early times seem to have been numerous, we find
in Wessex and apparently also in Mercia three classes, described as
_twelfhynde_, _sixhynde_ and _twihynde_ from the amount of their wergilds,
viz. 1200, 600 and 200 shillings respectively. It is probable that similar
classes existed also in Northumbria, though not under the same names.
Besides these terms there were others which were probably in use
everywhere, viz. _gesiðcund_ for the two higher classes and _ceorlisc_ for
the lowest. Indeed, we find these terms even in Kent, though the social
system of that kingdom seems to have been of an essentially different
character. Here the wergild of the _ceorlisc_ class amounted to 100
shillings, each containing twenty silver coins (_sceattas_), as against 200
shillings of four (in Wessex five) silver coins, and was thus very much
greater than the latter. Again, there was apparently but one _gestiðcund_
class in Kent, with a wergild of 300 shillings, while, on the other hand,
below the _ceorlisc_ class we find three classes of persons described as
_laetas_, who corresponded in all probability to the _liti_ or freedmen of
the continental laws, and who possessed wergilds of 80, 60 and 40 shillings
respectively. To these we find nothing analogous in the other kingdoms,
though the poorer classes of Welsh freemen had wergilds varying from 120 to
60 shillings. It should be added that the differential treatment of the
various classes was by no means confined to the case of wergilds. We find
it also in the compensations to which they were entitled for various
injuries, in the fines to which they were liable, and in the value attached
to their oaths. Generally, though not always, the proportions observed were
the same as in the wergilds.
The nature of the distinction between the _gesiðcund_ and _ceorlisc_
classes is nowhere clearly explained; but it was certainly hereditary and
probably of considerable antiquity. In general we may perhaps define them
as nobles and commons, though in view of the numbers of the higher classes
it would probably be more correct to speak of gentry and peasants. The
distinction between the _twelfhynde_ and _sixhynde_ classes was also in
part at least hereditary, but there is good reason for believing that it
arose out of the possession of land. The former consisted of persons who
possessed, whether as individuals or families, at least five hides of
land--which practically means a village--while the latter were landless,
_i.e._ probably without this amount of land. Within the _ceorlisc_ class we
find similar subdivisions, though they were not marked by a difference in
wergild. The _gafolgelda_ or _tributarius_ (tribute-payer) seems to have
been a ceorl who possessed at least a hide, while the _gebur_ was without
land of his own, and received his outfit as a loan from his lord.
4. _Payments and Services._--We have already had occasion to refer to the
dues which were rendered by different classes of the population, and which
the reeves in royal villages had to collect and superintend. The payments
seem to have varied greatly according to the class from which they were
due. Those [v.04 p.0591] rendered by landowners seem to have been known as
_feorm_ or _fostor_, and consisted of a fixed quantity of articles paid in
kind. In Ine's Laws (cap. 70) we find a list of payments specified for a
unit of ten hides, perhaps the normal holding of a _twelfhynde_ man--though
on the other hand it may be nothing more than a mere fiscal unit in an
aggregate of estates. The list consists of oxen, sheep, geese, hens, honey,
ale, loaves, cheese, butter, fodder, salmon and eels. Very similar
specifications are found elsewhere. The payments rendered by the
_gafolgelda_ (_tributarius_) were known as _gafol_ (_tributuni_), as his
name implies. In Ine's Laws we hear only of the _hwitel_ or white cloak,
which was to be of the value of six pence per household (hide), and of
barley, which was to be six pounds in weight for each worker. In later
times we meet with many other payments both in money and in kind, some of
which were doubtless in accordance with ancient custom. On the other hand
the _gebur_ seems not to have been liable to payments of this kind,
presumably because the land which he cultivated formed part of the demesne
(_inland_) of his lord. The term _gafol_, however, may have been applied to
the payments which he rendered to the latter.
The services required of landowners were very manifold in character.
Probably the most important were military service (_fird_, _expeditio_) and
the repairing of fortifications and bridges--the _trinoda necessitas_ of
later times. Besides these we find reference in charters of the 9th century
to the keeping of the king's hunters, horses, dogs and hawks, and the
entertaining of messengers and other persons in the king's service. The
duties of men of the _sixhynde_ class, if they are to be identified with
the _radcnihtas_ (_radmanni_) of later times, probably consisted chiefly in
riding on the king's (or their lord's) business. The services of the
peasantry can only be conjectured from what we find in later times.
Presumably their chief duty was to undertake a share in the cultivation of
the demesne land. We need scarcely doubt also that the labour of repairing
fortifications and bridges, though it is charged against the landowners,
was in reality delegated by them to their dependents.
5. _Warfare._--All classes are said to have been liable to the duty of
military service. Hence, since the ceorls doubtless formed the bulk of the
population, it has been thought that the Anglo-Saxon armies of early times
were essentially peasant forces. The evidence at our disposal, however,
gives little justification for such a view. The regulation that every five
or six hides should supply a warrior was not a product of the Danish
invasions, as is sometimes stated, but goes back at least to the beginning
of the 9th century. Had the fighting material been drawn from the
_ceorlisc_ class a warrior would surely have been required from each hide,
but for military service no such regulation is found. Again, the fird
(_fyrd_) was composed of mounted warriors during the 9th century, though
apparently they fought on foot, and there are indications that such was the
case also in the 7th century. No doubt ceorls took part in military
expeditions, but they may have gone as attendants and camp-followers rather
than as warriors, their chief business being to make stockades and bridges,
and especially to carry provisions. The serious fighting, however, was
probably left to the _gesiðcund_ classes, who possessed horses and more or
less effective weapons. Indeed, there is good reason for regarding these
classes as essentially military.
The chief weapons were the sword and spear. The former were two-edged and
on the average about 3 ft. long. The hilts were often elaborately
ornamented and sometimes these weapons were of considerable value. No
definite line can be drawn between the spear proper and the javelin. The
spear-heads which have been found in graves vary considerably in both form
and size. They were fitted on to the shaft, by a socket which was open on
one side. Other weapons appear to have been quite rare. Bows and arrows
were certainly in use for sporting purposes, but there is no reason for
believing that they were much used in warfare before the Danish invasions.
They are very seldom met with in graves. The most common article of
defensive armour was the shield, which was small and circular and
apparently of quite thin lime-wood, the edge being formed probably by a
thin band of iron. In the centre of the shield, in order to protect the
hand which held it, was a strong iron boss, some 7 in. in diameter and
projecting about 3 in. It is clear from literary evidence that the helmet
(_helm_) and coat of chain mail (_byrne_) were also in common use. They are
seldom found in graves, however, whether owing to the custom of heriots or
to the fact that, on account of their relatively high value, they were
frequently handed on from generation to generation as heirlooms. Greaves
are not often mentioned. It is worth noting that in later times the heriot
of an "ordinary thegn" (_medema þegn_)--by which is meant apparently not a
king's thegn but a man of the _twelfhynde_ class--consisted of his horse
with its saddle, &c. and his arms, or two pounds of silver as an equivalent
of the whole. The arms required were probably a sword, helmet, coat of mail
and one or two spears and shields. There are distinct indications that a
similar outfit was fairly common in Ine's time, and that its value was much
the same. One would scarcely be justified, however, in supposing that it
was anything like universal; for the purchasing power of such a sum was at
that time considerable, representing as it did about 16-20 oxen or 100-120
sheep. It would hardly be safe to credit men of the _sixhynde_ class in
general with more than a horse, spear and shield.
6. _Agriculture and Village Life._--There is no doubt that a fairly
advanced system of agriculture must have been known to the Anglo-Saxons
before they settled in Britain. This is made clear above all by the
representation of a plough drawn by two oxen in one of the very ancient
rock-carvings at Tegneby in Bohuslän. In Domesday Book the heavy plough
with eight oxen seems to be universal, and it can be traced back in Kent to
the beginning of the 9th century. In this kingdom the system of
agricultural terminology was based on it. The unit was the _sulung_
(_aratrum_) or ploughland (from _sulh_, "plough"), the fourth part of which
was the _geocled_ or _geoc_ (_jugum_), originally a yoke of oxen. An
analogy is supplied by the _carucata_ of the Danelagh, the eighth part of
which was the _bouata_ or "ox-land." In the 10th century the _sulung_ seems
to have been identified with the hide, but in earlier times it contained
apparently two hides. The hide itself, which was the regular unit in the
other kingdoms, usually contained 120 acres in later times and was divided
into four _girda_ (_virgatae_) or yardlands. But originally it seems to
have meant simply the land pertaining to a household, and its area in early
times is quite uncertain, though probably far less. For the acre also there
was in later times a standard length and breadth, the former being called
_furhlang_ (_furlong_) and reckoned at one-eighth of a mile, while the
_aecerbraedu_ or "acre-breadth" (chain) was also a definite measure. We
need not doubt, however, that in practice the form of the acre was largely
conditioned by the nature of the ground. Originally it is thought to have
been the measure of a day's ploughing, in which case the dimensions given
above would scarcely be reached. Account must also be taken of the
possibility that in early times lighter teams were in general use. If so
the normal dimensions of the acre may very well have been quite different.
The husbandry was of a co-operative character. In the 11th century it was
distinctly unusual for a peasant to possess a whole team of his own, and
there is no reason for supposing the case to have been otherwise in early
times; for though the peasant might then hold a hide, the hide itself was
doubtless smaller and not commensurate in any way with the ploughland. The
holdings were probably not compact but consisted of scattered strips in
common fields, changed perhaps from year to year, the choice being
determined by lot or otherwise. As for the method of cultivation itself
there is little or no evidence. Both the "two-course system" and the
"three-course system" may have been in use; but on the other hand it is
quite possible that in many cases the same ground was not sown more than
once in three years. The prevalence of the co-operative principle, it may
be observed, was doubtless due in large measure to the fact that the
greater part of England, especially towards the east, was settled not in
scattered farms or hamlets but in compact villages with the cultivated
lands lying round them.
[v.04 p.0592] The mill was another element which tended to promote the same
principle. There can be little doubt that before the Anglo-Saxons came to
Britain they possessed no instrument for grinding corn except the quern
(_cweorn_), and in remote districts this continued in use until quite late
times. The grinding seems to have been performed chiefly by female slaves,
but occasionally we hear also of a donkey-mill (_esolcweorn_). The mill
proper, however, which was derived from the Romans, as its name (_mylen_,
from Lat. _molina_) indicates, must have come into use fairly early. In the
11th century every village of any size seems to have possessed one, while
the earliest references go back to the 8th century. It is not unlikely that
they were in use during the Roman occupation of Britain, and consequently
that they became known to the invaders almost from the first. The mills
were presumably driven for the most part by water, though we have a
reference to a windmill as early as the year 833.
All the ordinary domestic animals were known. Cattle and sheep were
pastured on the common lands appertaining to the village, while pigs, which
(especially in Kent) seem to have been very numerous, were kept in the
woods. Bee-keeping was also practised. In all these matters the invasion of
Britain had brought about no change. The cultivation of fruit and
vegetables on the other hand was probably almost entirely new. The names
are almost all derived from Latin, though most of them seem to have been
known soon after the invasion, at all events by the 7th century.
From the considerations pointed out above we can hardly doubt that the
village possessed a certain amount of corporate life, centred perhaps in an
ale-house where its affairs were discussed by the inhabitants. There is no
evidence, however, which would justify us in crediting such gatherings with
any substantial degree of local authority. So far as the limited
information at our disposal enables us to form an opinion, the
responsibility both for the internal peace of the village, and for its
obligations to the outside world, seems to have lain with the lord or his
steward (_gerefa_, _villicus_) from the beginning. A quite opposite view
has, it is true, found favour with many scholars, viz. that the villages
were orginally settlements of free kindreds, and that the lord's authority
was superimposed on them at a later date. This view is based mainly on the
numerous place-names ending in _-ing_, _-ingham_, _-ington_, &c., in which
the syllable _-ing_ is thought to refer to kindreds of cultivators. It is
more probable, however, that these names are derived from persons of the
_twelfhynde_ class to whom the land had been granted. In many cases indeed
there is good reason for doubting whether the name is a patronymic at all.
The question how far the villages were really new settlements is difficult
to answer, for the terminations _-ham_, _-ton_, &c. cannot be regarded as
conclusive evidence. Thus according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ann. 571)
Bensington and Eynsham were formerly British villages. Even if the first
part of Egonesham is English--which is by no means certain--it is hardly
sufficient reason for discrediting this statement, for Canterbury
(_Cantwaraburg_) and Rochester (_Hrofes ceaster_) were without doubt Roman
places in spite of their English names. On the whole it seems likely that
the cultivation of the land was not generally interrupted for more than a
very few years; hence the convenience of utilizing existing sites of
villages would be obvious, even if the buildings themselves had been burnt.
7. _Towns._--Gildas states that in the time of the Romans Britain contained
twenty-eight cities (_civitates_), besides a number of fortresses
(_castetta_). Most of these were situated within the territories eventually
occupied by the invaders, and reappear as towns in later times. Their
history in the intervening period, however, is wrapped in obscurity.
Chester appears to have been deserted for three centuries after its
destruction early in the 7th century, and in most of the other cases there
are features observable in the situation and plan of the medieval town
which suggest that its occupation had not been continuous. Yet London and
Canterbury must have recovered a certain amount of importance quite early,
at all events within two centuries after the invasion, and the same is
probably true of York, Lincoln and a few other places. The term applied to
both the cities and the fortresses of the Romans was _ceaster_ (Lat.
_castra_), less frequently the English word _burg_. There is little or no
evidence for the existence of towns other than Roman in early times, for
the word _urbs_ is merely a translation of _burg_, which was used for any
fortified dwelling-place, and it is improbable that anything which could
properly be called a town was known to the invaders before their arrival in
Britain. The Danish settlements at the end of the 9th century and the
defensive system initiated by King Alfred gave birth to a new series of
fortified towns, from which the boroughs of the middle ages are mainly
descended.
8. _Houses._--Owing to the fact that houses were built entirely of
perishable materials, wood and wattle, we are necessarily dependent almost
wholly upon literary evidence for knowledge of this subject. Stone seems to
have been used first for churches, but this was not before the 7th century,
and we are told that at first masons were imported from Gaul. Indeed wood
was used for many churches, as well as for most secular buildings, until a
much later period. The walls were formed either of stout planks laid
together vertically or horizontally, or else of posts at a short distance
from one another, the interstices being filled up with wattlework daubed
with clay. It is not unlikely that the houses of wealthy persons were
distinguished by a good deal of ornamentation in carving and painting. The
roof was high-pitched and covered with straw, hay, reeds or tiles. The
regular form of the buildings was rectangular, the gable sides probably
being shorter than the others. There is little evidence for partitions
inside, and in wealthy establishments the place of rooms seems to have been
supplied by separate buildings within the same enclosure. The windows must
have been mere openings in the walls or roof, for glass was not used for
this purpose before the latter part of the 7th century. Stoves were known,
but most commonly heat was obtained from an open fire in the centre of the
building. Of the various buildings in a wealthy establishment the chief
were the hall (_heall_), which was both a dining and reception room, and
the "lady's bower" (_brydbur_), which served also as a bedroom for the
master and mistress. To these we have to add buildings for the attendants,
kitchen, bakehouse, &c., and farm buildings. There is little or no evidence
for the use of two-storeyed houses in early times, though in the 10th and
11th centuries they were common. The whole group of buildings stood in an
enclosure (_tun_) surrounded by a stockade (_burg_), which perhaps rested
on an earthwork, though this is disputed. Similarly the homestead of the
peasant was surrounded by a fence (_edor_).
9. _Clothes._--The chief material for clothing was at first no doubt wool,
though linen must also have been used and later became fairly common. The
chief garments were the coat (_roc_), the trousers (_brec_), and the cloak,
for which there seem to have been a number of names (_loða_, _hacele_,
_sciccing_, _pad_, _hwitel_). To these we may add the hat (_haet_), belt
(_gyrdel_), stockings (_hosa_), shoes (_scoh_, _gescy_, _rifeling_) and
gloves (_glof_). The _crusene_ was a fur coat, while the _serc_ or _smoc_
seems to have been an undergarment and probably sleeveless. The whole
attire was of national origin and had probably been in use long before the
invasion of Britain. In the great bog-deposit at Thorsbjaerg in Angel,
which dates from about the 4th century, there were found a coat with long
sleeves, in a fair state of preservation, a pair of long trousers with
remains of socks attached, several shoes and portions of square cloaks, one
of which had obviously been dyed green. The dress of the upper classes must
have been of a somewhat gorgeous character, especially when account is
taken of the brooches and other ornaments which they wore. It is worth
noting that according to Jordanes the Swedes in the 6th century were
splendidly dressed.
10. _Trade._--The few notices of this subject which occur in the early laws
seem to refer primarily to cattle-dealing. But there can be no doubt that a
considerable import and export trade with the continent had sprung up quite
early. In Bede's time, if not before, London was resorted to by many
merchants both by land and by sea. At first the chief export trade was
[v.04 p.0593] probably in slaves. English slaves were to be obtained in
Rome even before the end of the 6th century, as appears from the well-known
story of Gregory the Great. Since the standard price of slaves on the
continent was in general three or four times as great as it was in England,
the trade must have been very profitable. After the adoption of
Christianity it was gradually prohibited by the laws. The nature of the
imports during the heathen period may be learned chiefly from the graves,
which contain many brooches and other ornaments of continental origin, and
also a certain number of silver, bronze and glass vessels. With the
introduction of Christianity the ecclesiastical connexion between England
and the continent without doubt brought about a large increase in the
imports of secular as well as religious objects, and the frequency of
pilgrimages by persons of high rank must have had the same effect. The use
of silk (_seoluc_) and the adoption of the mancus (see below) point to
communication, direct or indirect, with more distant countries. In the 8th
century we hear frequently of tolls on merchant ships at various ports,
especially London.
11. _Coinage._--The earliest coins which can be identified with certainty
are some silver pieces which bear in Runic letters the name of the Mercian
king Æthelred (675-704). There are others, however, of the same type and
standard (about 21 grains) which may be attributed with probability to his
father Penda (d. 655). But it is clear from the laws of Æthelberht that a
regular silver coinage was in use at least half a century before this time,
and it is not unlikely that many unidentified coins may go back to the 6th
century. These are fairly numerous, and are either without inscriptions or,
if they do bear letters at all, they seem to be mere corruptions of Roman
legends. Their designs are derived from Roman or Frankish coins, especially
the former, and their weight varies from about 10 to 21 grains, though the
very light coins are rare. Anonymous gold coins, resembling Frankish
trientes in type and standard (21 grains), are also fairly common, though
they must have passed out of use very early, as the laws give no hint of
their existence. Larger gold coins (_solidi_) are very rare. In the early
laws the money actually in use appears to have been entirely silver. In
Offa's time a new gold coin, the _mancus_, resembling in standard the Roman
solidus (about 70 grains), was introduced from Mahommedan countries. The
oldest extant specimen bears a faithfully copied Arabic inscription. In the
same reign the silver coins underwent a considerable change in type, being
made larger and thinner, while from this time onwards they always bore the
name of the king (or queen or archbishop) for whom they were issued. The
design and execution also became remarkably good. Their weight was at first
unaffected, but probably towards the close of Offa's reign it was raised to
about 23 grains, at which standard it seems to have remained, nominally at
least, until the time of Alfred. It is to be observed that with the
exception of Burgred's coins and a few anonymous pieces the silver was
never adulterated. No bronze coins were current except in Northumbria,
where they were extremely common in the 9th century.
Originally _scilling_ ("shilling") and _sceatt_ seem to have been the terms
for gold and silver coins respectively. By the time of Ine, however,
_pending_, _pen(n)ing_ ("penny"), had already come into use for the latter,
while, owing to the temporary disappearance of a gold coinage, _scilling_
had come to denote a mere unit of account. It was, however, a variable
unit, for the Kentish shilling contained twenty _sceattas_ (pence), while
the Mercian contained only four. The West Saxon shilling seems originally
to have been identical with the Mercian, but later it contained five pence.
Large payments were generally made by weight, 240-250 pence being reckoned
to the pound, perhaps from the 7th century onwards. The mancus was equated
with thirty pence, probably from the time of its introduction. This means
that the value of gold relatively to silver was 10:1 from the end of Offa's
reign. There is reason, however, for thinking that in earlier times it was
as low as 6:1, or even 5:1. In Northumbria a totally different monetary
system prevailed, the unit being the _tryms_, which contained three
_sceattas_ or pence. As to the value of the bronze coins we are without
information.
The purchasing power of money was very great. The sheep was valued at a
shilling in both Wessex and Mercia, from early times till the 11th century.
One pound was the normal price of a slave and half a pound that of a horse.
The price of a pig was twice, and that of an ox six times as great as that
of a sheep. Regarding the prices of commodities other than live-stock we
have little definite information, though an approximate estimate may be
made of the value of arms. It is worth noticing that we often hear of
payments in gold and silver vessels in place of money. In the former case
the mancus was the usual unit of calculation.
12. _Ornaments._--Of these the most interesting are the brooches which were
worn by both sexes and of which large numbers have been found in heathen
cemeteries. They may be classed under eight leading types: (1) circular or
ring-shaped, (2) cruciform, (3) square-headed, (4) radiated, (5) S-shaped,
(6) bird-shaped, (7) disk-shaped, (8) cupelliform or saucer-shaped. Of
these Nos. 5 and 6 appear to be of continental origin, and this is probably
the case also with No. 4 and in part with No. 7. But the last-mentioned
type varies greatly, from rude and almost plain disks of bronze to
magnificent gold specimens studded with gems. No. 8 is believed to be
peculiar to England, and occurs chiefly in the southern Midlands, specimens
being usually found in pairs. The interiors are gilt, often furnished with
detachable plates and sometimes set with brilliants. The remaining types
were probably brought over by the Anglo-Saxons at the time of the invasion.
Nos. 1 and 3 are widespread outside England, but No. 2, though common in
Scandinavian countries, is hardly to be met with south of the Elbe. It is
worth noting that a number of specimens were found in the cremation
cemetery at Borgstedterfeld near Rendsburg. In England it occurs chiefly in
the more northern counties. Nos. 2 and 3 vary greatly in size, from 2½ to 7
in. or more. The smaller specimens are quite plain, but the larger ones are
gilt and generally of a highly ornamental character. In later times we hear
of brooches worth as much as six mancusas, _i.e._ equivalent to six oxen.
Among other ornaments we may mention hairpins, rings and ear-rings, and
especially buckles which are often of elaborate workmanship. Bracelets and
necklets are not very common, a fact which is rather surprising, as in
early times, before the issuing of a coinage, these articles (_beagas_)
took the place of money to a large extent. The glass vessels are finely
made and of somewhat striking appearance, though they closely resemble
contemporary continental types. Since the art of glass-working was unknown,
according to Bede, until nearly the end of the 7th century, it is probable
that these were all of continental or Roman-British origin.
13. _Amusements_.--It is clear from the frequent references to dogs and
hawks in the charters that hunting and falconry were keenly pursued by the
kings and their retinues. Games, whether indoor or outdoor, are much less
frequently mentioned, but there is no doubt that the use of dice (_taefl_)
was widespread. At court much time was given to poetic recitation, often
accompanied by music, and accomplished poets received liberal rewards. The
chief musical instrument was the harp (_hearpe_), which is often mentioned.
Less frequently we hear of the flute (_pipe_) and later also of the fiddle
(_fiðele_). Trumpets (_horn_, _swegelhorn_, _byme_) appear to have been
used chiefly as signals.
14. _Writing._--The Runic alphabet seems to have been the only form of
writing known to the Anglo-Saxons before the invasion of Britain, and
indeed until the adoption of Christianity. In its earliest form, as it
appears in inscriptions on various articles found in Schleswig and in
Scandinavian countries, it consisted of twenty-four letters, all of which
occur in abecedaria in England. In actual use, however, two letters soon
became obsolete, but a number of others were added from time to time, some
of which are found also on the continent, while others are peculiar to
certain parts of England. Originally the Runic alphabet seems to have been
used for writing on wooden boards, though none of these have survived. The
inscriptions which have come down to us are engraved partly on memorial
stones, [v.04 p.0594] which are not uncommon in the north of England, and
partly on various metal objects, ranging from swords to brooches. The
adoption of Christianity brought about the introduction of the Roman
alphabet; but the older form of writing did not immediately pass out of
use, for almost all the inscriptions which we possess date from the 7th or
following centuries. Coins with Runic legends were issued at least until
the middle of the 8th century, and some of the memorial stones date
probably even from the 9th. The most important of the latter are the column
at Bewcastle, Cumberland, believed to commemorate Alhfrith, the son of
Oswio, who died about 670, and the cross at Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire, which
is probably about a century later. The Roman alphabet was very soon applied
to the purpose of writing the native language, _e.g._ in the publication of
the laws of Æthelberht. Yet the type of character in which even the
earliest surviving MSS. are written is believed to be of Celtic origin.
Most probably it was introduced by the Irish missionaries who evangelized
the north of England, though Welsh influence is scarcely impossible.
Eventually this alphabet was enlarged (probably before the end of the 7th
century) by the inclusion of two Runic letters for _th_ and _w_.
15. _Marriage._--This is perhaps the subject on which our information is
most inadequate. It is evident that the relationships which prohibited
marriage were different from those recognized by the Church; but the only
fact which we know definitely is that it was customary, at least in Kent,
for a man to marry his stepmother. In the Kentish laws marriage is
represented as hardly more than a matter of purchase; but whether this was
the case in the other kingdoms also the evidence at our disposal is
insufficient to decide. We know, however, that in addition to the sum paid
to the bride's guardian, it was customary for the bridegroom to make a
present (_morgengifu_) to the bride herself, which, in the case of queens,
often consisted of a residence and considerable estates. Such persons also
had retinues and fortified residences of their own. In the Kentish laws
provision is made for widows to receive a proportionate share in their
husbands' property.
16. _Funeral Rites._--Both inhumation and cremation were practised in
heathen times. The former seems to have prevailed everywhere; the latter,
however, was much more common in the more northern counties than in the
south, though cases are fairly numerous throughout the valley of the
Thames. In _Beowulf_ cremation is represented as the prevailing custom.
There is no evidence that it was still practised when the Roman and Celtic
missionaries arrived, but it is worth noting that according to the
tradition given in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Oxfordshire, where the custom
seems to have been fairly common, was not conquered before the latter part
of the 6th century. The burnt remains were generally, if not always,
enclosed in urns and then buried. The urns themselves are of clay, somewhat
badly baked, and bear geometrical patterns applied with a punch. They vary
considerably in size (from 4 to 12 in. or more in diameter) and closely
resemble those found in northern Germany. Inhumation graves are sometimes
richly furnished. The skeleton is laid out at full length, generally with
the head towards the west or north, a spear at one side and a sword and
shield obliquely across the middle. Valuable brooches and other ornaments
are often found. In many other cases, however, the grave contained nothing
except a small knife and a simple brooch or a few beads. Usually both
classes of graves lie below the natural surface of the ground without any
perceptible trace of a barrow.
17. _Religion._--Here again the information at our disposal is very
limited. There can be little doubt that the heathen Angli worshipped
certain gods, among them Ti (Tig), Woden, Thunor and a goddess Frigg, from
whom the names Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday are derived. Ti was
probably the same god of whom early Roman writers speak under the name Mars
(see TÝR), while Thunor was doubtless the thunder-god (see THOR). From
Woden (_q.v._) most of the royal families traced their descent. Seaxneat,
the ancestor of the East Saxon dynasty, was also in all probability a god
(see ESSEX, KINGDOM OF).
Of anthropomorphic representations of the gods we have no clear evidence,
though we do hear of shrines in sacred enclosures, at which sacrifices were
offered. It is clear also that there were persons specially set apart for
the priesthood, who were not allowed to bear arms or to ride except on
mares. Notices of sacred trees and groves, springs, stones, &c., are much
more frequent than those referring to the gods. We hear also a good deal of
witches and valkyries, and of charms and magic; as an instance we may cite
the fact that certain (Runic) letters were credited, as in the North, with
the power of loosening bonds. It is probable also that the belief in the
spirit world and in a future life was of a somewhat similar kind to what we
find in Scandinavian religion. (See TEUTONIC PEOPLES, §6.)
The chief primary authorities are Gildas, _De Excidio Britanniae_, and
Nennius, _Historia Britonum_ (ed. San-Marte, Berlin, 1844); Th. Mommsen in
_Mon. Germ. Hist., Auct. Antiquiss._, tom. xiii. (Berlin, 1898); Bede,
_Hist. Eccl._ (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1896); the _Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. C.
Plummer, Oxford, 1892-1899); and the _Anglo-Saxon Laws_ (ed. F. Liebermann,
Halle, 1903), and Charters (W. de G. Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_,
London, 1885-1893). Modern authorities: Sh. Turner, _History of the
Anglo-Saxons_ (London, 1799-1805; 7th ed., 1852); Sir F. Palgrave, _Rise
and Progress of the English Commonwealth_ (London, 1831-1832); J.M. Kemble,
_The Saxons in England_ (London, 1849; 2nd ed., 1876); K. Maurer,
_Kritische Überschau d. deutschen Gesetzgebung u. Rechtswissenschaft_,
vols. i.-iii. (Munich, 1853-1855); J.M. Lappenberg, _Geschichte von
England_ (Hamburg, 1834); _History of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings_
(London, 1845; 2nd ed., 1881); J.R. Green, _The Making of England_ (London,
1881); T. Hodgkin, _History of England from the Earliest Times to the
Norman Conquest_ (vol. i. of _The Political History of England_) (London,
1906); F. Seebohm, _The English Village Community_ (London, 1883); A.
Meitzen, _Siedelung und Agrarwesen d. Westgermanen, u. Ostgermanen, &c._
(Berlin, 1895); Sir F. Pollock and F.W. Maitland, _History of English Law_
(Cambridge, 1895; 2nd ed., 1898); F.W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_
(Cambridge, 1897); F. Seebohm, _Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law_ (London,
1903); P. Vinogradoff, _The Growth of the Manor_ (London, 1905); H.M.
Chadwick, _Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_ (Cambridge, 1905); _The
Origin of the English Nation_ (_ib._, 1907); M. Heyne, _Über die Lage und
Construction der Halle Heorot_ (Paderborn, 1864); R. Henning, _Das deutsche
Haus_ (_Quellen u. Forschungen_, 47) (Strassburg, 1882); M. Heyne,
_Deutsche Hausaltertümer_, i., ii., iii. (Leipzig, 1900-1903); G. Baldwin
Brown, _The Arts in Early England_ (London, 1903); C.F. Keary, _Catalogue
of Anglo-Saxon Coins in the British Museum_, vol. i. (London, 1887); C.
Roach Smith, _Collectanea Antiqua_ (London, 1848-1868); R.C. Neville,
_Saxon Obsequies_ (London, 1852); J.Y. Akerman, _Remains of Pagan Saxondom_
(London, 1855); Baron J. de Baye, _Industrie anglo-saxonne_ (Paris, 1889);
_The Industrial Arts of the Anglo-Saxons_ (London, 1893); G. Stephens, _The
Old Northern Runic Monuments_ (London and Copenhagen, 1866-1901); W.
Vietor, _Die northumbrischen Runensteine_ (Marburg, 1895). Reference must
also be made to the articles on Anglo-Saxon antiquities in the _Victoria
County Histories_, and to various papers in _Archaeologia_, the
_Archaeological Journal_, the _Journal of the British Archaeological
Society_, the _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries_, the _Associated
Architectural Societies' Reports_, and other antiquarian journals.
(H. M. C.)
[1] The hide (_hid_, _hiwisc_, _familia_, _tributarius_, _cassatus_,
_manens_, &c.) was in later times a measure of land, usually 120 acres. In
early times, however, it seems to have meant (1) household, (2) normal
amount of land appertaining to a household.
BRITANNICUS, son of the Roman emperor Claudius by his third wife
Messallina, was born probably A.D. 41. He was originally called Claudius
Tiberius Germanicus, and received the name Britannicus from the senate on
account of the conquest made in Britain about the time of his birth. Till
48, the date of his mother's execution, he was looked upon as the heir
presumptive; but Agrippina, the new wife of Claudius, soon persuaded the
feeble emperor to adopt Lucius Domitius, known later as Nero, her son by a
previous marriage. After the accession of Nero, Agrippina, by playing on
his fears, induced him to poison Britannicus at a banquet (A.D. 55). A
golden statue of the young prince was set up by the emperor Titus.
Britannicus is the subject of a tragedy by Racine.
Tacitus, _Annals_, xii. 25, 41, xiii. 14-16; Suetonius, _Nero_, 33; Dio
Cassius lx. 32, 34; works quoted under NERO.
BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA, the general name given to the British protectorates
in South Central Africa north of the Zambezi river, but more particularly
to a large territory lying between 8° 25' S. on Lake Tanganyika and 17° 6'
S. on the river Shiré, near its confluence with the Zambezi, and between
36° 10' E. (district of Mlanje) and 26° 30' E. (river Luengwe-Kafukwe).
Originally the term "British Central Africa" was applied by Sir H.H.
Johnston to all the territories under British [v.04 p.0595] influence north
of the Zambezi which were formerly intended to be under one administration;
but the course of events having prevented the connexion of Barotseland (see
BAROTSE) and the other Rhodesian territories with the more direct British
administration north of the Zambezi, the name of British Central Africa was
confined officially (in 1893) to the British protectorate on the Shiré and
about Lake Nyasa. In 1907 the official title of the protectorate was
changed to that of Nyasaland Protectorate, while the titles "North Eastern
Rhodesia" and "North Western Rhodesia" (Barotseland) have been given to the
two divisions of the British South Africa Company's territory north of the
Zambezi. The western boundary, however, of the territory here described has
been taken to be a line drawn from near the source of the Lualaba on the
southern boundary of Belgian Congo to the western source of the Luanga
river, and thence the course of the Luanga to its junction with the
Luengwe-Kafukwe, after which the main course of the Kafukwe delimits the
territory down to the Zambezi. Thus, besides the Nyasaland Protectorate and
North Eastern Rhodesia, part of North Western Rhodesia is included, and for
the whole of this region British Central Africa is the most convenient
designation.
_Physical Features._--Within these limits we have a territory of about
250,000 sq. m., which includes two-thirds of Lake Nyasa, the south end of
Lake Tanganyika, more than half Lake Mweru, and the whole of Lake
Bangweulu, nearly the whole courses of the rivers Shiré and Luangwa (or
Loangwa), the whole of the river Chambezi (the most remote of the
headwaters of the river Congo), the right or east bank of the Luapula (or
upper Congo) from its exit from Lake Bangweulu to its issue from the north
end of Lake Mweru; also the river Luanga and the whole course of the Kafue
or Kafukwe.[1] Other lesser sheets of water included within the limits of
this territory are the Great Mweru Swamp, between Tanganyika and Mweru,
Moir's Lake (a small mountain tarn--possibly a crater lake--lying between
the Luangwa and the Luapula), Lake Malombe (on the upper Shiré), and the
salt lake Chilwa (wrongly styled Shirwa, being the Bantu word _Kilwa_),
which lies on the borders of the Portuguese province of Moçambique. The
southern border of this territory is the north bank of the Zambezi from the
confluence of the Kafukwe to that of the Luangwa at Zumbo. Eastwards of
Zumbo, British Central Africa is separated from the river Zambezi by the
Portuguese possessions; nevertheless, considerably more than two-thirds of
the country lies within the Zambezi basin, and is included within the
subordinate basins of Lake Nyasa and of the rivers Luangwa and
Luengwe-Kafukwe. The remaining portions drain into the basins of the river
Congo and of Lake Tanganyika, and also into the small lake or half-dried
swamp called Chilwa, which at the present time has no outlet, though in
past ages it probably emptied itself into the Lujenda river, and thence
into the Indian Ocean.
As regards orographical features, much of the country is high plateau, with
an average altitude of 3500 ft. above sea-level. Only a very minute portion
of its area--the country along the banks of the river Shiré--lies at
anything like a low elevation; though the Luangwa valley may not be more
than about 900 ft. above sea-level. Lake Nyasa lies at an elevation of 1700
ft. above the sea, is about 350 m. long, with a breadth varying from 15 to
40 m. Lake Tanganyika is about 2600 ft. above sea-level, with a length of
about 400 m. and an average breadth of nearly 40 m. Lake Mweru and Lake
Bangweulu are respectively 3000 and 3760 ft. above sea-level; Lake Chilwa
is 1946 ft. in altitude. The highest mountain found within the limits
previously laid down is Mount Mlanje, in the extreme south-eastern corner
of the protectorate. This remarkable and picturesque mass is an isolated
"chunk" of the Archean plateau, through which at a later date there has
been a volcanic outburst of basalt. The summit and sides of this mass
exhibit several craters. The highest peak of Mlanje reaches an altitude of
9683 ft. (In German territory, near the north end of Lake Nyasa, and close
to the British frontier, is Mount Rungwe, the altitude of which exceeds
10,000 ft.) Other high mountains are Mounts Chongone and Dedza, in
Angoniland, which reach an altitude of 7000 ft., and points on the Nyika
Plateau and in the Konde Mountains to the north-west of Lake Nyasa, which
probably exceed a height of 8000 ft. There are also Mounts Zomba (6900 ft.)
and Chiradzulu (5500 ft.) in the Shiré Highlands. The principal plateaus or
high ridges are (1) the Shiré Highlands, a clump of mountainous country
lying between the river Shiré, the river Ruo, Lake Chilwa and the south end
of Lake Nyasa; (2) Angoniland--a stretch of elevated country to the west of
Lake Nyasa and the north-west of the river Shiré; (3) the Nyika Plateau,
which lies to the north of Angoniland; and (4) the Nyasa-Tanganyika
Plateau, between the basin of the river Luangwa, the vicinity of Tanganyika
and the vicinity of Lake Mweru (highest point, 7000-8000 ft.). Finally may
be mentioned the tract of elevated country between Lake Bangweulu and the
river Luapula, and between Lake Bangweulu and the basin of the Luangwa; and
also the Lukinga (Mushinga) or Ugwara Mountains of North Western Rhodesia,
which attain perhaps to altitudes of 6000 ft.
The whole of this part of Africa is practically without any stretch of
desert country, being on the whole favoured with an abundant rainfall. The
nearest approach to a desert is the rather dry land to the east and
north-east of Lake Mweru. Here, and in parts of the lower Shiré district,
the annual rainfall probably does not exceed an average of 35 in.
Elsewhere, in the vicinity of the highest mountains, the rainfall may
attain an average of 75 in., in parts of Mount Mlanje possibly often
reaching to 100 in. in the year. The average may be put at 50 in. per
annum, which is also about the average rainfall of the Shiré Highlands,
that part of British Central Africa which at present attracts the greatest
number of European settlers.
_Geology._--The whole formation is Archean and Primary (with a few modern
plutonic outbursts), and chiefly consists of granite, felspar, quartz,
gneiss, schists, amphibolite and other Archean rocks, with Primary
sandstones and limestones in the basin of Lake Nyasa (a great rift
depression), the river Shiré, and the regions within the northern watershed
of the Zambezi river. Sandstones of Karroo age occur in the basin of the
Luangwa (N.E. Rhodesia). There are evidences of recent volcanic activity on
the summit of the small Mlanje plateau (S.E. corner of the protectorate:
here there are two extinct craters with a basaltic outflow), and at the
north end of Lake Nyasa and the eastern edge of the Tanganyika plateau.
Here there are many craters and much basalt, or even lava; also hot
springs.
_Metals and Minerals._--Gold has been found in the Shiré Highlands, in the
hills along the Nyasa-Zambezi waterparting, and in the mountainous region
west of Lake Nyasa; silver (galena, silver-lead) in the hills of the
Nyasa-Zambezi waterparting; lead in the same district; graphite in the
western basin of Lake Nyasa; copper (pyrites and pure ore) in the west
Nyasa region and in the hills of North Western and North Eastern Rhodesia;
iron ore almost universally; mica almost universally; coal occurs in the
north and west Nyasa districts (especially in the Karroo sandstones of the
Rukuru valley), and perhaps along the Zambezi-Nyasa waterparting; limestone
in the Shiré basin; malachite in south-west Angoniland and North Western
Rhodesia; and perhaps petroleum in places along the Nyasa-Zambezi
waterparting. (See also RHODESIA.)
_Flora_.--No part of the country comes within the forest region of West
Africa. The whole of it may be said to lie within the savannah or park-like
division of the continent. As a general rule, the landscape is of a
pleasing and attractive character, well covered with vegetation and fairly
well watered. Actual forests of lofty trees, forests of a West African
type, are few in number, and are chiefly limited to portions of the Nyika,
Angoniland and Shiré Highlands plateaus, and to a few nooks in valleys near
the south end of Tanganyika. Patches of forest of tropical luxuriance may
still be seen on the slopes of Mounts Mlanje and Chiradzulu. On the upper
plateaus of Mount Mlanje there are forests of a remarkable conifer
(_Widdringtonia whytei_), a relation of the cypress, which in appearance
resembles much more the cedar, and is therefore wrongly styled the "Mlanje
cedar." This tree is remarkable as being the most northern form of a group
of yew-like conifers confined otherwise to South Africa (Cape Colony).
Immense areas in the lower-lying plains are covered by long, coarse grass,
sometimes reaching 10 ft. in height. Most of the West African forest trees
are represented in British Central Africa. A full list of the known flora
has been compiled by Sir W. Thiselton-Dyer and his assistants at Kew, and
is given in the first and second editions of Sir H. H. Johnston's work on
British Central Africa. Amongst the principal vegetable products of the
country interesting for commercial purposes may be mentioned tobacco
(partly native varieties and partly introduced); coffee (wild coffee is
said to grow in some of the mountainous districts, but the actual coffee
cultivated by the European settlers has been introduced from abroad);
rubber--derived chiefly from the various species of _Landolphia_, _Ficus_,
_Clitandra_, _Carpodinus_ and _Conopharygia_, and from other apocynaceous
plants; the _Strophanthus_ pod (furnishing a valuable drug); ground-nuts
(_Arachis_ and _Voandzeia_); the cotton plant; all African cultivated
cereals (_Sorghum_, _Pennisetum_, maize, rice, wheat--cultivated chiefly by
Europeans--and _Eleusine_); and six species of palms--the oil palm on the
north-west (near Lake Nyasa, at the south end of Tanganyika and on the
Luapula), the _Borassus_ and _Hyphaene_, _Phoenix_ (or wild date), _Raphia_
and the coco-nut palm. The last named was introduced by Arabs and
Europeans, and is found on Lake Nyasa and on the lower Shiré. Most of the
European vegetables have been introduced, and thrive exceedingly well,
especially the potato. The mango has also been introduced from India, and
has taken to the Shiré Highlands as to a second home. Oranges, lemons and
limes have been planted by Europeans and Arabs in a few districts. European
fruit trees do not ordinarily flourish, though apples are grown to some
extent at Blantyre. The vine hitherto has proved a failure. Pineapples give
the best result [v.04 p.0596] among cultivated fruit, and strawberries do
well in the higher districts. In the mountains the native wild brambles
give blackberries of large size and excellent flavour. The vegetable
product through which this protectorate first attracted trade was coffee,
the export of which, however, has passed through very disheartening
fluctuations. In 1905-1906, 773,919 lb of coffee (value £16,123) were
exported; but during this twelve months the crop of cotton--quite a newly
developed product, rose to 776,621 lb, from 285,185 lb in 1904-1905. An
equally marked increase in tobacco and ground-nuts (_Arachis_) has taken
place. Beeswax is a rising export.
_Fauna._--The fauna is on the whole very rich. It has affinities in a few
respects with the West African forest region, but differs slightly from the
countries to the north and south by the absence of such animals as prefer
drier climates, as for instance the oryx antelopes, gazelles and the
ostrich. There is a complete blank in the distribution of this last between
the districts to the south of the Zambezi and those of East Africa between
Victoria Nyanza and the Indian Ocean. The giraffe is found in the Luanga
valley; it is also met with in the extreme north-east of the country. The
ordinary African rhinoceros is still occasionally, but very rarely, seen in
the Shiré Highlands, The African elephant is fairly common throughout the
whole territory. Lions and leopards are very abundant; the zebra is still
found in great numbers, and belongs to the Central African variety of
Burchell's zebra, which is completely striped down to the hoofs, and is
intermediate in many particulars between the true zebra of the mountains
and Burchell's zebra of the plains. The principal antelopes found are the
sable and the roan (_Hippotragus_), five species of _Cobus_ or waterbuck
(the puku, the Senga puku, the lechwe, Crawshay's waterbuck and the common
waterbuck); the pallah, tsessébe (_Damaliscus_), hartebeest, brindled gnu
(perhaps two species), several duykers (including the large _Cephalophus
sylvicultrix_), klipspringer, oribi, steinbok and reedbuck. Among
tragelaphs are two or more bushbucks, the inyala, the water tragelaph
(_Limnotragus selousi_), the kudu and Livingstone's eland. The only buffalo
is the common Cape species. The hyaena is the spotted kind. The hunting dog
is present. There are some seven species of monkeys, including two baboons
and one colobus. The hippopotamus is found in the lakes and rivers, and all
these sheets of water are infested with crocodiles, apparently belonging to
but one species, the common Nile crocodile.
_Inhabitants._--The human race is represented by only one indigenous native
type--the Negro. No trace is anywhere found of a Hamitic intermixture
(unless perhaps at the north end of Lake Nyasa, where the physique of the
native Awankonde recalls that of the Nilotic negro). Arabs from Zanzibar
have settled in the country, but not, as far as is known, earlier than the
beginning of the 19th century. As the present writer takes the general term
"Negro" to include equally the Bantu, Hottentot, Bushman and Congo Pygmy,
this designation will cover all the natives of British Central Africa. The
Bantu races, however, exhibit in some parts signs of Hottentot or Bushman
intermixture, and there are legends in some mountain districts, especially
Mount Mlanje, of the former existence of unmixed Bushman tribes, while
Bushman stone implements are found at the south end of Tanganyika. At the
present day the population is, as a rule, of a black or chocolate-coloured
Negro type, and belongs, linguistically, entirely and exclusively to the
Bantu family. The languages spoken offer several very interesting forms of
Bantu speech, notably in the districts between the north end of Lake Nyasa,
the south end of Lake Tanganyika, and the river Luapula. In the more or
less plateau country included within these geographical limits, the Bantu
dialects are of an archaic type, and to the present writer it has seemed as
though one of them, Kibemba or Kiwemba, came near to the original form of
the Bantu mother-language, though not nearer than the interesting Subiya of
southern Barotseland. Through dialects spoken on the west and north of
Tanganyika, these languages of North Eastern Rhodesia and northern
Nyasaland and of the Kafukwe basin are connected with the Bantu languages
of Uganda. They also offer a slight resemblance to Zulu-Kaffir, and it
would seem as though the Zulu-Kaffir race must have come straight down from
the countries to the north-east of Tanganyika, across the Zambezi, to their
present home. Curiously enough, some hundreds of years after this southward
migration, intestine wars and conflicts actually determined a
north-eastward return migration of Zulus. From Matabeleland, Zulu tribes
crossed the Zambezi at various periods (commencing from about 1820), and
gradually extended their ravages and dominion over the plateaus to the
west, north and north-east of Lake Nyasa. The Zulu language is still spoken
by the dominating caste in West Nyasaland (see further ZULULAND:
_Ethnology_; RHODESIA: _Ethnology_; and YAOS). As regards foreign settlers
in this part of Africa, the Arabs may be mentioned first, though they are
now met with only in very small numbers. The Arabs undoubtedly first
_heard_ of this rich country--rich not alone in natural products such as
ivory, but also in slaves of good quality--from their settlements near the
delta of the river Zambezi, and these settlements may date back to an early
period, and might be coeval with the suggested pre-Islamite Arab
settlements in the gold-bearing regions of South East Africa. But the Arabs
do not seem to have made much progress in their penetration of the country
in the days before firearms; and when firearms came into use they were for
a long time forestalled by the Portuguese, who ousted them from the
Zambezi. But about the beginning of the 19th century the increasing power
and commercial enterprise of the Arab sultanate of Zanzibar caused the
Arabs of Maskat and Zanzibar to march inland from the east coast. They
gradually founded strong slave-trading settlements on the east and west
coasts of Lake Nyasa, and thence westwards to Tanganyika and the Luapula.
They never came in great numbers, however, and, except here and there on
the coast of Lake Nyasa, have left no mixed descendants in the population.
The total native population of all British Central Africa is about
2,000,000, that of the Nyasaland Protectorate being officially estimated in
1907 at 927,355. Of Europeans the protectorate possesses about 600 to 700
settlers, including some 100 officials. (For the European population of the
other territories, see RHODESIA.) The Europeans of British Central Africa
are chiefly natives of the United Kingdom or South Africa, but there are a
few Germans, Dutchmen, French, Italians and Portuguese. The protectorate
has also attracted a number of Indian traders (over 400), besides whom
about 150 British Indian soldiers (Sikhs) are employed as the nucleus of an
armed force.[2]
_Trade and Communications._--The total value of the trade of the
protectorate in the year 1899-1900 was £255,384, showing an increase of 75%
on the figures for the previous year, 1898-1899. Imports were valued at
£176,035, an increase of 62%, and exports at £79,449, an increase of 109%.
In 1905-1906 the imports reached £222,581 and the exports £56,778. The
value of imports into the Rhodesian provinces during the same period was
about £50,000, excluding railway material, and the exports £18,000. The
principal exports are (besides minerals) coffee, cotton, tobacco, rubber
and ivory. A number of Englishmen and Scotsmen (perhaps 200) are settled,
mainly in the Shiré Highlands, as coffee planters.
From the Chinde mouth of the Zambezi to Port Herald on the lower Shiré
communication is maintained by light-draught steamers, though in the dry
season (April-November) steamers cannot always ascend as far as Port
Herald, and barges have to be used to complete the voyage. A railway runs
from Port Herald to Blantyre, the commercial capital of the Shiré
Highlands. The "Cape to Cairo" railway, which crossed the Zambezi in 1905
and the Kafukwe in 1906, reached the Broken Hill mine in 1907, and in 1909
was continued to the frontier of Belgian Congo. There are regular services
by steamer between the ports on Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika. The African
trans-continental telegraph line (founded by Cecil Rhodes) runs through the
protectorate, and a branch line has been established from Lake Nyasa to
Fort Jameson, the present headquarters of the Chartered Company in North
Eastern Rhodesia.
_Towns._--The principal European settlement or town is Blantyre (_q.v._),
at a height of about 3000 ft. above the sea, in the Shiré Highlands. This
place was named after Livingstone's birthplace, and was founded in 1876 by
the Church of Scotland mission. The government capital of the protectorate,
however, is Zomba, at the base of the mountain of that name. Other
townships or sites of European settlements are Port Herald (on the lower
Shiré), Chiromo (at the junction of the Ruo and the Shiré), Fort Anderson
(on Mount Mlanje), Fort Johnston (near the outlet of the river Shiré from
the south end of Lake Nyasa), Kotakota and Bandawe (on the west coast of
Lake Nyasa), Likoma (on an island off the east coast of Lake Nyasa),
Karonga (on the north-west coast of Lake Nyasa), Fife (on the
Nyasa-Tanganyika plateau), Fort Jameson (capital of N.E. Rhodesia, near the
river Luangwa), Abercorn (on the south end of Lake Tanganyika), Kalungwisi
(on the east coast of Lake Mweru) and Fort Rosebery (near the Johnston
Falls on the Luapula [upper Congo]).
_Administration._--The present political divisions of the country [v.04
p.0597] are as follows:--The Nyasaland Protectorate, _i.e._ the districts
surrounding Lake Nyasa and the Shiré province, are administered directly
under the imperial government by a governor, who acts under the orders of
the colonial office. The governor is assisted by an executive council and
by a nominated legislative council, which consists of at least three
members. The districts to the westward, forming the provinces of North
Eastern and North Western Rhodesia, are governed by two administrators of
the British South Africa Chartered Company, in consultation with the
governor of Nyasaland and the colonial office.
_History._--The history of the territory dealt with above is recent and
slight. Apart from the vague Portuguese wanderings during the 16th and 17th
centuries, the first European explorer of any education who penetrated into
this country was the celebrated Portuguese official, Dr F.J.M. de Lacerda e
Almeida, who journeyed from Tete on the Zambezi to the vicinity of Lake
Mweru. But the real history of the country begins with the advent of David
Livingstone, who in 1859 penetrated up the Shiré river and discovered Lake
Nyasa. Livingstone's subsequent journeys, to the south end of Tanganyika,
to Lake Mweru and to Lake Bangweulu (where he died in 1873), opened up this
important part of South Central Africa and centred in it British interests
in a very particular manner. Livingstone's death was soon followed by the
entry of various missionary societies, who commenced the evangelization of
the country; and these missionaries, together with a few Scottish settlers,
steadily opposed the attempts of the Portuguese to extend their sway in
this direction from the adjoining provinces of Moçambique and of the
Zambezi. From out of the missionary societies grew a trading company, the
African Lakes Trading Corporation. This body came into conflict with a
number of Arabs who had established themselves on the north end of Lake
Nyasa. About 1885 a struggle began between Arab and Briton for the
possession of the country, which was not terminated until the year 1896.
The African Lakes Corporation in its unofficial war enlisted volunteers,
amongst whom were Captain (afterwards Sir F.D.) Lugard and Mr (afterwards
Sir) Alfred Sharpe. Both these gentlemen were wounded, and the operations
they undertook were not crowned with complete success. In 1889 Mr
(afterwards Sir) H.H. Johnston was sent out to endeavour to effect a
possible arrangement of the dispute between the Arabs and the African Lakes
Corporation, and also to ensure the protection of friendly native chiefs
from Portuguese aggression beyond a certain point. The outcome of these
efforts and the treaties made was the creation of the British protectorate
and sphere of influence north of the Zambezi (see AFRICA; § 5). In 1891
Johnston returned to the country as imperial commissioner and
consul-general. In the interval between 1889 and 1891 Mr Alfred Sharpe, on
behalf of Cecil Rhodes, had brought a large part of the country into treaty
with the British South Africa Company, These territories (Northern
Rhodesia) were administered for four years by Sir Harry Johnston in
connexion with the British Central Africa protectorate. Between 1891 and
1895 a long struggle continued, between the British authorities on the one
hand and the Arabs and Mahommedan Yaos on the other, regarding the
suppression of the slave trade. By the beginning of 1896 the last Arab
stronghold was taken and the Yaos were completely reduced to submission.
Then followed, during 1896-1898, wars with the Zulu (Angoni) tribes, who
claimed to dominate and harass the native populations to the west of Lake
Nyasa. The Angoni having been subdued, and the British South Africa Company
having also quelled the turbulent Awemba and Bashukulumbwe, there is a
reasonable hope of the country enjoying a settled peace and considerable
prosperity. This prospect has been, indeed, already realized to a
considerable extent, though the increase of commerce has scarcely been as
rapid as was anticipated. In 1897, on the transference of Sir Harry
Johnston to Tunis, the commissionership was conferred on Mr Alfred Sharpe,
who was created a K.C.M.G. in 1903. In 1904 the administration of the
protectorate, originally directed by the foreign office, was transferred to
the colonial office. In 1907, on the change in the title of the
protectorate, the designation of the chief official was altered from
commissioner to governor, and executive and legislative councils were
established. The mineral surveys and railway construction commenced under
the foreign office were carried on vigorously under the colonial office.
The increased revenue, from £51,000 in 1901-1902 to £76,000 in 1905-1906,
for the protectorate alone (see also RHODESIA), is an evidence of
increasing prosperity. Expenditure in excess of revenue is met by grants in
aid from the imperial exchequer, so far as the Nyasaland Protectorate is
concerned. The British South Africa Company finances the remainder. The
native population is well disposed towards European rule, having, indeed,
at all times furnished the principal contingent of the armed force with
which the African Lakes Company, British South Africa Company or the
British government endeavoured to oppose Arab, Zulu or Awemba aggression.
The protectorate government maintains three gunboats on Lake Nyasa, and the
British South Africa Company an armed steamer on Lake Tanganyika.
Unfortunately, though so rich and fertile, the land is not as a rule very
healthy for Europeans, though there are signs of improvement in this
respect. The principal scourges are black-water fever and dysentery,
besides ordinary malarial fever, malarial ulcers, pneumonia and bronchitis.
The climate is agreeable, and except in the low-lying districts is never
unbearably hot; while on the high mountain plateaus frost frequently occurs
during the dry season.
See _Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambezi_, &c., by David and Charles
Livingstone (1865); _Last Journals of David Livingstone_, edited by the
Rev. Horace Waller (1874); L. Monteith Fotheringham, _Adventures in
Nyasaland_ (1891); Henry Drummond, _Tropical Africa_ (4th ed., 1891); Rev.
D.C. Scott, _An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Mang'anja Language, as
spoken in British Central Africa_ (1891); Sir H.H. Johnston, _British
Central Africa_ (2nd ed., 1898); Miss A. Werner, _The Natives of British
Central Africa_ (1906); John Buchanan, _The Shiré Highlands_ (1885); Lionel
Décle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (1898); H.L. Duff, _Nyasaland under
the Foreign Office_ (1903); J.E.S. Moore, _The Tanganyika Problem_ (1904);
articles on North Eastern and North Western Rhodesia (chiefly by Frank
Melland) in the _Journal of the African Society_ (1902-1906); annual
_Reports_ on British Central Africa published by the Colonial Office;
various linguistic works by Miss A. Werner, the Rev. Govan Robertson, Dr R.
Laws, A.C. Madan, Father Torrend and Monsieur E. Jacottet.
(H. H. J.)
[1] The nomenclature of several of these rivers is perplexing. It should be
borne in mind that the Luanga (also known as the Lunga) is a tributary of
the Luengwe-Kafukwe, itself often called Kafue, and that the Luangwa (or
Loangwa) is an independent affluent of the Zambezi (_q.v._).
[2] The organized armed forces and police are under the direction of the
imperial government throughout British Central Africa, and number about 880
(150 Sikhs, 730 negroes and 14 British officers).
BRITISH COLUMBIA, the western province of the Dominion of Canada. It is
bounded on the east by the continental watershed in the Rocky Mountains,
until this, in its north-westerly course, intersects 120° W., which is
followed north to 60° N., thus including within the province a part of the
Peace river country to the east of the mountains. The southern boundary is
formed by 49° N. and the strait separating Vancouver Island from the state
of Washington. The northern boundary is 60° N., the western the Pacific
Ocean, upon which the province fronts for about 600 m., and the coast strip
of Alaska for a further distance of 400 m. Vancouver Island and the Queen
Charlotte Islands, as well as the smaller islands lying off the western
coast of Canada, belong to the province of British Columbia.
_Physical Features._--British Columbia is essentially a mountainous
country, for the Rocky Mountains which in the United States lie to the east
of the Great Basin, on running to the north bear toward the west and
approach the ranges which border the Pacific coast. Thus British Columbia
comprises practically the entire width of what has been termed the
Cordillera or Cordilleran belt of North America, between the parallels of
latitude above indicated. There are two ruling mountain systems in this
belt--the Rocky Mountains proper on the north-east side, and the Coast
Range on the south-west or Pacific side. Between these are subordinate
ranges to which various local names have been given, as well as the
"Interior Plateau"--an elevated tract of hilly country, the hill summits
having an accordant altitude, which lies to the east of the Coast Range.
The several ranges, having been produced by successive foldings of the
earth's crust in a direction parallel to the border of the Pacific Ocean,
have a common trend which is south-east and north-west. Vancouver Island
and the Queen Charlotte Islands are remnants of still another mountain
range, which runs parallel to the coast but is now almost entirely
submerged beneath the waters of the Pacific. The province might be said to
consist of a series of parallel mountain ranges with long narrow valleys
lying between them.
The Rocky Mountains are composed chiefly of palaeozoic sediments ranging in
age from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous, with subordinate infolded areas
of Cretaceous which hold coal. The average height of the range along the
United States boundary is 8000 ft., but the range culminates between the
latitudes of 51° and 53°, the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies being
Mount Robson, 13,700 [v.04 p.0598] ft., although the highest peak in
British Columbia is Mount Fairweather on the International Boundary, which
rises to 15,287 ft. Other high peaks in the Rocky Mountains of Canada are
Columbia, 12,740 ft.; Forbes, 12,075; Assiniboine, 11,860; Bryce. 11,686;
Temple, 11,626; Lyell, 11,463. There are a number of passes over the Rocky
Mountains, among which may be mentioned, beginning from the south, the
South Kootenay or Boundary Pass, 7100 ft.; the Crow's Nest Pass, 5500 (this
is traversed by the southern branch of the Canadian Pacific railway and
crosses great coal fields); the Kicking Horse or Wapta Pass, 5300 (which is
traversed by the main line of the Canadian Pacific railway); the Athabasca
Pass, 6025; the Yellow Head Pass, 3733 (which will probably be used by the
Grand Trunk Pacific railway); the Pine River Pass, 2850; and the Peace
River Pass, 2000, through which the Peace river flows.
The Coast Range, sometimes called the Cascade Range, borders the Pacific
coast for 900 m. and gives to it its remarkable character. To its partially
submerged transverse valleys are due the excellent harbours on the coast,
the deep sounds and inlets which penetrate far inland at many points, as
well as the profound and gloomy fjords and the stupendous precipices which
render the coast line an exaggerated reproduction of that of Norway. The
coast is, in fact, one of the most remarkable in the world, measuring with
all its indentations 7000 m. in the aggregate, and being fringed with an
archipelago of innumerable islands, of which Vancouver Island and the Queen
Charlotte Islands are the largest.
Along the south-western side of the Rocky Mountains is a very remarkable
valley of considerable geological antiquity, in which some seven of the
great rivers of the Pacific slope, among them the Kootenay, Columbia,
Fraser and Finlay, flow for portions of their upper courses. This valley,
which is from 1 to 6 m. in width, can be traced continuously for a length
of at least 800 m. One of the most important rivers of the province is the
Fraser, which, rising in the Rocky Mountains, flows for a long distance to
the north-west, and then turning south eventually crosses the Coast Range
by a deep canton-like valley and empties into the Strait of Georgia, a few
miles south of the city of Vancouver. The Columbia, which rises farther
south in the same range, flows north for about 150 m., crossing the main
line of the Canadian Pacific railway at Donald, and then bending abruptly
back upon its former course, flows south, recrossing the Canadian Pacific
railway at Revelstoke, and on through the Arrow Lakes in the Kootenay
country into the United States, emptying into the Pacific Ocean at Astoria
in the state of Oregon. These lakes, as well as the other large lakes in
southern British Columbia, remain open throughout the winter. In the
north-western part of the province the Skeena flows south-west into the
Pacific, and still farther to the north the Stikine rises in British
Columbia, but before entering the Pacific crosses the coast strip of
Alaska. The Liard, rising in the same district, flows east and falls into
the Mackenzie, which empties into the Arctic Ocean. The headwaters of the
Yukon are also situated in the northern part of the province. All these
rivers are swift and are frequently interrupted by rapids, so that, as
means of communication for commercial purposes, they are of indifferent
value. Wherever lines of railway are constructed, they lose whatever
importance they may have held in this respect previously.
At an early stage in the Glacial period British Columbia was covered by the
Cordilleran glacier, which moved south-eastwards and north-westwards, in
correspondence with the ruling features of the country, from a
gathering-ground situated in the vicinity of the 57th parallel. Ice from
this glacier poured through passes in the coast ranges, and to a lesser
extent debouched upon the edge of the great plains, beyond the Rocky
Mountain range. The great valley between the coast ranges and Vancouver
Island was also occupied by a glacier that moved in both directions from a
central point in the vicinity of Valdez Island. The effects of this glacial
action and of the long periods of erosion preceding it and of other
physiographic changes connected with its passing away, have most important
bearings on the distribution and character of the gold-bearing alluviums of
the province.
_Climate._--The subjoined figures relating to temperature and precipitation
are from a table prepared by Mr R.F. Stupart, director of the
meteorological service. The station at Victoria may be taken as
representing the conditions of the southern part of the coast of British
Columbia, although the rainfall is much greater on exposed parts of the
outer coast. Agassiz represents the Fraser delta and Kamloops the southern
interior district. The mean temperature naturally decreases to the
northward of these selected stations, both along the coast and in the
interior, while the precipitation increases. The figures given for Port
Simpson are of interest, as the Pacific terminus of the Grand Trunk Pacific
railway will be in this vicinity.
+----------------+-----------------------------+----------------+
| | | Absolute |
| | Mean Temp., Fahr. | Temperature. |
+----------------+----------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
| | Coldest | Warmest |Average|Highest.|Lowest.|
| | Month. | Month. |Annual.| | |
+----------------+----------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
| Victoria[1] |Jan. 37.5°|July 60.3°| 48.8° | 90° | -1° |
| Agassiz[2] |Jan. 33.0°|Aug. 64.7°| 48.9° | 97° | -13° |
| Kamloops[3] |Jan. 24.2°|Aug. 68.5°| 47.1° | 101° | -27° |
| Port Simpson[4]|Jan. 34.9°|Aug. 56.9°| 45.1° | 88° | -10° |
+----------------+----------+----------+-------+--------+-------+
+--------------+-----------------------------+
| | |
| | Rainfall--Inches. |
+--------------+----------+----------+-------+
| | Wettest | Driest |Average|
| | Month. | Month. |Annual.|
+--------------+----------+----------+-------+
| Victoria |Dec. 7.98|July .4 | 37.77 |
| Agassiz |Dec. 9.43|July 1.55| 66.85 |
| Kamloops |July 1.61|April .37| 11.46 |
| Port Simpson |Oct. 12.42|June 4.37| 94.63 |
+--------------+----------+----------+-------+
[1] 48° 24' N., 123° 19' W., height 85 ft.
[2] 49° 14' N., 121° 31' W., height 52 ft.
[3] 50° 41' N., 120° 29' W., height 1193 ft.
[4] 54° 34' N., 130° 26' W., height 26 ft.
_Fauna._--Among the larger mammals are the big-horn or mountain sheep
(_Ovis canadensis_), the Rocky Mountain goat (_Mazama montana_), the
grizzly bear, moose, woodland caribou, black-tailed or mule deer,
white-tailed deer, and coyote. All these are to be found only on the
mainland. The black bear, wolf, puma, lynx, wapiti, and Columbian or coast
deer are common to parts of both mainland and islands. Of marine mammals
the most characteristic are the sea-lion, fur-seal, sea-otter and
harbour-seal. About 340 species of birds are known to occur in the
province, among which, as of special interest, may be mentioned the
burrowing owl of the dry, interior region, the American magpie, Steller's
jay and a true nut-cracker, Clark's crow (_Picicorvus columbianus_). True
jays and orioles are also well represented. The gallinaceous birds include
the large blue grouse of the coast, replaced in the Rocky Mountains by the
dusky grouse. The western form of the "spruce partridge" of eastern Canada
is also abundant, together with several forms referred to the genus
_Bonasa_, generally known as "partridges" or ruffed grouse. Ptarmigans also
abound in many of the higher mountain regions. Of the _Anatidae_ only
passing mention need be made. During the spring and autumn migrations many
species are found in great abundance, but in the summer a smaller number
remain to breed, chief among which are the teal, mallard, wood-duck,
spoon-bill, pin-tail, buffle-head, red-head, canvas-back, scaup-duck, &c.
_Area and Population._--The area of British Columbia is 357,600 sq. m., and
its population by the census of 1901 was 190,000. Since that date this has
been largely increased by the influx of miners and others, consequent upon
the discovery of precious metals in the Kootenay, Boundary and Atlin
districts. Much of this is a floating population, but the opening up of the
valleys by railway and new lines of steamboats, together with the
settlements made in the vicinity of the Canadian Pacific railway, has
resulted in a considerable increase of the permanent population. The white
population comprises men of many nationalities. There is a large Chinese
population, the census of 1901 returning 14,201. The influx of Chinamen
has, however, practically ceased, owing to the tax of $500 per head imposed
by the government of the dominion. Many Japanese have also come in. The
Japanese are engaged chiefly in lumbering and fishing, but the Chinese are
found everywhere in the province. Great objection is taken by the white
population to the increasing number of "Mongolians," owing to their
competition with whites in the labour markets. The Japanese do not appear
to be so much disliked, as they adapt themselves to the ways of white men,
but they are equally objected to on the score of cheap labour; and in
1907-1908 considerable friction occurred with the Dominion government over
the Anti-Japanese attitude of British Columbia, which was shown in some
rather serious riots. In the census of 1901 the Indian population is
returned at 25,488; of these 20,351 are professing Christians and 5137 are
pagans. The Indians are divided into very many tribes, under local names,
but fall naturally on linguistic grounds into a few large groups. Thus the
southern part of the interior is occupied by the Salish and Kootenay, and
the northern interior by the Tinneh or Athapackan people. On the coast are
the Haida, Tsimshian, Kwakiatl, Nootka, and about the Gulf of Georgia
various tribes related to the Salish proper. There is no treaty with the
Indians of British Columbia, as with those of the plains, for the
relinquishment of their title to the land, but the government otherwise
assists them. There is an Indian superintendent at Victoria, and under him
are nine agencies throughout the province to attend to the
Indians--relieving their sick and destitute, supplying them with seed and
implements, settling their disputes and administering justice. The Indian
fishing stations and burial grounds are reserved, and other land has been
set apart for them for agricultural and pastoral purposes. A number of
schools have been established for their education. They were at one time a
dangerous element, but are now quiet and peaceable.
The chief cities are Victoria, the capital, on Vancouver Island; and
Vancouver on the mainland, New Westminster on the Fraser and Nanaimo on
Vancouver Island. Rossland and Nelson in West Kootenay, as well as Fernie
in East Kootenay and Grand Forks in the Boundary district, are also places
of importance.
_Mining._--Mining is the principal industry of British Columbia. The
country is rich in gold, silver, copper, lead and coal, and has also iron
deposits. From 1894 to 1904 the mining output increased from $4,225,717 to
$18,977,359. In 1905 it had reached $22,460,295. The principal minerals, in
order of value of output, are gold, copper, coal, lead and silver. Between
1858--the year of the placer discoveries on the Fraser river and in the
Cariboo district--and 1882, the placer yields were much heavier than in
subsequent years, running from one to nearly four million dollars annually,
but there was no quartz mining. Since 1899 placer mining has increased
considerably, although the greater part of the return has been from lode
mining. The Rossland, the Boundary and the Kootenay districts are the chief
centres of vein-mining, yielding auriferous and cupriferous sulphide ores,
as well as large quantities of silver-bearing lead ores. Ores of copper and
the precious metals are being prospected and worked also, in several places
along the coast and on Vancouver Island. The mining laws are liberal, and
being based on the experience gained in the adjacent mining centres of the
Western States, are convenient and effective. The most important smelting
and reducing plants are those at Trail and Nelson in the West Kootenay
country, and at Grand Forks and Greenwood in the Boundary district. There
are also numerous concentrating plants. Mining machinery of the most modern
types is employed wherever machinery is required.
The province contains enormous supplies of excellent coal, most of which
are as yet untouched. It is chiefly of Cretaceous age. The producing
collieries are chiefly on Vancouver Island and on the western slope of the
Rockies near the Crow's Nest Pass in the extreme south-eastern portion of
the provinces. Immense beds of high grade bituminous coal and
semi-anthracite are exposed in the Bulkley Valley, south of the Skeena
river, not far from the projected line of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway.
About one-half the coal mined is exported to the United States.
_Fisheries._--A large percentage of the commerce is derived from the sea,
the chief product being salmon. Halibut, cod (several varieties), oolachan,
sturgeon, herring, shad and many other fishes are also plentiful, but with
the exception of the halibut these have not yet become the objects of
extensive industries. There are several kinds of salmon, and they run in
British Columbia waters at different seasons of the year. The quinnat or
spring salmon is the largest and best table fish, and is followed in the
latter part of the summer by the sockeye, which runs in enormous numbers up
the Fraser and Skeena rivers. This is the fish preferred for canning. It is
of brighter colour, more uniform in size, and comes in such quantities that
a constant supply can be reckoned upon by the canneries. About the mouth of
the Fraser river from 1800 to 2600 boats are occupied during the run. There
is an especially large run of sockeye salmon in the Fraser river every
fourth year, while in the year immediately following there is a poor run.
The silver salmon or cohoe arrives a little later than the sockeye, but is
not much used for packing except when required to make up deficiencies. The
dog-salmon is not canned, but large numbers are caught by the Japanese, who
salt them for export to the Orient. The other varieties are of but little
commercial importance at present, although with the increasing demand for
British Columbia salmon, the fishing season is being extended to cover the
runs of all the varieties of this fish found in the waters of the province.
Great Britain is the largest but not the only market for British Columbia
salmon. The years vary in productiveness, 1901 having been unusually large
and 1903 the smallest in eleven years, but the average pack is about
700,000 cases of forty-eight 1-lb tins, the greater part of all returns
being from the Fraser river canneries, the Skeena river and the Rivers
Inlet coming next in order. There are between 60 and 70 canneries, of which
about 40 are on the banks of [v.04 p.0600] the Fraser river. There is
urgent need for the enactment of laws restricting the catch of salmon, as
the industry is now seriously threatened. The fish oils are extracted
chiefly from several species of dog-fish, and sometimes from the basking
shark, as well as from the oolachan, which is also an edible fish.
The fur-seal fishery is an important industry, though apparently a
declining one. Owing to the scarcity of seals and international
difficulties concerning pelagic sealing in Bering Sea, where the greatest
number have been taken, the business of seal-hunting is losing favour.
Salmon fish-hatcheries have been established on the chief rivers frequented
by these fish. Oysters and lobsters from the Atlantic coast have been
planted in British Columbia waters.
_Timber._--The province is rich in forest growth, and there is a steady
demand for its lumber in the other parts of Canada as well as in South
America, Africa, Australia and China. The following is a list of some of
the more important trees--large leaved maple (_Acer macrophyllum_), red
alder (_Alnus rubra_), western larch (_Larix occidentalis_), white spruce
(_Picea alba_), Engellmann's spruce (_Picea Engelmanii_), Menzies's spruce
(_Picea sitchensis_), white mountain pine (_Pinus monticola_), black pine
(_Pinus murrayana_), yellow pine (_Pinus ponderosa_), Douglas fir
(_Pseudotsuga Douglasii_), western white oak (_Quercus garryana_), giant
cedar (_Thuya gigantea_), yellow cypress or cedar (_Thuya excelsa_),
western hemlock (_Tsuga mertensiana_). The principal timber of commerce is
the Douglas fir. The tree is often found 300 ft. high and from 8 to 10ft.
in diameter. The wood is tough and strong and highly valued for ships'
spars as well as for building purposes. Red or giant cedar, which rivals
the Douglas fir in girth, is plentiful, and is used for shingles as well as
for interior work. The western white spruce is also much employed for
various purposes. There are about eighty sawmills, large and small, in the
province. The amount of timber cut on Dominion government lands in 1904 was
22,760,222 ft., and the amount cut on provincial lands was 325,271,568 ft.,
giving a total of 348,031,790 ft. In 1905 the cut on dominion lands
exceeded that in 1904, while the amount cut on provincial lands reached
450,385,554 ft. The cargo shipments of lumber for the years 1904 and 1905
were as follows:--
1904. 1905.
Ft. Ft.
United Kingdom 7,498,301 13,690,869
South America 15,647,808 13.332,993
Australia 10,045,094 11,596,482
South Africa 2,517,154 7,093,681
China and Japan 4,802,426 4,787,784
Germany 983,342
Fiji Islands 308,332 29,949
France 1,308,662
--------- ----------
42,199,777 51,515,100
There is a very large market for British Columbia lumber in the western
provinces of Canada.
_Agriculture._--Although mountainous in character the province contains
many tracts of good farming land. These lie in the long valleys between the
mountain ranges of the interior, as well as on the lower slopes of the
mountains and on the deltas of the rivers running out to the coast. On
Vancouver Island also there is much good farming land. The conditions are
in most places best suited to mixed farming; the chief crops raised are
wheat, oats, potatoes and hay. Some areas are especially suited for cattle
and sheep raising, among which may be mentioned the Yale district and the
country about Kamloops. Much attention has been given to fruit raising,
especially in the Okanagan valley. Apples, plums and cherries are grown, as
well as peaches, apricots, grapes and various small fruits, notably
strawberries. All these are of excellent quality. Hops are also cultivated.
A large market for this fruit is opening up in the rapidly growing
provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.
_Imports and Exports._--For the year ending June 30th 1905 the total
exports and imports (showing a slight gradual increase on the two preceding
years) were valued at $16,677,882 and $12,565,019 respectively. The exports
were classified as follows:--Mines, $9,777,423; fisheries, $2,101,533;
forests, $1,046,718; animals, $471,231; agriculture, $119,426;
manufactures, $1,883,777; miscellaneous, $1,106,643; coin and bullion,
$171,131.
_Railways._--The Pacific division of the Canadian Pacific railway enters
British Columbia through the Rocky Mountains on the east and runs for about
500 m. across the province before reaching the terminus at Vancouver. A
branch of the same railway leaves the main line at Medicine Hat, and
running to the south-west, crosses the Rocky Mountains through the Crow's
Nest Pass, and thus enters British Columbia a short distance north of the
United States boundary. This continues across the province, running
approximately parallel to the boundary as far as Midway in what is known as
the Boundary district. The line has opened up extensive coal fields and
crosses a productive mining district. On Vancouver Island there are two
railways, the Esquimalt & Nanaimo railway (78 m.) connecting the coal
fields with the southern ports, and the Victoria & Sydney railway, about 16
m. in length. The Great Northern has also a number of short lines in the
southern portion of the province, connecting with its system in the United
States. In 1905 there were 1627m. of railway in the province, of which 1187
were owned or controlled by the Canadian Pacific railway.
_Shipping._--The Canadian Pacific Railway Company has two lines of mail
steamer running from Vancouver and Victoria: (l) the Empress line, which
runs to Japan and China once in three weeks, and (2) the Australian line to
Honolulu, Fiji and Sydney, once a month. The same company also has a line
of steamers running to Alaska, as well as a fleet of coasting steamers.
_Government._--The province is governed by a lieutenant-governor, appointed
by the governor-general in council for five years, but subject to removal
for cause, an executive council of five ministers, and a single legislative
chamber. The executive council is appointed by the lieutenant-governor on
the advice of the first minister, and retains office so long as it enjoys
the support of a majority of the legislature. The powers of the
lieutenant-governor in regard to the provincial government are analogous to
those of governor-general in respect of the dominion government.
The British North America Act (1867) confederating the colonies, defines
the jurisdiction of the provincial legislature as distinguished from that
of the federal parliament, but within its own jurisdiction the province
makes the laws for its own governance. The act of the legislature may be
disallowed, within one year of its passage, by the governor-general in
council, and is also subject to challenge as to its legality in the supreme
court of Canada or on appeal to the juridical committee of the privy
council of the United Kingdom. British Columbia sends three senators and
seven members to the lower house of the federal parliament, which sits at
Ottawa.
_Justice._--There is a supreme court of British Columbia presided over by a
chief justice and five puisne judges, and there are also a number of county
courts. In British Columbia the supreme court has jurisdiction in divorce
cases, this right having been invested in the colony before confederation.
_Religion and Education._--In 1901 the population was divided by creeds as
follows: Church of England, 40,687; Methodist, 25,047; Presbyterian,
34,081; Roman Catholic, 33,639; others, 40,197; not stated, 5003; total,
178,654. The educational system of British Columbia differs slightly from
that of other provinces of Canada. There are three classes of
schools--common, graded and high--all maintained by the government and all
free and undenominational. There is only one college in the province, the
"McGill University College of British Columbia" at Vancouver, which is one
of the colleges of McGill University, whose chief seat is at Montreal. The
schools are controlled by trustees selected by the ratepayers of each
school district, and there is a superintendent of education acting under
the provincial secretary.
_Finance._--Under the terms of union with Canada, British Columbia receives
from the dominion government annually a certain contribution, which in 1905
amounted to $307,076. This, with provincial taxes on real property,
personal property, income tax, sales of public land, timber dues, &c.,
amounted in the year 1905 to $2,920,461. The expenditure for the year was
$2,302,417. The gross debt of the province in 1905 was $13,252,097, with
assets of $4,463,869, or a net debt of $8,788,228. These assets do not
include new legislative buildings or other public works. The income tax is
on a sliding scale. In 1899 a fairly close estimate was made of the capital
invested in the province, which amounted to $307,385,000 including timber,
$100,000,000; railways and telegraphs, $47,500,000; mining plant and
smelters, $10,500,000; municipal assessments, $45,000,000; provincial
assessments, $51,500,000; in addition to private wealth, $280,000,000.
There are branch offices of one or more of the Canadian banks in each of
the larger towns.
[Illustration]
_History._--The discovery of British Columbia was made by the Spaniard
Perez in 1774. With Cook's visit the geographical exploration of the coast
began in 1778. Vancouver, in 1792-1794, surveyed almost the entire coast of
British Columbia with much of that to the north and south, for the British
government. The interior, about the same time, was entered by Mackenzie and
traders of the N.W. Company, which in 1821 became amalgamated with the
Hudson's Bay Company. For the next twenty-eight years the Hudson's Bay
Company ruled this immense territory with beneficent despotism. In 1849
Vancouver Island was proclaimed a British colony. In 1858, consequent on
the discovery of gold and the large influx of miners, the mainland
territory was erected into a colony under the name of British Columbia, and
in 1866 this was united with the colony of Vancouver Island, under the same
name. In 1871 British Columbia entered the confederation and became part of
the Dominion of Canada, sending three senators and six (now seven) members
to the House of Commons of the federal parliament. One of the conditions
under which the colony entered the dominion was the speedy construction of
the Canadian Pacific railway, and in 1876 the non-fulfilment of this
promise and the apparent indifference of the government at Ottawa to the
representations of British Columbia created [v.04 p.0601] strained
relations, which were only ameliorated when the construction of a
transcontinental road was begun. In subsequent years the founding of the
city of Vancouver by the C.P.R., the establishment of the first Canadian
steamship line to China and Japan, and that to Australia, together with the
disputes with the United States on the subject of pelagic sealing, and the
discovery of the Kootenay and Boundary mining districts, have been the
chief events in the history of the province.
AUTHORITIES.--Cook's _Voyage to the Pacific Ocean_ (London, 1784);
Vancouver, _Voyage of Discovery to the Pacific Ocean_ (London, 1798); H.H.
Bancroft's works, vol. xxxii., _History of British Columbia_ (San
Francisco, 1887); Begg's _History of British Columbia_ (Toronto, 1894);
Gosnell, _Year Book_ (Victoria, British Columbia, 1897 and 1903); _Annual
Reports British Columbia Board of Trade_ (Victoria); _Annual Reports of
Minister of Mines and other Departmental Reports of the Provincial and
Dominion Governments; Catalogue of Provincial Museum_ (Victoria); _Reports
Geological Survey of Canada_ (from 1871 to date); _Reports of Canadian
Pacific (Government) Surveys_ (1872-1880); _Reports of Committee of Brit.
Assn. Adv. Science on N.W. Tribes_ (1884-1895); Lord, _Naturalist in
Vancouver Island_ (London, 1866); _Bering Sea Arbitration_ (reprint of
letters to _Times_), (London, 1893); _Report of Bering Sea Commission_
(London, Government, 1892); A. Métin, _La Colombie Britannique_ (Paris,
1908). See also various works of reference under CANADA.
(G. M. D.; M. ST J.; F. D. A.)
BRITISH EAST AFRICA, a term, in its widest sense, including all the
territory under British influence on the eastern side of Africa between
German East Africa on the south and Abyssinia and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
on the north. It comprises the protectorates of Zanzibar, Uganda and East
Africa. Apart from a narrow belt of coastland, the continental area belongs
almost entirely to the great plateau of East Africa, rarely falling below
an elevation of 2000 ft., while extensive sections rise to a height of 6000
to 8000 ft. From the coast lowlands a series of steps with intervening
plateaus leads to a broad zone of high ground remarkable for the abundant
traces of volcanic action. This broad upland is furrowed by the eastern
"rift-valley," formed by the subsidence of its floor and occupied in parts
by lakes without outlet. Towards the west a basin of lower elevation is
partially occupied by Victoria Nyanza, drained north to the Nile, while
still farther inland the ground again rises to a second volcanic belt,
culminating in the Ruwenzori range. (See ZANZIBAR, and for Uganda
protectorate see UGANDA.) The present article treats of the East Africa
protectorate only.
[Illustration]
_Topography._--The southern frontier, coterminous with the northern
frontier of German East Africa, runs north-west from the mouth of the Umba
river in 4° 40' S. to Victoria Nyanza, which it strikes at 1° S.,
deviating, however, so as to leave Mount Kilimanjaro wholly in German
territory. The eastern boundary is the Indian Ocean, the coast line being
about 400 m. On the north the protectorate is bounded by Abyssinia and
Italian Somaliland; on the west by Uganda. It has an area of about 240,000
sq. m., and a population estimated at from 2,000,000 to 4,000,000,
including some 25,000 Indians and 3000 Europeans. Of the Europeans many are
emigrants from South Africa; they include some hundreds of Boer families.
The first of the parallel zones--the coast plain or "Temborari"--is
generally of insignificant width, varying from 2 to 10 m., except in the
valleys of the main rivers. The shore line is broken by bays and branching
creeks, often cutting off islands from the mainland. Such are Mvita or
Mombasa in 4° 4' S., and the larger islands of Lamu, Manda and Patta (the
Lamu archipelago), between 2° 20' and 2° S. Farther north the coast becomes
straighter, with the one indentation of Port Durnford in 1° 10' S., but
skirted seawards by a row of small islands. Beyond the coast plain the
country rises in a generally well defined step or steps to an altitude of
some 800 ft., forming the wide level plain called "Nyika" (uplands),
largely composed of quartz. It contains large waterless areas, such as the
Taru desert in the Mombasa district. The next stage in the ascent is marked
by an intermittent line of mountains--gneissose or schistose--running
generally north-north-west, sometimes in parallel chains, and representing
the primitive axis of the continent. Their height varies from 5000 to 8000
ft. Farther inland grassy uplands extend to the eastern edge of the
rift-valley, though varied with cultivated ground and forest, the former
especially in Kikuyu, the latter between 0° and 0° 40' S. The most
extensive grassy plains are those of Kapte or Kapote and Athi, between 1°
and 2° S. The general altitude of these uplands, the surface of which is
largely composed of lava, varies from 5000 to 8000 ft. This zone contains
the highest elevations in British East Africa, including the volcanic pile
of Kenya (_q.v._) (17,007 ft.), Sattima (13,214 ft.) and Nandarua (about
12,900 ft.). The Sattima (Settima) range, or Aberdare Mountains, has a
general elevation of fully 10,000 ft. To the west the fall to the
rift-valley is marked by a line of cliffs, of which the best-defined
portions are the Kikuyu escarpment (8000 ft.), just south of 1° S., and the
Laikipia escarpment, on the equator. One of the main watersheds of East
Africa runs close to the eastern wall of the rift-valley, separating the
basins of inland drainage from the rivers of the east coast, of which the
two largest wholly within British East Africa are the Sabaki and Tana, both
separately noticed. The Guaso Nyiro rises in the hills north-west of Kenya
and flows in a north-east direction. After a course of over 350 m. the
river in about 1° N., 39° 30' E. is lost in a marshy expanse known as the
Lorian Swamp.
The rift-valley, though with a generally level floor, is divided by
transverse ridges into a series of basins, each containing a lake without
outlet. The southernmost section within British East Africa is formed by
the arid Dogilani plains, drained south towards German territory. At their
north end rise the extinct volcanoes of Suswa (7800 ft.) and Longonot
(8700), the latter on the ridge dividing off the next basin--that of Lake
Naivasha. This is a small fresh-water lake, 6135 ft. above the sea,
measuring some 13 m each way. Its basin is closed to the north by the ridge
of Mount Buru, beyond which is the basin of the [v.04 p.0602] still smaller
Lakes Nakuro (5845 ft.) and Elmenteita (5860 ft.), followed in turn by that
of Lakes Hannington and Baringo (_q.v._). Beyond Baringo the valley is
drained north into Lake Sugota, in 2° N., some 35 m. long, while north of
this lies the much larger Lake Rudolf (_q.v._), the valley becoming here
somewhat less defined.
On the west of the rift-valley the wall of cliffs is best marked between
the equator and 1° S., where it is known as the Mau Escarpment, and about
1° N., where the Elgeyo Escarpment falls to a longitudinal valley separated
from Lake Baringo by the ridge of Kamasia. Opposite Lake Naivasha the Mau
Escarpment is over 8000 ft. high. Its crest is covered with a vast forest.
To the south the woods become more open, and the plateau falls to an open
country drained towards the Dogilani plains. On the west the cultivated
districts of Sotik and Lumbwa, broken by wooded heights, fall towards
Victoria Nyanza. The Mau plateau reaches a height of 9000 ft. on the
equator, north of which is the somewhat lower Nandi country, well watered
and partly forested. In the treeless plateau of Uasin Gishu, west of
Elgeyo, the land again rises to a height of over 8000 ft., and to the west
of this is the great mountain mass of Elgon (_q.v._). East of Lake Rudolf
and south of Lake Stefanie is a large waterless steppe, mainly volcanic in
character, from which rise mountain ranges. The highest peak is Mount
Kanjora, 6900 ft. high. South of this arid region, strewn with great lava
stones, are the Rendile uplands, affording pasturage for thousands of
camels. Running north-west and south-east between Lake Stefanie and the
Daua tributary of the Juba is a mountain range with a steep escarpment
towards the south. It is known as the Goro Escarpment, and at its eastern
end it forms the boundary between the protectorate and Abyssinia.
South-east of it the country is largely level bush covered plain, mainly
waterless.
[_Geology._--The geological formations of British East Africa occur in four
regions possessing distinct physiographical features. The coast plain,
narrow in the south and rising somewhat steeply, consists of recent rocks.
The foot plateau which succeeds is composed of sedimentary rocks dating
from Trias to Jurassic. The ancient plateau commencing at Taru extends to
the borders of Kikuyu and is composed of ancient crystalline rocks on which
immense quantities of volcanic rocks--post-Jurassic to Recent--have
accumulated to form the volcanic plateau of Central East Africa.