ASSYRIA'S AGE OF SPLENDOUR
Tiglath-pileser IV, the Biblical Pul--Babylonian Campaign--Urartian
Ambitions in North Syria--Battle of Two Kings and Flight of
Sharduris--Conquest of Syro-Cappadocian States--Hebrew History from
Jehu to Menahem--Israel subject to Assyria--Urartu's Power
broken--Ahaz's Appeal to Assyria--Damascus and Israel
subdued--Babylonia united to Assyria--Shalmaneser and Hoshea--Sargon
deports the "Lost Ten Tribes"--Merodach Baladan King of
Babylonia--Egyptian Army of Allies routed--Ahaz and Isaiah--Frontier
Campaigns--Merodach Baladan overthrown--Sennacherib and the Hittite
States--Merodach Baladan's second and brief Reign--Hezekiah and
Sennacherib--Destruction of Assyrian Army--Sack of Babylon--
Esarhaddon--A Second Semiramis--Raids of Elamites, Cimmerians,
Scythians, and Medes--Sack of Sidon--Manasseh and Isaiah's
Fate--Esarhaddon conquers Lower Egypt--Revolt of Assyrian
Nobles--Ashurbanipal.
We now enter upon the last and most brilliant phase of Assyrian
civilization--the period of the Third or New Empire during which
flourished Tiglath-pileser IV, the mighty conqueror; the Shalmaneser
of the Bible; "Sargon the Later", who transported the "lost ten
tribes" of Israel; Sennacherib, the destroyer of Babylon, and
Esarhaddon, who made Lower Egypt an Assyrian province. We also meet
with notable figures of Biblical fame, including Ahaz, Hezekiah,
Isaiah, and the idolatrous Manasseh.
Tiglath-pileser IV, who deposed Ashur-nirari IV, was known to the
Babylonians as Pulu, which, some think, was a term of contempt
signifying "wild animal". In the Bible he is referred to as Pul,
Tiglath-pilneser, and Tiglath-pileser.[503] He came to the Assyrian
throne towards the end of April in 745 B.C. and reigned until 727 B.C.
We know nothing regarding his origin, but it seems clear that he was
not of royal descent. He appears to have been a popular leader of the
revolt against Ashur-nirari, who, like certain of his predecessors,
had pronounced pro-Babylonian tendencies. It is significant to note in
this connection that the new king was an unswerving adherent of the
cult of Ashur, by the adherents of which he was probably strongly
supported.
Tiglath-pileser combined in equal measure those qualities of
generalship and statesmanship which were necessary for the
reorganization of the Assyrian state and the revival of its military
prestige. At the beginning of his reign there was much social
discontent and suffering. The national exchequer had been exhausted by
the loss of tribute from revolting provinces, trade was paralysed, and
the industries were in a languishing condition. Plundering bands of
Aramaeans were menacing the western frontiers and had overrun part of
northern Babylonia. New political confederacies in Syria kept the
north-west regions in a constant state of unrest, and the now powerful
Urartian kingdom was threatening the Syro-Cappadocian states as if its
rulers had dreams of building up a great world empire on the ruins of
that of Assyria.
Tiglath-pileser first paid attention to Babylonia, and extinguished
the resistance of the Aramaeans in Akkad. He appears to have been
welcomed by Nabonassar, who became his vassal, and he offered
sacrifices in the cities of Babylon, Sippar, Cuthah, and Nippur.
Sippar had been occupied by Aramaeans, as on a previous occasion when
they destroyed the temple of the sun god Shamash which was restored by
Nabu-aplu-iddina of Babylon.
Tiglath-pileser did not overrun Chaldaea, but he destroyed its
capital, Sarrabanu, and impaled King Nabu-ushabshi. He proclaimed
himself "King of Sumer and Akkad" and "King of the Four Quarters". The
frontier states of Elam and Media were visited and subdued.
Having disposed of the Aramaeans and other raiders, the Assyrian
monarch had next to deal with his most powerful rival, Urartu.
Argistis I had been succeeded by Sharduris III, who had formed an
alliance with the north Mesopotamian king, Mati-ilu of Agusi, on whom
Ashur-nirari had reposed his faith. Ere long Sharduris pressed
southward from Malatia and compelled the north Syrian Hittite states,
including Carchemish, to acknowledge his suzerainty. A struggle then
ensued between Urartu and Assyria for the possession of the
Syro-Cappadocian states.
At this time the reputation of Tiglath-pileser hung in the balance. If
he failed in his attack on Urartu, his prestige would vanish at home
and abroad and Sharduris might, after establishing himself in northern
Syria, invade Assyria and compel its allegiance.
Two courses lay before Tiglath-pileser. He could either cross the
mountains and invade Urartu, or strike at his rival in north Syria,
where the influence of Assyria had been completely extinguished. The
latter appeared to him to be the most feasible and judicious
procedure, for if he succeeded in expelling the invaders he would at
the same time compel the allegiance of the rebellious Hittite states.
In the spring of 743 B.C. Tiglath-pileser led his army across the
Euphrates and reached Arpad without meeting with any resistance. The
city appears to have opened its gates to him although it was in the
kingdom of Mati-ilu, who acknowledged Urartian sway. Its foreign
garrison was slaughtered. Well might Sharduris exclaim, in the words
of the prophet, "Where is the king of Arpad? where are the gods of
Arpad?"[504]
Leaving Arpad, Tiglath-pileser advanced to meet Sharduris, who was
apparently hastening southward to attack the Assyrians in the rear.
Tiglath-pileser, however, crossed the Euphrates and, moving northward,
delivered an unexpected attack on the Urartian army in Qummukh. A
fierce battle ensued, and one of its dramatic incidents was a single
combat between the rival kings. The tide of battle flowed in Assyria's
favour, and when evening was falling the chariots and cavalry of
Urartu were thrown into confusion. An attempt was made to capture King
Sharduris, who leapt from his chariot and made hasty escape on
horseback, hotly pursued in the gathering darkness by an Assyrian
contingent of cavalry. Not until "the bridge of the Euphrates" was
reached was the exciting night chase abandoned.
Tiglath-pileser had achieved an overwhelming victory against an army
superior to his own in numbers. Over 70,000 of the enemy were slain or
taken captive, while the Urartian camp with its stores and horses and
followers fell into the hands of the triumphant Assyrians.
Tiglath-pileser burned the royal tent and throne as an offering to
Ashur, and carried Sharduris's bed to the temple of the goddess of
Nineveh, whither he returned to prepare a new plan of campaign against
his northern rival.
Despite the blow dealt against Urartu, Assyria did not immediately
regain possession of north Syria. The shifty Mati-ilu either cherished
the hope that Sharduris would recover strength and again invade north
Syria, or that he might himself establish an empire in that region.
Tiglath-pileser had therefore to march westward again. For three years
he conducted vigorous campaigns in "the western land", where he met
with vigorous resistance. In 740 B.C. Arpad was captured and Mati-ilu
deposed and probably put to death. Two years later Kullani and Hamath
fell, and the districts which they controlled were included in the
Assyrian empire and governed by Crown officials.
Once again the Hebrews came into contact with Assyria. The Dynasty of
Jehu had come to an end by this time. Its fall may not have been
unconnected with the trend of events in Assyria during the closing
years of the Middle Empire.
Supported by Assyria, the kings of Israel had become powerful and
haughty. Jehoash, the grandson of Jehu, had achieved successes in
conflict with Damascus. In Judah the unstable Amaziah, son of Joash,
was strong enough to lay a heavy hand on Edom, and flushed with
triumph then resolved to readjust his relations with his overlord, the
king of Israel. Accordingly he sent a communication to Jehoash which
contained some proposal regarding their political relations,
concluding with the offer or challenge, "Come, let us look one another
in the face". A contemptuous answer was returned.
Jehoash the king of Israel sent to Amaziah king of Judah, saying,
The thistle that was in Lebanon sent to the cedar that was in
Lebanon, saying, Give thy daughter to my son to wife: and there
passed by a wild beast that was in Lebanon, and trode down the
thistle. Thou hast indeed smitten Edom, and thine heart hath
lifted thee up: glory of this, and tarry at home, for why
shouldest thou meddle to thy hurt, that thou shouldest fall, even
thou, and Judah with thee? But Amaziah would not hear. Therefore
Jehoash king of Israel went up; and he and Amaziah king of Judah
looked one another in the face at Beth-shemesh [city of Shamash,
the sun god], which belongeth to Judah. And Judah was put to the
worse before Israel; and they fled every man to their tents.
Jehoash afterwards destroyed a large portion of the wall of Jerusalem
and plundered the temple and palace, returning home to Samaria with
rich booty and hostages.[505] Judah thus remained a vassal state of
Israel's.
Jeroboam, son of Jehoash, had a long and prosperous reign. About 773
B.C. he appears to have co-operated with Assyria and conquered
Damascus and Hamath. His son Zachariah, the last king of the Jehu
Dynasty of Israel, came to the throne in 740 B.C. towards the close of
the reign of Azariah, son of Amaziah, king of Judah. Six months
afterwards he was assassinated by Shallum. This usurper held sway at
Samaria for only a month. "For Menahem the son of Gadi went up from
Tirzah, and came to Samaria, and smote Shallum the son of Jabesh in
Samaria, and slew him, and reigned in his stead."[506]
Tiglath-pileser was operating successfully in middle Syria when he had
dealings with, among others, "Menihimme (Menahem) of the city of the
Samarians", who paid tribute. No resistance was possible on the part
of Menahem, the usurper, who was probably ready to welcome the
Assyrian conqueror, so that, by arranging an alliance, he might secure
his own position. The Biblical reference is as follows: "And Pul the
king of Assyria came against the land: and Menahem gave Pul a thousand
talents of silver, that his hand might be with him to confirm the
kingdom in his hand. And Menahem exacted the money of Israel, even of
all the mighty men of wealth, of each man fifty shekels of silver, to
give to the king of Assyria. So the king of Assyria turned back, and
stayed not there in the land."[507] Rezin of Damascus, Hiram of Tyre,
and Zabibi, queen of the Arabians, also sent gifts to Tiglath-pileser
at this time (738 B.C.). Aramaean revolts on the borders of Elam were
suppressed by Assyrian governors, and large numbers of the inhabitants
were transported to various places in Syria.
Tiglath-pileser next operated against the Median and other hill tribes
in the north-east. In 735 B.C. he invaded Urartu, the great Armenian
state which had threatened the supremacy of Assyria in north Syria and
Cappadocia. King Sharduris was unable to protect his frontier or
hamper the progress of the advancing army, which penetrated to his
capital. Dhuspas was soon captured, but Sharduris took refuge in his
rocky citadel which he and his predecessors had laboured to render
impregnable. There he was able to defy the might of Assyria, for the
fortress could be approached on the western side alone by a narrow
path between high walls and towers, so that only a small force could
find room to operate against the numerous garrison.
Tiglath-pileser had to content himself by devastating the city on the
plain and the neighbouring villages. He overthrew buildings, destroyed
orchards, and transported to Nineveh those of the inhabitants he had
not put to the sword, with all the live stock he could lay hands on.
Thus was Urartu crippled and humiliated: it never regained its former
prestige among the northern states.
In the following year Tiglath-pileser returned to Syria. The
circumstances which made this expedition necessary are of special
interest on account of its Biblical associations. Menahem, king of
Israel, had died, and was succeeded by his son Pekahiah. "But Pekah
the son of Remaliah, a captain of his, conspired against him and smote
him in Samaria, in the palace of the king's house, ... and he killed
him, and reigned in his room."[508] When Pekah was on the throne, Ahaz
began to reign over Judah.
Judah had taken advantage of the disturbed conditions in Israel to
assert its independence. The walls of Jerusalem were repaired by
Jotham, father of Ahaz, and a tunnel constructed to supply it with
water. Isaiah refers to this tunnel: "Go forth and meet Ahaz ... at
the end of the conduit of the upper pool in the highway of the
fuller's field" (_Isaiah,_ vii, 3).
Pekah had to deal with a powerful party in Israel which favoured the
re-establishment of David's kingdom in Palestine. Their most prominent
leader was the prophet Amos, whose eloquent exhortations were couched
in no uncertain terms. He condemned Israel for its idolatries, and
cried:
For thus saith the Lord unto the house of Israel, Seek ye me and
ye shall live.... Have ye offered unto me sacrifices and offerings
in the wilderness forty years, O house of Israel? But ye have
borne the tabernacle of your Moloch and Chiun your images, the
star of your god, which ye made to yourselves.[509]
Pekah sought to extinguish the orthodox party's movement by subduing
Judah. So he plotted with Rezin, king of Damascus. Amos prophesied,
Thus saith the Lord.... I will send a fire into the house of
Hazael, which will devour the palaces of Ben-hadad. I will break
also the bar of Damascus ... and the people of Syria shall go into
captivity unto Kir.... The remnant of the Philistines shall
perish.
Tyre, Edom, and Ammon would also be punished.[510] Judah was
completely isolated by the allies who acknowledged the suzerainty of
Damascus. Soon after Ahaz came to the throne he found himself hemmed
in on every side by adversaries who desired to accomplish his fall.
"At that time Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah ...came up to Jerusalem
to war: and they besieged Ahaz, but could not overcome him."[511]
Judah, however, was overrun; the city of Elath was captured and
restored to Edom, while the Philistines were liberated from the
control of Jerusalem.
Isaiah visited Ahaz and said,
Take heed, and be quiet; fear not, neither be faint-hearted for
the two tails of these smoking firebrands, for the fierce anger of
Rezin with Syria, and of the son of Remaliah. Because Syria,
Ephraim, and the son of Remaliah, have taken evil counsel against
thee, saying, Let us go up against Judah, and vex it, and let us
make a breach therein for us, and set a king in the midst of it,
even the son of Tabeal: Thus saith the Lord God, It shall not
stand, neither shall it come to pass.[512]
The unstable Ahaz had sought assistance from the Baal, and "made his
son to pass through the fire, according to the abominations of the
heathen".[513] Then he resolved to purchase the sympathy of one of the
great Powers. There was no hope of assistance from "the fly that is in
the uttermost part of the rivers of Egypt", for the Ethiopian Pharaohs
had not yet conquered the Delta region, so he turned to "the bee that
is in the land of Assyria ".[514] Assyria was the last resource of the
king of Judah.
So Ahaz sent messengers to Tiglath-pileser king of Assyria,
saying, I am thy servant and thy son: come up and save me out of
the hand of Syria and out of the hand of the king of Israel, which
rise up against me. And Ahaz took the silver and gold that was
found in the house of the Lord, and in the treasures of the king's
house, and sent it for a present to the king of Assyria. And the
king of Assyria hearkened unto him: for the king of Assyria went
up against Damascus, and took it, and carried the people of it
captive to Kir[515] and slew Rezin.[516]
Tiglath-pileser recorded that Rezin took refuge in his city like "a
mouse". Israel was also dealt with.
In the days of Pekah king of Israel came Tiglath-pileser king of
Assyria, and took Ijon and Abel-beth-maachah, and Janoah and
Kedesh, and Hazor, and Gilead, and Galilee, all the land of
Naphtali, and carried them captive to Assyria. And Hoshea the son
of Elah made a conspiracy against Pekah the son of Remaliah, and
smote him, and slew him, and reigned in his stead.[517]
Tiglath-pileser recorded: "They overthrew Paqaha (Pekah), their king,
and placed Ausi'a (Hoshea) over them". He swept through Israel "like a
hurricane". The Philistines and the Arabians of the desert were also
subdued. Tribute was sent to the Assyrian monarch by Phoenicia, Moab,
Ammon, and Edom. It was a proud day for Ahaz when he paid a visit to
Tiglath-pileser at Damascus.[518] An Assyrian governor was appointed
to rule over Syria and its subject states.
Babylon next claimed the attention of Tiglath-pileser. Nabonassar had
died and was succeeded by his son Nabu-nadin-zeri, who, after reigning
for two years, was slain in a rebellion. The throne was then seized by
Nabu-shum-ukin, but in less than two months this usurper was
assassinated and the Chaldaeans had one of their chiefs, Ukinzer,
proclaimed king (732 B.C.).
When the Assyrian king returned from Syria in 731 B.C. he invaded
Babylonia. He was met with a stubborn resistance. Ukinzer took refuge
in his capital, Shapia, which held out successfully, although the
surrounding country was ravaged and despoiled. Two years afterwards
Tiglath-pileser returned, captured Shapia, and restored peace
throughout Babylonia. He was welcomed in Babylon, which opened its
gates to him, and he had himself proclaimed king of Sumer and Akkad.
The Chaldaeans paid tribute.
Tiglath-pileser had now reached the height of his ambition. He had not
only extended his empire in the west from Cappadocia to the river of
Egypt, crippled Urartu and pacified his eastern frontier, but brought
Assyria into close union with Babylonia, the mother land, the home of
culture and the land of the ancient gods. He did not live long,
however, to enjoy his final triumph, for he died a little over twelve
months after he "took the hands of Bel (Merodach)" at Babylon.
He was succeeded by Shalmaneser V (727-722 B.C.), who may have been
his son, but this is not quite certain. Little is known regarding his
brief reign. In 725 B.C. he led an expedition to Syria and Phoenicia.
Several of the vassal peoples had revolted when they heard of the
death of Tiglath-pileser. These included the Phoenicians, the
Philistines, and the Israelites who were intriguing with either Egypt
or Mutsri.
Apparently Hoshea, king of Israel, pretended when the Assyrians
entered his country that he remained friendly. Shalmaneser, however,
was well informed, and made Hoshea a prisoner. Samaria closed its
gates against him although their king had been dispatched to Assyria.
The Biblical account of the campaign is as follows: "Against him
(Hoshea) came up Shalmaneser king of Assyria; and Hoshea became his
servant, and gave him presents. And the king of Assyria found
conspiracy in Hoshea: for he had sent messengers to So king of
Egypt,[519] and brought no present to the king of Assyria, as he had
done year by year; therefore the king of Assyria shut him up and bound
him in prison.
"Then the king of Assyria came up throughout all the land, and went up
to Samaria, and besieged it three years."[520]
Shalmaneser died before Samaria was captured, and may have been
assassinated. The next Assyrian monarch, Sargon II (722-705 B.C.), was
not related to either of his two predecessors. He is referred to by
Isaiah,[521] and is the Arkeanos of Ptolemy. He was the Assyrian
monarch who deported the "Lost Ten Tribes".
"In the ninth year of Hoshea" (and the first of Sargon) "the king of
Assyria took Samaria, and carried Israel away into Assyria, and placed
them in Halah and in Habor by the river of Gozan, and in the cities of
the Medes."[522] In all, according to Sargon's record, "27,290 people
dwelling in the midst of it (Samaria) I carried off".
They (the Israelites) left all the commandments of the Lord their
God, and made them molten images, even two calves, and made a
grove, and worshipped all the host of heaven (the stars), and
served Baal. And they caused their sons and their daughters to
pass through the fire, and used divination and enchantments, and
sold themselves to do evil in the sight of the Lord, to provoke
him to anger. Therefore the Lord was very angry with Israel, and
removed them out of his sight: there was none left but the tribe
of Judah only. And the king of Assyria brought men from Babylon,
and from Cuthah, and from Ava, and from Hamath, and from
Sepharvaim, and placed them in the cities of Samaria instead of
the children of Israel: and they possessed Samaria, and dwelt in
the cities thereof.... And the men of Babylon made Succoth-benoth,
and the men of Cuth (Cuthah) made Nergal, and the men of Hamath
made Ashima, and the Avites made Nibhaz and Tartak, and the
Sepharites burnt their children in fire to Adram-melech and
Anam-melech, the gods of Sepharvaim.
A number of the new settlers were slain by lions, and the king of
Assyria ordered that a Samaritan priest should be sent to "teach them
the manner of the God of the land". This man was evidently an orthodox
Hebrew, for he taught them "how they should fear the Lord.... So they
feared the Lord", but also "served their own gods ... their graven
images".[523]
There is no evidence to suggest that the "Ten Lost Tribes", "regarding
whom so many nonsensical theories have been formed", were not
ultimately absorbed by the peoples among whom they settled between
Mesopotamia and the Median Highlands.[524] The various sections must
have soon lost touch with one another. They were not united like the
Jews (the people of Judah), who were transported to Babylonia a
century and a half later, by a common religious bond, for although a
few remained faithful to Abraham's God, the majority of the Israelites
worshipped either the Baal or the Queen of Heaven.
The Assyrian policy of transporting the rebellious inhabitants of one
part of their empire to another was intended to break their national
spirit and compel them to become good and faithful subjects amongst
the aliens, who must have disliked them. "The colonists," says
Professor Maspero, "exposed to the same hatred as the original
Assyrian conquerors, soon forgot to look upon the latter as the
oppressors of all, and, allowing their present grudge to efface the
memory of past injuries, did not hesitate to make common cause with
them. In time of peace the (Assyrian) governor did his best to protect
them against molestation on the part of the natives, and in return for
this they rallied round him whenever the latter threatened to get out
of hand, and helped him to stifle the revolt, or hold it in check
until the arrival of reinforcements. Thanks to their help, the empire
was consolidated and maintained without too many violent outbreaks in
regions far removed from the capital, and beyond the immediate reach
of the sovereign."[525]
While Sargon was absent in the west, a revolt broke out in Babylonia.
A Chaldaean king, Merodach Baladan III, had allied himself with the
Elamites, and occupied Babylon. A battle was fought at Dur-ilu and the
Elamites retreated. Although Sargon swept triumphantly through the
land, he had to leave his rival, the tyrannous Chaldaean, in
possession of the capital, and he reigned there for over eleven years.
Trouble was brewing in Syria. It was apparently fostered by an
Egyptian king--probably Bocchoris of Sais, the sole Pharaoh so far as
can be ascertained of the Twenty-fourth Dynasty, who had allied
himself with the local dynasts of Lower Egypt and apparently sought to
extend his sway into Asia, the Ethiopians being supreme in Upper
Egypt. An alliance had been formed to cast off the yoke of Assyria.
The city states involved Arpad, Simirra, Damascus, Samaria, and Gaza.
Hanno of Gaza had fled to Egypt after Tiglath-pileser came to the
relief of Judah and broke up the league of conspirators by capturing
Damascus, and punishing Samaria, Gaza, and other cities. His return in
Sargon's reign was evidently connected with the new rising in which he
took part. The throne of Hamath had been seized by an adventurer,
named Ilu-bi´di, a smith. The Philistines of Ashdod and the Arabians
being strongly pro-Egyptian in tendency, were willing sympathizers and
helpers against the hated Assyrians.
Sargon appeared in the west with a strong army before the allies had
matured their plans. He met the smith king of Hamath in battle at
Qarqar, and, having defeated him, had him skinned alive. Then he
marched southward. At Rapiki (Raphia) he routed an army of allies.
Shabi (?So), the Tartan (commander-in-chief) of Pi´ru[526] (Pharaoh),
King of Mutsri (an Arabian state confused, perhaps, with Misraim =
Egypt), escaped "like to a shepherd whose sheep have been taken". Piru
and other two southern kings, Samsi and Itamara, afterwards paid
tribute to Sargon. Hanno of Gaza was transported to Asshur.
In 715 B.C. Sargon, according to his records, appeared with his army
in Arabia, and received gifts in token of homage from Piru of Mutsri,
Samsi of Aribi, and Itamara of Saba.
Four years later a revolt broke out in Ashdod which was, it would
appear, directly due to the influence of Shabaka, the Ethiopian
Pharaoh, who had deposed Bocchoris of Sais. Another league was about
to be formed against Assyria. King Azuri of Ashdod had been deposed
because of his Egyptian sympathies by the Assyrian governor, and his
brother Akhimiti was placed on the throne. The citizens, however,
overthrew Akhimiti, and an adventurer from Cyprus was proclaimed king
(711 B.C).
It would appear that advances were made by the anti-Assyrians to Ahaz
of Judah. That monarch was placed in a difficult position. He knew
that if the allies succeeded in stamping out Assyrian authority in
Syria and Palestine they would certainly depose him, but if on the
other hand he joined them and Assyria triumphed, its emperor would
show him small mercy. As Babylon defied Sargon and received the active
support of Elam, and there were rumours of risings in the north, it
must have seemed to the western kings as if the Assyrian empire was
likely once again to go to pieces.
Fortunately for Ahaz he had a wise counsellor at this time in the
great statesman and prophet, the scholarly Isaiah. The Lord spake by
Isaiah saying, "Go and loose the sackcloth from off thy loins, and put
off thy shoe from thy foot. And he did so, walking naked and barefoot.
And the Lord said, Like as my servant Isaiah hath walked naked and
barefoot three years for a sign and wonder upon Egypt and upon
Ethiopia; so shall the king of Assyria lead away the Egyptians
prisoners.... And they (the allies) shall be afraid and ashamed of
Ethiopia their expectation, and of Egypt their glory."[527]
Isaiah warned Ahaz against joining the league, "in the year that
Tartan[528] came unto Ashdod (when Sargon the king of Assyria sent
him)". The Tartan "fought against Ashdod and took it".[529] According
to Sargon's record the Pretender of Ashdod fled to Arabia, where he
was seized by an Arabian chief and delivered up to Assyria. The
pro-Egyptian party in Palestine went under a cloud for a period
thereafter.
Before Sargon could deal with Merodach Baladan of Babylon, he found it
necessary to pursue the arduous task of breaking up a powerful league
which had been formed against him in the north. The Syro-Cappadocian
Hittite states, including Tabal in Asia Minor and Carchemish in north
Syria, were combining for the last time against Assyria, supported by
Mita (Midas), king of the Muski-Phrygians, and Rusas, son of Sharduris
III, king of Urartu.
Urartu had recovered somewhat from the disasters which it had suffered
at the hands of Tiglath-pileser, and was winning back portions of its
lost territory on the north-east frontier of Assyria. A buffer state
had been formed in that area by Tiglath-pileser, who had assisted the
king of the Mannai to weld together the hill tribesmen between Lake
Van and Lake Urmia into an organized nation. Iranzu, its ruler,
remained faithful to Assyria and consequently became involved in war
with Rusas of Urartu, who either captured or won over several cities
of the Mannai. Iranzu was succeeded by his son Aza, and this king was
so pronounced a pro-Assyrian that his pro-Urartian subjects
assassinated him and set on the throne Bagdatti of Umildish.
Soon after Sargon began his operations in the north he captured
Bagdatti and had him skinned alive. The flag of revolt, however, was
kept flying by his brother, Ullusunu, but ere long this ambitious man
found it prudent to submit to Sargon on condition that he would retain
the throne as a faithful Assyrian vassal. His sudden change of policy
appears to have been due to the steady advance of the Median tribes
into the territory of the Mannai. Sargon conducted a vigorous and
successful campaign against the raiders, and extended Ullusunu's area
of control.
The way was now clear to Urartu. In 714 B.C. Sargon attacked the
revolting king of Zikirtu, who was supported by an army led by Rusas,
his overlord. A fierce battle was fought in which the Assyrians
achieved a great victory. King Rusas fled, and when he found that the
Assyrians pressed home their triumph by laying waste the country
before them, he committed suicide, according to the Assyrian records,
although those of Urartu indicate that he subsequently took part in
the struggle against Sargon. The Armenian peoples were compelled to
acknowledge the suzerainty of Assyria, and the conqueror received
gifts from various tribes between Lake Van and the Caspian Sea, and
along the frontiers from Lake Van towards the south-east as far as the
borders of Elam.
Rusas of Urartu was succeeded by Argistes II, who reigned over a
shrunken kingdom. He intrigued with neighbouring states against
Assyria, but was closely watched. Ere long he found himself caught
between two fires. During his reign the notorious Cimmerians and
Scythians displayed much activity in the north and raided his
territory.
The pressure of fresh infusions of Thraco-Phrygian tribes into western
Asia Minor had stirred Midas of the Muski to co-operate with the
Urartian power in an attempt to stamp out Assyrian influence in
Cilicia, Cappadocia, and north Syria. A revolt in Tabal in 718 B.C.
was extinguished by Sargon, but in the following year evidences were
forthcoming of a more serious and widespread rising. Pisiris, king of
Carchemish, threw off the Assyrian yoke. Before, however, his allies
could hasten to his assistance he was overcome by the vigilant Sargon,
who deported a large proportion of the city's inhabitants and
incorporated it in an Assyrian province. Tabal revolted in 713 B.C.
and was similarly dealt with. In 712 B.C. Milid had to be overcome.
The inhabitants were transported, and "Suti" Aramaean peoples settled
in their homes. The king of Commagene, having remained faithful,
received large extensions of territory. Finally in 709 B.C. Midas of
the Muski-Phrygians was compelled to acknowledge the suzerainty of
Assyria. The northern confederacy was thus completely worsted and
broken up. Tribute was paid by many peoples, including the rulers of
Cyprus.
Sargon was now able to deal with Babylonia, which for about twelve
years had been ruled by Merodach Baladan, who oppressed the people and
set at defiance ancient laws by seizing private estates and
transferring them to his Chaldaean kinsmen. He still received the
active support of Elam.
Sargon's first move was to interpose his army between those of the
Babylonians and Elamites. Pushing southward, he subdued the Aramaeans
on the eastern banks of the Tigris, and drove the Elamites into the
mountains. Then he invaded middle Babylonia from the east. Merodach
Baladan hastily evacuated Babylon, and, moving southward, succeeded in
evading Sargon's army. Finding Elam was unable to help him, he took
refuge in the Chaldaean capital, Bit Jakin, in southern Babylonia.
Sargon was visited by the priests of Babylon and Borsippa, and hailed
as the saviour of the ancient kingdom. He was afterwards proclaimed
king at E-sagila, where he "took the hands of Bel". Then having
expelled the Aramaeans from Sippar, he hastened southward, attacked
Bit Jakin and captured it. Merodach Baladan escaped into Elam. The
whole of Chaldaea was subdued.
Thus "Sargon the Later" entered at length into full possession of the
empire of Sargon of Akkad. In Babylonia he posed as an incarnation of
his ancient namesake, and had similarly Messianic pretensions which
were no doubt inspired by the Babylonian priesthood. Under him Assyria
attained its highest degree of splendour.
He recorded proudly not only his great conquests but also his works of
public utility: he restored ancient cities, irrigated vast tracts of
country, fostered trade, and promoted the industries. Like the pious
Pharaohs of Egypt he boasted that he fed the hungry and protected the
weak against the strong.
Sargon found time during his strenuous career as a conqueror to lay
out and build a new city, called Dur-Sharrukin, "the burgh of Sargon",
to the north of Nineveh. It was completed before he undertook the
Babylonian campaign. The new palace was occupied in 708 B.C. Previous
to that period he had resided principally at Kalkhi, in the restored
palace of Ashur-natsir-pal III.
He was a worshipper of many gods. Although he claimed to have restored
the supremacy of Asshur "which had come to an end", he not only adored
Ashur but also revived the ancient triad of Anu, Bel, and Ea, and
fostered the growth of the immemorial "mother-cult" of Ishtar. Before
he died he appointed one of his sons, Sennacherib, viceroy of the
northern portion of the empire. He was either assassinated at a
military review or in some frontier war. As much is suggested by the
following entry in an eponym list.
Eponymy of Upahhir-belu, prefect of the city of Amedu ...
According to the oracle of the Kulummite(s).... A soldier
(entered) the camp of the king of Assyria (and killed him?), month
Ab, day 12th, Sennacherib (sat on the throne).[530]
The fact that Sennacherib lamented his father's sins suggests that the
old king had in some manner offended the priesthood. Perhaps, like
some of the Middle Empire monarchs, he succumbed to the influence of
Babylon during the closing years of his life. It is stated that "he
was not buried in his house", which suggests that the customary
religious rites were denied him, and that his lost soul was supposed
to be a wanderer which had to eat offal and drink impure water like
the ghost of a pauper or a criminal.
The task which lay before Sennacherib (705-680 B.C.) was to maintain
the unity of the great empire of his distinguished father. He waged
minor wars against the Kassite and Illipi tribes on the Elamite
border, and the Muski and Hittite tribes in Cappadocia and Cilicia.
The Kassites, however, were no longer of any importance, and the
Hittite power had been extinguished, for ere the states could recover
from the blows dealt by the Assyrians the Cimmerian hordes ravaged
their territory. Urartu was also overrun by the fierce barbarians from
the north. It was one of these last visits of the Assyrians to Tabal
of the Hittites and the land of the Muski (Meshech) which the Hebrew
prophet referred to in after-time when he exclaimed:
Asshur is there and all her company: his graves are about him:
all of them slain, fallen by the sword.... There is Meshech,
Tubal, and all her multitude: her graves are round about him: all
of them uncircumcised, slain by the sword, though they caused
their terror in the land of the living.... (_Ezekiel_, xxxii.)
Sennacherib found that Ionians had settled in Cilicia, and he deported
large numbers of them to Nineveh. The metal and ivory work at Nineveh
show traces of Greek influence after this period.
A great conspiracy was fomented in several states against Sennacherib
when the intelligence of Sargon's death was bruited abroad. Egypt was
concerned in it. Taharka (the Biblical Tirhakah[531]), the last
Pharaoh of the Ethiopian Dynasty, had dreams of re-establishing
Egyptian supremacy in Palestine and Syria, and leagued himself with
Luli, king of Tyre, Hezekiah, king of Judah, and others. Merodach
Baladan, the Chaldaean king, whom Sargon had deposed, supported by
Elamites and Aramaeans, was also a party to the conspiracy. "At that
time Merodach Baladan, the son of Baladan, king of Babylon, sent
letters and a present to Hezekiah.... And Hezekiah was glad of
them."[532]
Merodach Baladan again seized the throne of Babylon. Sargon's son, who
had been appointed governor, was murdered and a pretender sat on the
throne for a brief period, but Merodach Baladan thrust him aside and
reigned for nine months, during which period he busied himself by
encouraging the kings of Judah and Tyre to revolt. Sennacherib invaded
Babylonia with a strong army, deposed Merodach Baladan, routed the
Chaldaeans and Aramaeans, and appointed as vassal king Bel-ibni, a
native prince, who remained faithful to Assyria for about three years.
In 707 B.C. Sennacherib appeared in the west. When he approached Tyre,
Luli, the king, fled to Cyprus. The city was not captured, but much of
its territory was ceded to the king of Sidon. Askalon was afterwards
reduced. At Eltekeh Sennacherib came into conflict with an army of
allies, including Ethiopian, Egyptian, and Arabian Mutsri forces,
which he routed. Then he captured a number of cities in Judah and
transported 200,150 people. He was unable, however, to enter
Jerusalem, in which Hezekiah was compelled to remain "like a bird in a
cage". It appears that Hezekiah "bought off" the Assyrians on this
occasion with gifts of gold and silver and jewels, costly furniture,
musicians, and female slaves.
In 689 B.C. Sennacherib found it necessary to penetrate Arabia.
Apparently another conspiracy was brewing, for Hezekiah again
revolted. On his return from the south--according to Berosus he had
been in Egypt--the Assyrian king marched against the king of Judah.
And when Hezekiah saw that Sennacherib was come, and that he was
purposed to fight against Jerusalem, he took counsel with the
princes and his mighty men to stop the waters of the fountains
which were without the city: and they did help him.... Why should
the kings of Assyria come and find much water?
Sennacherib sent messengers to Jerusalem to attempt to stir up the
people against Hezekiah. "He wrote also letters to rail on the Lord
God of Israel, and to speak against him, saying, As the gods of the
nations of other lands have not delivered their people out of mine
hand, so shall not the God of Hezekiah deliver his people out of mine
hand."[533]
Hezekiah sent his servants to Isaiah, who was in Jerusalem at the
time, and the prophet said to them:
Thus shall ye say to your master. Thus saith the Lord, Be not
afraid of the words which thou hast heard, with which the servants
of the king of Assyria have blasphemed me. Behold, I will send a
blast upon him, and he shall hear a rumour, and shall return to
his own land; and I will cause him to fall by the sword in his own
land.[534]
According to Berosus, the Babylonian priestly historian, the camp of
Sennacherib was visited in the night by swarms of field mice which ate
up the quivers and bows and the (leather) handles of shields. Next
morning the army fled.
The Biblical account of the disaster is as follows:
And it came to pass that night, that the angel of the Lord went
out, and smote the camp of the Assyrians an hundred and four score
and five thousand: and when they arose early in the morning,
behold, they were all dead corpses. So Sennacherib king of Assyria
departed, and went and returned and dwelt at Nineveh.[535]
A pestilence may have broken out in the camp, the infection, perhaps,
having been carried by field mice. Byron's imagination was stirred by
the vision of the broken army of Assyria.
The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold,
And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold;
And the sheen of their spears was like stars of the sea,
When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee.
Like the leaves of the forest when summer is green,
That host with their banners at sunset were seen;
Like the leaves of the forest when autumn hath blown,
That host on the morrow lay withered and strown.
For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast,
And breathed on the face of the foe as he passed;
And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill,
And their hearts but once heaved--and forever grew still!
And there lay the steed with his nostril all wide,
But through it there rolled not the breath of his pride;
And the foam of his gasping lay white on the turf,
And cold as the spray of the rock-beating surf.
And there lay the rider distorted and pale,
With the dew on his brow, and the rust on his mail;
And the tents were all silent--the banners alone--
Thelances uplifted--the trumpet unblown.
And the widows of Asshur are loud in their wail,
And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal;
And the might of the Gentile, unsmote by the sword,
Hath melted like snow in the glance of the Lord.
Before this disaster occurred Sennacherib had to invade Babylonia
again, for the vassal king, Bel-ibni, had allied himself with the
Chaldaeans and raised the standard of revolt. The city of Babylon was
besieged and captured, and its unfaithful king deported with a number
of nobles to Assyria. Old Merodach Baladan was concerned in the plot
and took refuge on the Elamite coast, where the Chaldaeans had formed
a colony. He died soon afterwards.
Sennacherib operated in southern Babylonia and invaded Elam. But ere
he could return to Assyria he was opposed by a strong army of allies,
including Babylonians, Chaldaeans, Aramaeans, Elamites, and Persians,
led by Samunu, son of Merodach Baladan. A desperate battle was fought.
Although Sennacherib claimed a victory, he was unable to follow it up.
This was in 692 B.C. A Chaldaean named Mushezib-Merodach seized the
Babylonian throne.
In 691 B.C. Sennacherib again struck a blow for Babylonia, but was
unable to depose Mushezib-Merodach. His opportunity came, however, in
689 B.C. Elam had been crippled by raids of the men of Parsua
(Persia), and was unable to co-operate with the Chaldaean king of
Babylon. Sennacherib captured the great commercial metropolis, took
Mushezib-Merodach prisoner, and dispatched him to Nineveh. Then he
wreaked his vengeance on Babylon. For several days the Assyrian
soldiers looted the houses and temples, and slaughtered the
inhabitants without mercy. E-sagila was robbed of its treasures,
images of deities were either broken in pieces or sent to Nineveh: the
statue of Bel-Merodach was dispatched to Asshur so that he might take
his place among the gods who were vassals of Ashur. "The city and its
houses," Sennacherib recorded, "from foundation to roof, I destroyed
them, I demolished them, I burned them with fire; walls, gateways,
sacred chapels, and the towers of earth and tiles, I laid them low and
cast them into the Arakhtu."[536]
"So thorough was Sennacherib's destruction of the city in 689 B.C.,"
writes Mr. King, "that after several years of work, Dr. Koldewey
concluded that all traces of earlier buildings had been destroyed on
that occasion. More recently some remains of earlier strata have been
recognized, and contract-tablets have been found which date from the
period of the First Dynasty. Moreover, a number of earlier pot-burials
have been unearthed, but a careful examination of the greater part of
the ruins has added little to our knowledge of this most famous city
before the Neo-Babylonian period."[537]
It is possible that Sennacherib desired to supplant Babylon as a
commercial metropolis by Nineveh. He extended and fortified that city,
surrounding it with two walls protected by moats. According to
Diodorus, the walls were a hundred feet high and about fifty feet
wide. Excavators have found that at the gates they were about a
hundred feet in breadth. The water supply of the city was ensured by
the construction of dams and canals, and strong quays were erected to
prevent flooding. Sennacherib repaired a lofty platform which was
isolated by a canal, and erected upon it his great palace. On another
platform he had an arsenal built.
Sennacherib's palace was the most magnificent building of its kind
ever erected by an Assyrian emperor. It was lavishly decorated, and
its bas-reliefs display native art at its highest pitch of excellence.
The literary remains of the time also give indication of the growth of
culture: the inscriptions are distinguished by their prose style. It
is evident that men of culture and refinement were numerous in
Assyria. The royal library of Kalkhi received many additions during
the reign of the destroyer of Babylon.
Like his father, Sennacherib died a violent death. According to the
Babylonian Chronicle he was slain in a revolt by his son "on the
twentieth day of Tebet" (680 B.C). The revolt continued from the "20th
of Tebet" (early in January) until the 2nd day of Adar (the middle of
February). On the 18th of Adar, Esarhaddon, son of Sennacherib, was
proclaimed king.
Berosus states that Sennacherib was murdered by two of his sons, but
Esarhaddon was not one of the conspirators. The Biblical reference is
as follows: "Sennacherib ... dwelt at Nineveh. And it came to pass, as
he was worshipping in the house of Nisroch (?Ashur) his god, that
Adrammelech and Sharezer (Ashur-shar-etir) his sons smote him with the
sword: and they escaped into the land of Armenia (Urartu). And
Esarhaddon his son reigned in his stead." Ashur-shar-etir appears to
have been the claimant to the throne.
Esarhaddon (680-668 B.C.) was a man of different type from his father.
He adopted towards vassal states a policy of conciliation, and did
much to secure peace within the empire by his magnanimous treatment of
rebel kings who had been intimidated by their neighbours and forced to
entwine themselves in the meshes of intrigue. His wars were directed
mainly to secure the protection of outlying provinces against
aggressive raiders.
The monarch was strongly influenced by his mother, Naki'a, a
Babylonian princess who appears to have been as distinguished a lady
as the famous Sammu-rammat. Indeed, it is possible that traditions
regarding her contributed to the Semiramis legends. But it was not
only due to her that Esarhaddon espoused the cause of the
pro-Babylonian party. He appears to be identical with the Axerdes of
Berosus, who ruled over the southern kingdom for eight years.
Apparently he had been appointed governor by Sennacherib after the
destruction of Babylon, and it may be that during his term of office
in Babylonia he was attracted by its ethical ideals, and developed
those traits of character which distinguished him from his father and
grandfather. He married a Babylonian princess, and one of his sons,
Shamash-shum-ukin, was born in a Babylonian palace, probably at
Sippar. He was a worshipper of the mother goddess Ishtar of Nineveh
and Ishtar of Arbela, and of Shamash, as well as of the national god
Ashur.
As soon as Esarhaddon came to the throne he undertook the restoration
of Babylon, to which many of the inhabitants were drifting back. In
three years the city resumed its pre-eminent position as a trading and
industrial centre. Withal, he won the hearts of the natives by
expelling Chaldaeans from the private estates which they had seized
during the Merodach-Baladan regime, and restoring them to the rightful
heirs.
A Chaldaean revolt was inevitable. Two of Merodach Baladan's sons gave
trouble in the south, but were routed in battle. One fled to Elam,
where he was assassinated; the other sued for peace, and was accepted
by the diplomatic Esarhaddon as a vassal king.
Egypt was intriguing in the west. Its Ethiopian king, Taharka (the
Biblical Tirhakah) had stirred up Hezekiah to revolt during
Sennacherib's reign. An Assyrian ambassador who had visited Jerusalem
"heard say concerning Tirhakah.... He sent messengers to Hezekiah
saying.... Let not thy God, in whom thou trustest, deceive thee
saying, Jerusalem shall not be given into the hand of the king of
Assyria. Behold, thou hast heard what the kings of Assyria have done
to all lands by destroying them utterly; and shalt thou be delivered?
Have the gods of the nations delivered them which my fathers have
destroyed, as Gozan, and Haran, and Rezeph, and the children of Eden
which were in Telassar? Where is the king of Hamath, and the king of
Arphad, and the king of the city of Sepharvaim, Hena, and Ivah?"[538]
Sidon was a party to the pro-Egyptian league which had been formed in
Palestine and Syria.
Early in his reign Esarhaddon conducted military operations in the
west, and during his absence the queen-mother Naki'a held the reins of
government. The Elamites regarded this innovation as a sign of
weakness, and invaded Babylon. Sippar was plundered, and its gods
carried away. The Assyrian governors, however, ultimately repulsed the
Elamite king, who was deposed soon after he returned home. His son,
who succeeded him, restored the stolen gods, and cultivated good
relations with Esarhaddon. There was great unrest in Elam at this
period: it suffered greatly from the inroads of Median and Persian
pastoral fighting folk.
In the north the Cimmerians and Scythians, who were constantly warring
against Urartu, and against each other, had spread themselves westward
and east. Esarhaddon drove Cimmerian invaders out of Cappadocia, and
they swamped Phrygia.
The Scythian peril on the north-east frontier was, however, of more
pronounced character. The fierce mountaineers had allied themselves
with Median tribes and overrun the buffer State of the Mannai. Both
Urartu and Assyria were sufferers from the brigandage of these allies.
Esarhaddon's generals, however, were able to deal with the situation,
and one of the notable results of the pacification of the
north-eastern area was the conclusion of an alliance with Urartu.
The most serious situation with which the emperor had to deal was in
the west. The King of Sidon, who had been so greatly favoured by
Sennacherib, had espoused the Egyptian cause. He allied himself with
the King of Cilicia, who, however, was unable to help him much. Sidon
was besieged and captured; the royal allies escaped, but a few years
later were caught and beheaded. The famous seaport was destroyed, and
its vast treasures deported to Assyria (about 676 B.C). Esarhaddon
replaced it by a new city called Kar-Esarhaddon, which formed the
nucleus of the new Sidon.
It is believed that Judah and other disaffected States were dealt with
about this time. Manasseh had succeeded Hezekiah at Jerusalem when but
a boy of twelve years. He appears to have come under the influence of
heathen teachers.
For he built up again the high places which Hezekiah his father
had destroyed; and he reared up altars for Baal, and made a grove,
as did Ahab king of Israel; and worshipped all the host of heaven,
and served them.... And he built altars for all the host of heaven
in the two courts of the house of the Lord. And he made his son
pass through the fire, and observed times, and used enchantments,
and dealt with familiar spirits and wizards: he wrought much
wickedness in the sight of the Lord, to provoke him to anger. And
he set a graven image of the grove that he had made in the house,
of which the Lord said to David, and to Solomon his son, In this
house, and in Jerusalem, which I have chosen out of all tribes of
Israel, will I put my name for ever.[539]
Isaiah ceased to prophesy after Manasseh came to the throne. According
to Rabbinic traditions he was seized by his enemies and enclosed in
the hollow trunk of a tree, which was sawn through. Other orthodox
teachers appear to have been slain also. "Manasseh shed innocent blood
very much, till he had filled Jerusalem from one end to another."[540]
It is possible that there is a reference to Isaiah's fate in an early
Christian lament regarding the persecutions of the faithful: "Others
had trial of cruel mockings and scourgings, yea, moreover of bonds and
imprisonment: they were stoned, _they were sawn asunder_, were
tempted, were slain with the sword".[541] There is no Assyrian
evidence regarding the captivity of Manasseh. "Wherefore the Lord
brought upon them (the people of Judah) the captains of the host of
the king of Assyria, which took Manasseh among the thorns, and bound
him with fetters, and carried him to Babylon. And when he was in
affliction, he besought the Lord his God, and humbled himself greatly
before the God of his fathers, and prayed unto him: and he was
intreated of him, and heard his supplication, and brought him again to
Jerusalem into his kingdom."[542] It was, however, in keeping with the
policy of Esarhaddon to deal in this manner with an erring vassal. The
Assyrian records include Manasseh of Judah (Menasê of the city of
Yaudu) with the kings of Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre, Ashdod, Gaza,
Byblos, &c, and "twenty-two kings of Khatti" as payers of tribute to
Esarhaddon, their overlord. Hazael of Arabia was conciliated by having
restored to him his gods which Sennacherib had carried away.
Egypt continued to intrigue against Assyria, and Esarhaddon resolved
to deal effectively with Taharka, the last Ethiopian Pharaoh. In 674
B.C. he invaded Egypt, but suffered a reverse and had to retreat. Tyre
revolted soon afterwards (673 B.C).
Esarhaddon, however, made elaborate preparations for his next
campaign. In 671 B.C. he went westward with a much more powerful army.
A detachment advanced to Tyre and invested it. The main force
meanwhile pushed on, crossed the Delta frontier, and swept
victoriously as far south as Memphis, where Taharka suffered a
crushing defeat. That great Egyptian metropolis was then occupied and
plundered by the soldiers of Esarhaddon. Lower Egypt became an
Assyrian province; the various petty kings, including Necho of Sais,
had set over them Assyrian governors. Tyre was also captured.
When he returned home Esarhaddon erected at the Syro-Cappadocian city
of Singirli[543] a statue of victory, which is now in the Berlin
museum. On this memorial the Assyrian "King of the kings of Egypt" is
depicted as a giant. With one hand he pours out an oblation to a god;
in the other he grasps his sceptre and two cords attached to rings,
which pierce the lips of dwarfish figures representing the Pharaoh
Taharka of Egypt and the unfaithful King of Tyre.
In 668 B.C. Taharka, who had fled to Napata in Ethiopia, returned to
Upper Egypt, and began to stir up revolts. Esarhaddon planned out
another expedition, so that he might shatter the last vestige of power
possessed by his rival. But before he left home he found it necessary
to set his kingdom in order.
During his absence from home the old Assyrian party, who disliked the
emperor because of Babylonian sympathies, had been intriguing
regarding the succession to the throne. According to the Babylonian
Chronicle, "the king remained in Assyria" during 669 B.C., "and he
slew with the sword many noble men". Ashur-bani-pal was evidently
concerned in the conspiracy, and it is significant to find that he
pleaded on behalf of certain of the conspirators. The crown prince
Sinidinabal was dead: perhaps he had been assassinated.
At the feast of the goddess Gula (identical with Bau, consort of
Ninip), towards the end of April in 668 B.C., Esarhaddon divided his
empire between two of his sons. Ashur-bani-pal was selected to be King
of Assyria, and Shamash-shum-ukin to be King of Babylon and the vassal
of Ashur-banipal. Other sons received important priestly appointments.
Soon after these arrangements were completed Esarhaddon, who was
suffering from bad health, set out for Egypt. He died towards the end
of October, and the early incidents of his campaign were included in
the records of Ashur-bani-pal's reign. Taharka was defeated at
Memphis, and retreated southward to Thebes.
So passed away the man who has been eulogized as "the noblest and most
sympathetic figure among the Assyrian kings". There was certainly much
which was attractive in his character. He inaugurated many social
reforms, and appears to have held in check his overbearing nobles.
Trade flourished during his reign. He did not undertake the erection
of a new city, like his father, but won the gratitude of the
priesthood by his activities as a builder and restorer of temples. He
founded a new "house of Ashur" at Nineveh, and reconstructed several
temples in Babylonia. His son Ashur-bani-pal was the last great
Assyrian ruler.