THE EMPIRE
The history of Brazil contains more exciting chapters, and has been the
most chequered of the South American republics. Its territory has been
the battleground of Spaniards, Portuguese, French, Indians and negroes.
It has been successively a capitancia, a province, an empire and a
republic. And yet, with all these changes and admixtures, the language,
customs, religion and laws of Brazil are substantially those of Portugal.
Rome gave these things as a heritage to that country, and she in turn
transmitted them to her colony in the New World.
Early in the year 1500, one Pedro Alvarez Cabral, a Portuguese nobleman,
sailed from Lisbon for the East Indies. Owing to some peculiar
instructions that had been given to him by the King of Portugal, he
sailed far west of the usual route for vessels bound to those islands.
One bright morning, during Easter week, land was sighted, and his
little fleet came to anchor off the coast of what is now the state of
Bahia. Believing that this was only an island he named it the “Island
of the True Cross,” and took formal possession of it in the name of his
sovereign. On Easter Sunday a landing was made, and the first mass was
held. A few days later the entire fleet departed, leaving only a couple
of mutinous sailors on shore.
The news of the discovery of this new land soon reached Portugal, and the
Crown of that country immediately made formal claim to the territory.
Expeditions were sent out by King Manuel to explore this supposed island.
One of these expeditions was in charge of Amerigo Vespucci, and it was
he who ascertained, after a careful examination, that this new land
was a continent and not an island. Wherever the Indians were seen they
were questioned about gold and silver, but, although the natives told
marvellous tales of wealth, no mines were located. The only object of
commercial value seemed to be the dyewood, known as brazil-wood; and,
in spite of the efforts of the Church to name the country Santa Cruz,
the holy cross, the name Brazil soon supplanted all other names, and has
clung to the country ever since, although religious names abound in
the geography of Brazil. Scores of ships of various nationalities soon
sought these shores for this precious wood, the commerce of which was
exceedingly profitable. For a quarter of a century this land, teeming
with fertility, remained unsettled, although explorations had been made
from the mouth of the Amazon as far south as the Rio de la Plata. The
resources of the country were fully appreciated, and Vespucci himself is
credited with saying, that if Paradise did exist on this planet it could
not be far from the Brazilian coast.
The earliest permanent settlers of Brazil were mutineers from the ships
bound for India. One of these, Diego Alvarez, was put ashore at Bahia;
another, John Ramelho, was left at Santos; and the third, Aleixo Garcia,
found his unsought habitation still farther south. Each of these men
married daughters of local chieftains, and they, and their descendants,
aided greatly in the final subjugation of the country, for they allied
themselves with the incomers. The first serious effort to colonize the
country was begun near Pernambuco, where an attempt was made to establish
a sugar plantation. This, however, was soon destroyed by some French
brazil-wood hunters. An expedition, consisting of four hundred persons,
was sent out under Martino Affonso de Souza a short time afterwards.
After sailing along the coast he finally dropped anchor, and established
the little settlement of São Vicente, near the present city of Santos,
in 1532.[6] It was not long after this that the Crown divided up the
whole Brazilian coast into parallel strips, each extending fifty leagues
along the coast, and running inland as far as the power of Portugal
extended; and these sections, called _capitancias_, were given to court
favourites. The grantee was given practically sovereign powers over this
territory in return for a certain tax which he was expected to pay. As
a result of this arrangement a number of permanent colonies grew up on
Brazilian soil. Of all the _capitancias_, that which included Pernambuco
became the most prosperous because it was in the track of all the vessels
from Europe, and also because it was found so well adapted to the
cultivation of the sugar cane, which, at that time, was very profitable.
Furthermore, little or no trouble was experienced with the Indians,
who had become allies of the white men. By the middle of the sixteenth
century this settlement was a flourishing one, and there were a half
dozen or more communities south of it.
The _capitancia_ system was not a success. Some of the grantees did not
succeed; others grew to be arrogant. This aroused the jealousy of the
Portuguese government, which began to make efforts to centralize the
colony, and sent out a governor-general with plenary powers and explicit
directions. A capital was built in the beautiful bay of Bahia, and
the success of sugar cultivation on these shores made this settlement
prosperous. Negroes were imported as slaves, and Bahia continued a great
distributing point of these human chattels for centuries. By the year
1585, it was estimated by a priest, that there were twenty-five thousand
white people in Brazil, twelve thousand of whom were in Bahia, and eight
thousand at Pernambuco. Rio de Janeiro, at that time, had a population of
less than a thousand.
[Illustration: A TYPICAL BRAZILIAN STREET.]
Other nations had been casting jealous eyes upon this Portuguese colony
in the New World. A large colony of French Huguenots, seeking more
congenial homes, settled at Rio de Janeiro, and formed friendly alliances
with the Indians. This policy was exactly the opposite of the policy of
the Portuguese settlers, who generally enslaved the aborigines wherever
possible. It was several years before these French colonists were finally
driven out of the country. In 1580 Brazil had become a Spanish possession
through the uniting of the throne of Spain and Portugal. Spain, however,
neglected Brazil, because it was not furnishing the golden wealth like
Mexico, Peru and their other American colonies. The Dutch conquest about
this time was far more formidable than all other opposition combined. The
Dutch East India Company had been so successful in securing the greater
part of the Portuguese possessions in the Pacific Ocean, that a West
India Company was organized to do the same thing in Brazil. Although
protected and subsidized by the Dutch government, this company was
organized for private profit. A fleet of privateers, flying the flag of
Holland, appeared at Bahia and captured that city; Pernambuco succumbed
a few weeks later. Although there were a number of reverses the Dutch
gradually extended their sovereignty until the whole of the northeastern
part of Brazil was in their control. This Dutch sovereignty lasted for
more than a quarter of a century, and it was not until Portugal had had
its sovereignty restored, and several sanguinary battles were fought,
that the Dutch West India Company relinquished its hold on these rich
provinces.
During the occupancy of the northern provinces by the Dutch, development
was going on in the south where Portuguese rule was undisputed. The
Paulistas had by this time developed into an energetic and aggressive
race. In their search for gold, and Indians whom they might enslave,
they had spread their conquest over the great interior plateaus; they
had rooted out all the settlements established by the Spanish Jesuits
on the upper Paraná and had spread south as far as Rio Grande do
Sul. Comparative commercial and governmental freedom had stimulated
progress, so that by the end of the seventeenth century the population
of Brazil had increased to three-quarters of a million. Many and bitter
were the contests waged with the Jesuit priesthood, and the Paulistas
were especially bitter in their opposition to this order. At last the
Portuguese government forcibly expelled them from all Brazil. Many
negroes escaped from their bondage, and fled into the interior, where
they refused to recognize white supremacy, and there set up independent
governments, and some of these strange republics lasted for fifty years.
It was not until the beginning of the 18th century that Rio de Janeiro
became a place of importance. The discovery of gold in Minas Geraes a
little while before caused a great influx of adventurers, and Rio was the
only gateway to the mining territory. It soon possessed a population of
several thousand and became a city of social and commercial importance.
Other communities grew and many new provinces were formed. With
increasing wealth and agricultural and mineral prosperity came evidences
of discontent with the body politic. The policies of the home government
became narrower and narrower, as the East India possessions were lost,
and they seemed determined to milk this one colony to the very last drop.
The colony was neither allowed to manufacture goods, nor purchase of
any country except Portugal; and this even was hampered in many ways by
burdensome imposts. All business transactions were burdened with heavy
fees; slaves were charged so much a head; all trades and professions
were taxed at ruinous rates, and certain lines of trade were let out
as monopolies to favourites. The governors interfered everywhere with
the administration of justice, and bribery was rampant on all sides.
Unauthorized taxes were imposed, forced loans exacted from individuals,
and young men were impressed into military service.
It is little wonder that dissatisfaction grew apace. A deep repugnance
spread over the land and the very name of government grew to be hated.
The hostility to Portugal and aversion to everything Portuguese permeated
all classes without distinction. One bright page shines out at this
period of the colony’s history during the administration of the Marquis
of Pombal, who became prime minister of Portugal in 1750. The marquis
punished bribery and incompetence without fear or favour, and for a few
years the colony greatly prospered. After twenty-seven years of rule he
was driven out, and the old abuses returned in even a greater degree, if
such was possible. The success of the revolution in the United States
about this time aroused many Brazilians to the possibility of freedom
from the galling yoke. A conspiracy arose in the state of Minas Geraes,
in a literary circle that existed there, but it was easily destroyed and
one man, Tiradentes, was executed.
About this time an incident happened which stemmed the tide of events
for a time. Napoleon was at the height of his power, and was overturning
monarchies with a ruthless hand. Having conquered Spain, his armies
descended upon Portugal in 1808. Fear seized the court, and Dom John,
although shedding tears over his unhappy country, decided to save his own
head by flight. Hence he embarked at Lisbon with all the royal family in
the men-of-war, and set sail for Rio. Fifteen thousand persons, including
many of the nobility and hangers-on, also embarked at the same time,
together with fifty millions of property and treasure, and arrived at
Rio the 8th of March, 1808. The king’s first act was to issue a decree
removing all the fetters on commerce, and opening up the ports to the
ships of all nations. Many other decrees followed, and all restrictions
upon foreigners were removed. The removal of these fetters to industrial
development, and the importation of so many people, well supplied with
money, inaugurated a new era for Brazil. A national bank was established,
the printing press set up and many new schools founded. Scholars and
artists flocked to this new capital, and the commercial nations sent
their representatives. Brazil was officially designated as the Kingdom of
Brazil. There were perhaps three million people in the country, of whom
one-third were negro slaves, and not more than one-fourth were white.
Sugar and tobacco were the great staple exports, for coffee had not at
that time reached the importance that it has to-day.
The coming of the royal court to Rio was not without its disadvantages
as well. Although it brought money, it also brought an extravagant
government with a swarm of parasites who had bankrupted Portugal, and who
now began their operations in Brazil. Money flowed freely, new offices
were created to supply places for favourites, and taxes were augmented to
pay these bills. Education increased, but the desire for holding office
was likewise intensified. The great estates were practically abandoned,
being left in the hands of slaves and subordinates. Everybody wished
to live near the court, and all the young men yearned for government
offices. This avidity exists even to this day, and its origin may perhaps
be traced back to this period in the country’s history. Politics became
the popular theme—not from the theoretical standpoint, but the practical
one of furnishing congenial employment at a good salary. If the salary
was not large enough, then recourse was had to other sources for more
revenue to keep up extravagant living.
All things have an end, and so did the royal court in Rio. Napoleon had
fallen, and events of momentous importance were transpiring in Portugal.
That country was jealous of the fact that the court resided in Brazil,
and demanded its immediate return. A Cortes had been summoned which
threatened trouble for the monarchy. The Brazilians forced King John,
before his departure, to sign a decree favouring a liberal constitution
such as Spain had just adopted. This he did with, perhaps, a mental
reservation, and a couple of days afterward embarked for Lisbon with a
large suite.
Upon his departure King John left his son Dom Pedro, a young man
just past his majority, as regent. This young man was a handsome and
active youth, fond of outdoor sports and a patron of the arts. He was
strong-willed, but passionate and unrestrained, and was entirely the
opposite of his vacillating, weak-willed father. His manners were frank
and attractive, but he loved public favour, and enjoyed being the
principal dramatic figure in any crisis. His courage was unquestionable,
he was prompt in decision, but he had no strong character for good. It
was not long until he had the opportunity to be the central figure in
truly dramatic events.
[Illustration: A MUD AND THATCH COTTAGE.]
King John seems to have had a presentiment of coming independence for
Brazil. His last words to Dom Pedro were: “I fear Brazil before long will
separate herself from Portugal; if so, rather than allow the crown to
fall to some adventurer, place it on thine own head.” The Cortes adopted
a grasping policy toward its big colony. They refused to listen to the
Brazilian delegates in that body, abolished certain of the provincial
courts, changed the governors, and sent garrisons to the principal
cities. The attempt to transform Brazil again into the position of a
province, after having been the sovereign country, aroused the whole of
Brazil into indignant protest. It was looked upon as open insult. The
spirit of rebellion, which had broken forth even before the departure
of the court, burst out with renewed energy. The newspapers were filled
with revolutionary editorials. When an order came for the return of the
popular young regent the people of São Paulo, Minas Geraes and other
states spoke with an almost united voice against this impolitic measure.
“How dare these deputies of Portugal deprive Brazil of her privy council,
her exchequer, her board of commerce, her court of requests, and so
many other institutions which promise us such future benefits? How dare
they dismember Brazil into isolated parts possessing no common centre
of strength and union? How dare they deprive your Royal Highness of the
regency with which your august father had invested you?” In response
to this and similar appeals the young prince announced that he would
remain in Brazil, and thus defy the Cortes. A ministry was formed at Rio
to look after the interests of the country, although independence had
not been proclaimed. José Bonifacio, an energetic and able patriot, was
made Prime Minister. No heed was paid to these rumblings by the Cortes,
and that body continued to pass restrictive and unpopular measures. The
Brazilian deputies finally withdrew in anger, and the Cortes sent armed
reinforcements to Brazil. Dom Pedro issued a proclamation to the people
urging resistance, and also called together a legislative assembly. The
final summons of the Cortes for his return reached him near São Paulo,
as he was returning from a hunt with a party of friends. Dramatically
drawing his sword the regent shouted, “Independence or Death,” and this
cry was taken up all over the country. On the 10th of October he was
solemnly crowned as the Constitutional Emperor of Brazil, and announced
that he would accept the constitution to be drawn up by the assembly soon
to convene. The places held by Portuguese troops soon after capitulated,
and it was not long before peace had fallen over the entire new empire,
although Portugal did not recognize her independence until 1825.
The mutation had been accomplished with very little opposition. The
Portuguese troops were soon withdrawn, and people began to breathe more
freely. Dom Pedro I, for this was his official title, had succeeded
in doing what he desired; he had created a new empire with himself as
the first legitimate monarch. He prided himself on establishing the
first constitutional monarchy of his own free will. On every possible
occasion he loudly proclaimed the beauties of the constitution and his
own liberalism. His speech to the first constituent assembly was of a
different tone, and was as follows: “I promise to adopt and defend the
constitution which you may frame, if it should be worthy of Brazil and
myself. We need a constitution that will be an insurmountable barrier
against any invasion of the imperial prerogatives.” This announcement
served to show a change of heart in the young ruler, and caused a storm
of protest from members of the assembly who were looking forward to real
liberty. They desired to curtail rather than enlarge imperial privilege.
The country was divided into two parties—liberal and conservative. The
former party had been the leaders in the independent movement, and the
Andrada brothers, members of that following, were in power. They were
fiercely opposed to everything Portuguese, and were unscrupulous in
dealing with personal enemies. Their policy soon ran counter to that of
the Emperor, and he summarily dismissed them. He appointed a conservative
ministry, headed by the Marquis of Paranaguá, and this ministry was
unsatisfactory to the liberals, who had been inflamed by the dismissed
Andradas.
The assembly itself became very independent and ignored the requests and
recommendations of the Emperor. That royal personage himself and his
Portuguese officers were attacked by both press and assembly. At last
Dom Pedro arranged his troops in front of the house where the assembly
met, and demanded the expulsion of the Andradas. When this was refused
he enforced his demand, and immediately issued a proclamation dissolving
the assembly, and deported a number of the members who were distasteful
to him. A new constitution was drawn up at the inspiration of the
Emperor. This instrument was promulgated as the fundamental law; but no
congress was summoned, and the Emperor ruled by despotic law pure and
simple. Ministers were appointed, and they soon resigned or were removed.
Opposition journals sprang up and flourished. Several states at the north
attempted to secede and form the “Confederation of the Equator,” but this
was suppressed by vigorous measures. A rebellion broke out in what is
now Uruguay, and which had been claimed by Brazil. This led to war with
Argentina, and a number of battles were fought between the troops of the
two nations. This necessitated a large increase in the Brazilian debt,
and the result was he had to acknowledge the independence of Uruguay. In
1826, by the death of his father, Dom Pedro succeeded to the throne of
Portugal, but he immediately chose to remain in Brazil and abdicated in
favour of his daughter Donna Maria.
A congress was finally summoned by the Emperor which met on the 3rd
of May, 1826. At first this congress was timid and subservient; the
second year it was less so, and by the third year it had the courage to
openly defy the Emperor. He insisted that their only duty was to pass
laws to increase taxes, but they endeavoured to make the ministries
accountable to congress. In 1829 he dissolved this body, because of
its intractability. By that act he destroyed the last remnant of his
hold upon the public. The Brazilians were practically a unit against
absolutism, and the native Portuguese, who upheld Dom Pedro, were in the
great minority. He appointed a liberal ministry, but that was a failure.
He then designated one composed exclusively of senators, but the people
resented this, for senators were appointed for life by the Crown. He
made a journey through some of the provinces, but his reception was
unfriendly. Riots broke forth on the streets of Rio. He appointed a new
ministry of reactionary tendencies, but that action failed to stem the
tide. A mob composed of the best people of Rio assembled, and marched
to the residence of the Emperor. The army and police were with them in
sympathy, and the troops guarding his person deserted him in this hour of
need. His resignation was demanded, but as firmly refused. No indignity
was offered his person, but the crowd refused to disperse. At last, very
early in the morning, Dom Pedro relented, and wrote out an abdication
in favour of his son, a lad of only five years. “I have voluntarily
abdicated in favour of my dearly beloved and esteemed son, Dom Pedro
de Alcantara. I shall retire to Europe and leave a country that I have
always loved and still love.” These were the Emperor’s words, written on
the morning of the 8th of April, 1831. He immediately left Europe, where
he died three years later, his life having been greatly shortened by the
many excesses to which he had yielded all his life.
[Illustration: A GENERAL VIEW OF BAHIA.]
The expulsion of Dom Pedro I left the country in an unsettled condition.
Revolutionary talk was in the air and no one knew what a day might
bring forth. Because of the extreme youth of the new Emperor, Congress
met and selected a provisional regency consisting of three members.
Trouble soon arose in Bahia, Pernambuco and Pará, and Rio seemed ready
for civil war. The regency had no real ascendency and petty jealousies
soon arose. In this crisis a patriot priest, Padre Diago Antonio Feijó,
who had been a leader of democratic opinion, was given absolute power.
He was a man of firm will and prompt execution. By his decisiveness all
disorders in the capital were soon quelled. Only isolated disorders
arose which were prompted by ambitious local politicians. In the
provinces _pronunciamentos_ were issued in high sounding language,
and the populace were greatly aroused. These local disaffections
sometimes gained considerable headway because of the slowness of
communication. As one writer puts it, “the words ‘liberty’ and ‘local
rights,’ ‘constitutionalism’ and ‘union’ were overworked in speeches and
proclamations.” In Pará, for instance, two hundred people were killed
in one night’s fighting. Ceará was in anarchy for several months and
Maranhão kept up a civil war for a whole winter. Padre Feijó was an
orator and a man of unswerving integrity, and soon made his influence
felt, for he was respected as well. When the regency was made elective
he was chosen by the electors. His one weakness was an unyielding
disposition which could not harmonize the discordant elements, and he
finally resigned. His successors did not do as well as the priest, who
had, at least, left a record of integrity, if he had been somewhat high
handed in his methods of overcoming opposition. The ten years of the
regency had been about the stormiest period in the history of Brazil.
Although the Emperor would not be of legal age until 1843, at the age
of eighteen, a strong demand went forth for him to take charge at once.
Though this was unconstitutional, no one seriously objected, and he
agreed to accept the responsibility. Hence it was, in 1840, at the
age of fifteen years, Dom Pedro II ascended the throne of Brazil, and
administered the country for almost half a century.
The new Emperor was the antithesis of his father in tastes and
disposition. Whereas the father was a sportsman, the son was a student
and an omnivorous reader. The first Pedro was a man of the world, the
second was the inverse. He was a conscientious monarch, and aimed to
decide all questions justly. He was respectful toward religion, but the
priesthood had no hold upon him. Like his father he was democratic in
his manners, but was negligent in his dress and cared naught for the
glitter of a court. He would rather read a favourite author than preside
over a state dinner. He kept his ear to the ground, and thus generally
knew the state of public opinion. The people loved him, and it was this
fact alone that forefended a republic for so many years. They sometimes
laughed at his eccentricities, but they respected his opinion; they had
confidence in the honesty of his purpose, which was a sincere compliment
to him.
Both internal and external peace generally reigned during the rule of Dom
Pedro II. Rio Grande do Sul, that independent and ebullient province,
remained in arms for several years, and it was not thoroughly subjected
until 1845. This civil war had lasted ten years. The government aided
Uruguay in her fight against the Argentine dictator, Rosas, but emerged
from this fight with a number of advantages gained. The worst war in
which Dom Pedro II engaged was the one waged with Paraguay, from 1865 to
1870.
This little republic was under the domination of a dictator by the name
of Lopez, who, because of some fancied affront, attacked a Brazilian
steamer passing up the Paraguay River. Lopez followed this up by an
expedition into Matto Grosso, and easily conquered the southern portion
of that province. Soon afterwards Lopez declared war against Argentina,
and Uruguay was also interjected into the struggle. Thus Lopez was
fighting the three republics lone-handed, each of which was more powerful
than his own; but Brazil was scattered, Argentina was not homogeneous
and Uruguay was disintegrated into political factions. Furthermore,
Paraguay was difficult of access, especially for Brazil, and the war
dragged along several years. Lopez pushed every advantage and, by the
very boldness of his initiative, seemed to carry everything before him
at first. Sanguinary battles were fought on Brazilian soil on several
occasions. The Duke of Caxias was finally made commander in chief. This
new commander was very slow in making his preparations, but the tide soon
turned after he got in the field. The audacious dictator was gradually
driven in; he was at last defeated and slain.
This did not supervene until nearly every man in Paraguay was slain
or disabled. Brazil gained absolutely nothing. She piled up a debt
of $300,000,000, and lost over fifty thousand much-needed citizens.
Argentina and Uruguay profited, but Brazil, after bearing the brunt of
the fighting and the lion’s share of the expense, realized no substantial
result.
During the entire reign of Dom Pedro II there was a ceaseless conflict
going on between the liberal and conservative factions. At first the
former gained the ascendency, but they failed to enact the expected
reforms, so a conservative cabinet was named. The rise in the value of
coffee and other profitable crops brought in an era of prosperity, which
continued the conservatives in power for many years. Liberty of speech
was unquestioned under this emperor, arbitrary imprisonment had ceased,
property rights were respected and the administration of justice had been
much meliorated. Bribery ceased to be done openly, as had been the custom
before. In 1850 an epidemic of yellow fever in Rio spread consternation
over the land so that even Congress adjourned in terror. Railways were
inaugurated, wealth increased and luxury followed. Then came a financial
crisis, and the defeat of the conservatives followed. Another boom
succeeded a short period of depression, and, about the close of our
own civil war, Brazil had easily made the most progress of any of the
nations of South America. The mass of the people, however, were not only
apathetic but ignorant; they lacked initiative and energy.
Thus it was that events drifted along with intermittent periods of
prosperity and depression. The conservatives would be in power a short
time, to be followed by the liberals. The Emperor retained his personal
popularity, but his daughter, the Countess d’Eu, heir to the throne,
was not so popular. During the Emperor’s visit to the United States and
Europe, in 1876, she served as regent. The general belief that she was
too much under the influence of the priesthood made the people fear her
possible accession to the throne, in the event of the Emperor’s death or
disability. There was evidently a weakening of Dom Pedro’s mental powers.
Because of his ill health he left the power of state with her while he
went abroad in search of relief. During this regency events transpired
that brought about the change from empire to republic, and the enfeebled
old emperor was forced to leave the country to which he had given the
best years of his life. The change could not have been long delayed,
however, for Brazil was surrounded by republics, republicanism permeated
the atmosphere, and the spirit of republican institutions was everywhere
abroad in the land.