EGYPTIAN SCIENCE
The early civilization in Egypt developed in the ancient cities of
Thebes and Memphis. Authorities on the dawn of history in Egypt are
unable to definitely account for the origins of the various peoples
who have ruled the land. One school contends that the early negroid
inhabitants originated in Africa. Another school opposes this view and
suggests an Asiatic origin. Each of these schools can marshal facts to
sustain its contentions. The truth is that Africa was inhabited at such
an early period that we are unable to fully trace back the movements of
its races.
Man was divided into species and subspecies at a very remote period.
The dominant peoples in each country, in each era, were the successful
contestants in long conflicts for supremacy. Many races have vanished
without leaving any traces beyond reversional strains which still
come to the surface at times in families living to-day. The laws of
evolution, only recently deciphered, are the sole means we possess for
learning about many of the long-perished species of men.
A few races, too weak to ever gain supremacy and themselves to occupy
districts, or countries, have survived by dwelling among stronger
races. The Ainus, in Japan, and the Jews in Asia and Europe, are
well-known examples.
[Illustration: MODEL OF AN EARLY ELECTRIC MOTOR
The original was invented by M. H. Jacobi in 1834 and was used in 1838
to propel a boat on the Neva at St. Petersburg.]
[Illustration: MODEL OF AN EARLY TURNING LATHE
This mechanism was invented by Thomas Blanchard in 1843. He also
invented a lathe for turning gun barrels.]
[Illustration:
Copyright, Underwood & Underwood
AN EDISON PHONOGRAPH OF 1878
The sound record was made on a sheet of tin foil vibrated by the voice.]
[Illustration: WHITNEY'S COTTON GIN
This device, invented in 1793, revolutionized the cotton and cotton
manufacturing industries.]
Egypt, owing to its remarkable geographical situation between Asia,
Europe, and the vast continent of Africa, has been a great highway for
race migrations. Many peoples have lived and ruled there and passed
on before incoming tides of new and more vigorous peoples. Each race,
undoubtedly, during its residence in Egypt contributed to the general
fund of Egyptian knowledge and customs and assisted in the development
of science.
The tombs of Thebes have given us bodies of ancient Egyptians of more
than six thousand years ago. At that time the people were characterized
by the Grecian type of profile. They resembled the contemporary
active peoples in India and Arabia and did not differ much from the
Egyptians of our day. The incoming streams of people who settled in the
Nile valley, both Asiatic and negroid, changed the appearance of the
Egyptians at different times by intermarriage, but when their vigor
waned and they were crowded out by other peoples, the Egyptians assumed
their regular Semitic characteristics.
Egyptian history really begins with the old kingdom dynasties, about
ten thousand years ago. The tombs of Abydos have furnished material
for accounts of this early period. There were eight powerful kings in
the first dynasty and all of them contributed to the advancement of
civilization. Abydos, and later Memphis, were their principal cities.
They ruled in great luxury and were patrons of the arts and sciences.
The art works, sculptures, and carvings in ivory and ebony of this era
speak in eloquent terms of the taste and high mental powers of the
people. Modern museums are well supplied with relics of those times,
which illustrate the degree of civilization attained by the Egyptians
at the beginning of their history better than any written account.
The early Egyptians adopted the sciences, arts and customs of the
Babylonians. With these as a basis the priests and learned men
experimented and made many independent researches and discoveries.
The pyramids, erected near Cairo 3000 B. C., indicate the high degree
of culture which the early Egyptians had attained. These renowned
monuments to the kings were scientifically designed and constructed to
exist for all time. In order to contribute to their usefulness, they
were planned so as to exhibit correct geometrical forms and indicate
the cardinal points of the compass and the positions of certain
astronomical bodies. The details of their construction disclosed much
mathematical, geometrical and physical knowledge, and their actual
building called for not only an all-around mechanical skill but a
high degree of engineering ability. They were constructed of various
materials. Some large granite blocks were used in the outside walls
and these were brought from the upper Nile. They were towed down the
river on barges and were lifted into the positions in which they are
found to-day. Various mortars and mortar mixtures were employed in
binding the brickwork and masonry. These called for a good knowledge
of chemistry and physics. The arches and sloping walls of some of the
larger pyramids show how well the architects and engineers of the day
knew their professions. With similar means in their possession, the
best professional men of the present day would find it difficult to get
such splendid results.
In the past few years, lapidaries and gem-workers have learned to cut
stones and gems with steel disk-wheels, the cutting edges of which are
furnished with carborundum or emery powder or insets of diamonds. The
pyramid builders knew this method of sawing and cutting stones. They
actually employed bronze saws set with diamonds to cut the huge blocks
of granite, syenite, diorite, and basalt used in the construction of
the pyramids. They also set the cutting ends of their rock drills with
diamonds, and bored rocks as we do to-day with diamond core drills.
The art of making these tools was afterward lost. Only within the
past half-century have mechanical rock saws and diamond drills been
reinvented. This brilliantly indicates the inventive ability of the
engineers at the dawn of Egypt's history. The builders of the splendid
monument of Rameses II in the Memnonium, at Thebes, which weighs 887
long tons, transported the huge stone by land from the quarries at
E'Sooan, a distance of 138 miles. Such tasks appear never to have
deterred early Egyptian engineers and architects. They were so sure
of their ability to carry their great operations to satisfactory
completion that they never hesitated in agreeing to the severest
penalties for nonfulfillment of contract. Their cranes, levers, wedges,
rock drills, pumps, air blowers and compressors, and building tools all
showed how well mastered was their knowledge.
Their quarrying methods were similar to those used in the best practice
to-day. When huge blocks and slabs of stone were needed the required
dimensions were marked on the rock and channeled out. Metal wedges
were forced into the channels and struck at once by a large number of
hammers. The constant vibration, in time, broke off the stone with
clean-cut surfaces. When these were to be carved into statuary or
ornamental shapes it was often done at the quarries, so as to reduce
transportation difficulties. Water transportation was used when
possible. When the stone had to be moved over the desert sands it was
lifted by cranes and set on sleds drawn by men or animals, or driven
forward by levers, just as heavy steel machinery is moved by modern
engineers.
The principle of the siphon was known to the Egyptians at an early
period. It was employed daily in many homes for supplying water and for
drawing off wine from barrels and tanks into domestic utensils. Its
principal use, however, was in civil engineering works. Siphons were
constructed on a large scale for furnishing water to villages, draining
land for farming, and for irrigation purposes. They were built, in many
known instances, for carrying large quantities of water, in high lifts,
over hills.
Herodotus tells us that the science of geometry was discovered by the
Egyptians as a result of the necessity for making annual surveys of the
farming lands in the Nile valley.
When geometry was established as a practical science, land and
astronomical surveying were simplified and many branches of mathematics
were enlarged. The science of marine surveying was also developed and
this led to a great improvement in map-making and in geography, in
which the Egyptians became famous.
The skill attained by the Egyptians in land surveying required accurate
surveying instruments. These were invented at an early period. The
Greeks claim the invention of the theodolite and similar instruments,
but Egyptian history shows that gnomons, surveying compasses, and
levels were used by Egyptian surveyors long before the Greeks began to
study the learning of Egypt.
Astronomical science made great progress in Egypt. The theory
attributing to the sun the central place in our planetary system,
now called the Copernican theory, was known and used in Egypt. They
were familiar with the obliquity of the ecliptic, and knew that the
Milky Way was an aggregation of numerous stars of various sizes. They
understood that moonlight is simply the reflected light of the sun. The
movements of comets, the positions of the principal stars and stellar
constellations and other astronomical phenomena were studied and
charted on astronomical maps or recorded and forecasted in astronomical
tables.
The discoveries made by the Greek scientists naturally stimulated
philosophical thought, which in turn reacted upon scientific
experimentation and led to a broadening of the scope of general
research work. We are dependent upon the pictorial records of early
Egyptian times for descriptions of the instruments and machinery
employed and these are not always clear. They indicate, however, that
the Egyptians quickly learned the sciences developed by the Babylonians
and other Oriental peoples and improved them. Their knowledge of
astronomy, mathematics, geometry, chemistry, physics, medicine, and
agriculture was extensive. The priests and learned men taught the
pure sciences and constantly experimented; the engineers, architects,
surveyors, and mechanics applied the sciences to the arts.
In one of the records of an early dynasty the father of a student
sailing up the Nile to begin his studies in one of the leading
scientific schools gave this advice: "Put thy heart into learning and
love knowledge like a mother, for there is nothing that is so precious
as learning."
The Mesopotamian peoples, as we saw in the last chapter, considered
the stars and principal heavenly bodies as deities. The Egyptians
did not do this, although they looked upon the heavens as the abode
of all pious souls. Their astronomical knowledge at the time of the
establishment of the New Empire at Thebes, about the year 1320 B. C.,
was remarkably extensive.
The Egyptians divided time in accordance with the course of the sun
into periods of 365¼ days, and these were divided in accordance with
the course of the moon into periods of about 29½ days. Thus the basis
of the system of years and months used by us was perfectly understood
by the Egyptians.
The science of medicine was developed at a very early period in
Egyptian history. The various divisions of physicians, surgeons,
pharmaceutists, veterinarians, and dentists organized by the
Babylonians were retained by the Egyptians. Many names of distinguished
practitioners have been handed down. Nevertheless, their anatomical
knowledge remained poor, and there were many superstitious practices
connected with medicine. The various medical manuals which have been
preserved show that the Egyptian physicians studied diagnosis with
modern thoroughness. They were aware that an exact knowledge of each
disease, obtainable only by a complete study of the symptoms, was
necessary before a correct treatment could be prescribed. When the
magic and the superstitious dressings are abstracted from Egyptian
medical works and prescriptions, we find that the broad principles were
sound and efficient. They were developed along lines similar to those
of modern times.
Mathematics attracted much attention in Egypt. The learning of Oriental
countries on this subject was readily absorbed by the Egyptians. The
Greek historians were so surprised at the efficiency of the Egyptians
in this branch of knowledge that they almost unanimously asserted that
the mathematical sciences originated in Egypt.
The pyramid base lines run in the direction of the four points of the
compass, and were determined by correct astronomical methods. The
astronomers and surveyors were skilled in trigonometry. Fractions were
known to the Egyptians, who were taught in the schools of Babylon. The
modern x, representing an unknown factor, was known to the Egyptians
under the name of "hau."
Quadratic equations were employed by them. The problem of finding x and
y, when x² + y² = 100 and x:y = 1:¾, one of the earliest problems of
this character known, was found in a papyrus at Kahun. The problem was
stated as follows: "A given surface of, say, 100 units of area, shall
be represented as the sum of two squares, whose sides are to each other
as 1:¾."
The papyrus gave the working out of the solution. Many similar
problems are given in mathematical works and papyri. They show the
proficiency in mathematics that Egyptian scientists had attained at a
remote period. But their methods of expressing mathematical problems
were crude and, consequently, involved much tedious labor in finding
solutions. There can be little doubt that if effective mathematical
symbols had been devised the abstract sciences would have made even
greater progress than they did in early Egypt. When we study the
complicated solutions of algebraic problems made by the Egyptians,
owing to the lack of simple symbols, we can appreciate how greatly
modern mathematical science is benefited by the devices now employed
for expressing quantities, variations, and operations.
The Egyptians were expert in applying the discoveries of science to
the arts. The Nile made their country potentially rich in agriculture,
and they devoted much attention to inventing such things as single and
double plows, rakes, and other agricultural machines, many of which
were drawn by oxen, donkeys, and other animals. Reaping was done with
sickles and scythes. Not only was irrigation understood and widely
practiced, but the importance of fertilization was recognized.
The farmers understood the preservation of meat, vegetables, and
foodstuffs generally, by drying or pickling. They also brewed beer and
made wines, vegetable and seed oils, and alcohol. The selection of
breeding animals and the principles of variation were understood and
employed for developing particular breeds of cattle and farm stocks.
The papyrus reed grew luxuriantly in Egypt and this resulted in the
discovery of paper making, weaving, thread making and many textile
methods. These industries led to the invention of looms, rope and twine
twisting appliances, flax weaving and other machinery. The linens and
cloths made by these machines have never been excelled.
Dyeing was developed with the textile industries. As the skies of Egypt
are bright, the people in all ages have had a fondness for brilliant
colors. The call for bright textile colors led to a considerable
development in the chemistry of dyes and dyeing. Vegetable and mineral
dyes were used. Dyes were not always applied to the whole pieces of
goods, but stenciling and other methods of patterning were used. The
highly organized artistic skill of the people demanded art-designed
textiles and the manufacturers responded with beautiful and rich
materials.
The fur and feather industries became important at an early period. The
Egyptians were fond of beautiful ornamental skins like those of the
panther or gazelle. Such skins were manufactured into numerous domestic
articles, made into clothing or used as rugs, mats, and seat coverings.
Skins not valuable for art purposes were sent to the tanners to be
converted into various kinds of leather. Tanning was highly developed,
and the tanners turned out leathers which are to-day admired for
their excellence. The tanners carried on their industries by chemical
processes similar to those in use to-day.
The scarcity of wood in Egypt led to the invention of various
substitutes. One common substitute was a kind of _papier mâché_. This
was manufactured out of linen, wood or vegetable pulp and various
kinds of paste. When it was used for art work the molded forms were
covered with lacquer or various kinds of stucco. Very beautiful objects
were manufactured from these substances, which indicate that the
artists possessed a wide practical knowledge of physical and chemical
principles.
Chemical knowledge was also well shown in their manufacture of glass.
They excelled in this industry. All kinds of glass were made and
decorated by staining and glazing. The glassmakers were able to
imitate precious stones in glass and their glass-bead and enamel work
has never been excelled. Some modern chemists express the opinion that
glass making was carried to a greater degree of perfection in Egypt
than any modern nation has attained.
Egyptian porcelains were also finely executed. These were enameled,
stained, and decorated in numerous ways. The colors, glazes, and art
mediums employed by the artists in pottery and porcelain necessitated
a wide chemical knowledge. Some of the pigments employed both in
glass and porcelain ornamentation were made from metals. Their use
required a knowledge of metallurgy. Metals like lead, nickel, manganese
required fluxing and refining before they could be secured in a state
sufficiently pure to be used as bases for colors. Not only did the
artists know the value of many metallic oxides, but they understood how
to secure the tints resulting from blending different oxides, and by
acting upon metals with acids, just as they acted upon vegetable and
metallic dyes with acids to get rare tones in linen dyeing.
Mordants were employed in dyeing cloths and these were acted upon by
acids and alkalies to produce various colors. We are dependent upon the
relics which have been preserved for our knowledge of the chemical and
physical learning of the Egyptians. No chemical books of theirs have
come down to us, and inferences must be drawn from the results seen.
In carrying out metallurgical operations, the Egyptians employed small
blast furnaces and melting pots. Air was compressed by bellows and
conducted into molten substances by pipes.
The methods of metal working, melting, rolling, forging, soldering,
annealing, and chasing were similar to common methods in use in modern
times.
The Egyptians were a practical people. They made wonderful progress
in the industrial arts and learned enough of scientific principles
to enable them to deal with much success with the mechanical,
agricultural, astronomical, medicinal, and chemical problems
encountered. But, like the Babylonians, Assyrians and other Oriental
peoples, the Egyptians did not systematize their sciences. Their
investigations were always carried out with practical objects in
view, and when the objects were attained the experiments ceased. They
never discovered a true scientific method. That was left to be done
by another people who were long students of Egyptian science and who,
taking all the learning of Egypt, worked out from it, as a basis, the
principal sciences as we have them to-day. The Greeks took the torch of
scientific progress from the Egyptians, organized learning, and passed
it on to the Romans and other peoples in sound, effective and augmented
forms.
The Greeks idealized and systematized scientific principles, whereas
the Egyptians and earlier peoples rested content with the results they
could obtain by their practical efforts. We will find that, throughout
the history of science, progress has always been made by similar
reactions between peoples possessing the one a practical, the other a
philosophical genius.