PRE-BABYLONIAN SCIENCE
The transcending wonders of the phenomena of the heavenly bodies
attracted the attention of primitive man at an early period of his
intellectual development. The succession of day and night, the phases
of the moon, comets, meteorites, the eclipses of sun and moon, the
recurrence of the seasons were observed and recorded. In this way,
through long uncivilized times, many scientific facts were noticed and
handed down by tradition, and probably were among the first scientific
data collected. We have no means of determining when the primitive
science of astronomy became systematized, although there are reasons
for believing that it was roughly outlined at a remote date.
There was a tradition among the Babylonian priests that their
astronomical observations and records went back to a period of more
than 400,000 years. This statement was believed by the people of
antiquity, and was made to Alexander the Great during his Indian
campaign.
Astronomy appears to have been developed into an organized system by
the primitive peoples of central Asia. It was carried to China, India,
and Arabia by learned travelers. There were government astronomers in
China before the year 3000 B. C., and history records that two of these
officials, named Ho and Hi, were beheaded in the year 2159 B. C. for
being careless in their work and failing to issue a timely prediction
of a solar eclipse.
Chinese history also relates that the Emperor, in 2857 B. C., issued
an edict recommending the study of astronomy. From these and other
historical references we learn that nearly 5,000 years ago astronomical
science was not only well developed, but that its educational value was
recognized.
While attention was being given to the study of astronomy in China,
this science was independently developed in India. The astronomers
of India invented a different system from that of the Chinese, and
compiled numerous astronomical tables which were published and widely
used as far back as 3102 B. C.
These early astronomical studies resulted in the division of time
practically as we know it to-day. The Babylonians had a week of seven
days. The days bore names of the planets and were divided into hours
and minutes. Days were combined into months and years. The Babylonian
and Chaldean astronomers, like those of China and India, were important
men and were credited with great learning.
The Babylonian month began on the evening when a new moon was first
observed. An adjustment was made necessary between the months, owing
to the fact that the actual lunar interval is about twenty-nine and
a fraction days. Numerous astrological observations were made with
the view of obtaining data to facilitate the monthly adjustments. The
taking of these observations was made easier by maps of the heavens
which were recorded on baked clay tablets and prisms. Similar maps of
the world, with positions fixed by astronomical observations, were
likewise made in Babylonian times.
The usefulness of astronomical observations and predictions led to the
belief that they could be employed with advantage for wider purposes.
The astrologers endeavored to deduce omens and forecast horoscopes.
In order to facilitate their calculations, the astrologers invented
calculating and time-dividing machines. Tablets from the royal library
at Nineveh indicate that Chaldean astrologers possessed mechanisms
which divided the hours of the day by mechanical means. These were
forerunners of modern clocks and timepieces.
These early scientists represented the earth as a vast circular plain,
intersected by high mountain ranges and surrounded by a large river,
with other mountain chains which lost themselves in an infinite ocean.
The heavenly vault was believed to be supported by the highest peaks
of the outlying mountains. It was owing to the peculiar nature of this
cosmogony that the pre-Babylonians and Babylonians were unable to
develop a satisfactory mechanical view of the world. The world had to
wait for an adequate mechanical theory before general knowledge could
be advanced, so that men like Newton and Laplace could correct the
errors of early theories and furnish a sound working hypothesis.
The advancement of science requires methodical observations and the
use of the highest powers of the imagination. It is thinking in
picture-like figures that supplies primitive reasoning. While pure
reasoning deals with abstract, verbal images, the more concrete
picture-thinking deals with object-images. The differences between
thinkers and dreamers is chiefly in the way their minds act. But even
thinkers are supplied with thought material by the elementary mental
operation of picture-thought, dreams, or dream-thinking. Science needs
the active use of the imagination to anticipate experience and suggest
the issues of a process in course of action. Most great inventions,
and probably all primitive inventions, were stimulated by imagination.
But the imagination, unless skillfully directed, is liable to numerous
errors. That is why in all ages there has been much error in connection
with knowledge. There could, however, be little or no progress without
imaginative work. It is only within very recent years that the modern
sciences have been stripped of much absurd matter derived from crude
imaginative work. When we bear this in mind, we have the key to the
part played by ancient myths, magic, and ceremonies in developing
civilization.
The term magic is derived from the Persian term for priest. The magi,
or priests of Zoroaster, their religion, learning, and occult practices
had important world-wide effects just before the Babylonian era. Magic
is a pioneer of religion, philosophy, and science.
Medicine was benefited, in some ways, by the priests seeking means for
dealing with the work of the spirits of evil. Chemistry and metallurgy
were also advanced, and new realms of knowledge were opened even by
magicians.
The magic of the Babylonians survived their empire. It was handed over
to the Egyptians and contemporary peoples, and was in turn passed
down to the magicians and alchemists of the Middle Ages, and to the
dramatists, poets, and novelists of all ages.
The accumulation of scientific facts was greatly facilitated by the
improvements made by the Babylonians in the manufacture of earthenware
tablets, scrolls, and prisms. Beautifully drawn cuneiform picture signs
recorded on these all the knowledge of the day. These stonelike records
were filed away in many monasteries and libraries. Subsequently,
letters were invented, alphabets were formed, and writing displaced the
hieroglyphic symbols.
The invention of alphabets made reading easier. This resulted in giving
an impetus to education which has had cumulative effects right down
through the ages.
We are now in a position to realize why scientific discoveries were
made very slowly, and at long intervals apart, in early times. Facts
had to be accumulated, studied, grouped, and compared. Accounts of
these studies had to be pictured and stored away for future use. Only
exceptionally learned men did this. But when alphabets were invented
and education increased, numerous minds became active and there was
a great extension of thought, experimentation, and philosophical
contemplation. This was followed by the establishment of new religious
houses, schools, and philosophical academies, at all of which the
ablest men of the day emulated the scholars in formulating theories and
making inventions.
Soon after the perfecting of cuneiform writing in Babylon, characters
were devised for representing numbers. A vertical, arrowlike wedge
represented the figure 1, while a horizontal wedge stood for 10.
A vertical and horizontal wedge, placed together, signified 100.
Other arrangements of these characters meant that they were to be
multiplied, subtracted, divided, or added together. In this simple
manner all kinds of arithmetical results could be recorded.
The Babylonian mathematicians were familiar with decimals, integers,
and fractions, and their tables and records of astronomical and
engineering calculations reveal a remarkably high degree of
mathematical ability, indicating that peoples who preceded us by
several thousands of years were familiar with the more important
calculations requisite in trade and industry as well as for
astrological computations.
Babylon was a great world metropolis. It occupied a position similar
to that occupied by London to-day. Its merchants were engaged in
world-wide commercial operations which needed good systems of
bookkeeping and accountancy. These, in turn, presupposed a highly
developed arithmetical system. Practically all the arithmetical
calculations used in commerce to-day were employed by them. Their
accountants, like those of China to-day, used the abacus, or
calculating machine.
A lucid illustration of the accuracy of ancient calculations, the
efficiency of their reports, and the confidence with which they
executed intellectual duties is afforded by the following translation
of a Babylonian astronomer's official report:
"To the King, my lord, thy faithful servant, Mar-Istar.
"... On the first day, as the new moon's day of the month of
Thammuz declined, the moon again became visible over the planet
Mercury, as I previously had predicted that it would to my master
the King. My calculations were accurate."
The records of Babylon furnish us with a wealth of documents of this
character.
The numerous peoples of India have always been divided into castes.
This has resulted in the pioneering work in science falling to
the priests. However, the principal priests were among the most
intellectual men of each generation and, as they traveled in search
of instruction, India was always in contact with the progress made in
China, central Asia, and Babylonia. These great centers of ancient
learning progressed together.
The Indians were able mathematicians and discovered and developed at an
early period what is now known as "Arabic notation." In this work they
were assisted by the Babylonians.
The Indians, like the Chinese and Babylonians, solved problems in
interest, discounts, partnership, the summation of arithmetical and
geometrical series, and determined number changes in combinations and
permutations with ease. They were also proficient in algebra, the
extraction of the roots of numbers, various classes of equations, and
the principles of trigonometry.
The Chinese have always been good mathematicians. It is probably due
to this fact that they have at all times been such able traders and
bankers.
We are not so familiar with the works of Chinese mathematicians in
pre-Babylonian times as we are with the Indian; but the references of
contemporary writers indicate that the Chinese scientists were as able
and active as their contemporaries.
We have remarked the high degree of perfection which was attained in
the Babylonian era by scholars in science and mathematics. Similar
perfection was attained in art, industry, law, and medicine. The
wonderful law work that has come down to us under the name of the code
of Hammurabi indicates not only the extensive progress which had been
made in law, but incidentally through its references the progress of
agriculture, industry, commerce, and business.
Many references in the Hammurabic code, written about 2300 B. C.,
show that the medical profession had attained considerable advance
in Babylon. Surgeons were daring operators. They commonly performed
operations for cataract. Many of the common major operations now
performed by surgeons were also done by the ancients. They were experts
at setting fractured bones. The physicians made effective use of drugs.
Many drugs employed to-day were known to them.
The discoveries of the early oriental nations were collected and
developed in Babylon. The entire fields of science, mathematics,
geometry, agriculture, astronomy, philosophy, and art were focused in
Babylon and handed down to the Egyptians and the Greeks. Much credit
that is given to ancient Greece should be shared also by Babylon.
It was from Babylon that Greece obtained the principles of its
civilization, arts and sciences. Even Greek architecture and sculpture
were originally derived from Babylon.