POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC RECONSTRUCTION
_The purpose of this chapter is to discuss some present-day problems
of world democracy._
[Sidenote: Why the people are now thinking new thoughts.]
=The War and the New Era.=—The world has spent the years since the war
in a condition of political and economic unrest. This is not surprising
because this herculean contest rocked the foundations of civilized
society. It let loose the primitive passions of men, hurled monarchs
from their thrones, turned industry upside down, drew millions of men
out of life’s normal routine, and wasted as much wealth as the whole
world can create in twenty or thirty years. Small wonder it is that
people should ask themselves whether a social order which permitted all
this to happen is in reality the best type of organization for the
civilized countries of the world. Self-examination usually takes place
among men and nations after a great disaster. Things which have been
assumed to be true are inspected; old traditions are overhauled, and new
proposals receive a more ready welcome than at other times.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
[Illustration:
THE GRADUATE. By Edwin H. Blashfield
_From a Copley Print, copyright by Curtis & Cameron, Boston.
Reproduced by permission._]
]
THE GRADUATE
By Edwin H. Blashfield
From the mural painting in the Great Hall of the
College of the City of New York.
Wisdom sits enthroned, a globe in her hands. Her
placid head, covered with a fold of her mantle,
is lighted from below by the flame on the altar
at her feet. The light also illumines the globe
which she holds. On either side of her pedestal,
in a long curved row, sit the great centers of
learning (Paris, Rome, Oxford, etc.) represented
by graceful female forms, and in front of them
are some illustrious representatives of the arts
and sciences—Petrarch, Galileo, Shakespeare, and
others. In the immediate foreground are young
men of today—students on the right and aspirants
on the left.
Directly in front of the altar is the Graduate, with
academic cap and gown. Beside him stands Alma Mater,
handsome and dignified, in a figured Venetian
mantle, bearing a shield with a seal of the college
and holding a scroll. She bids the young graduate go
forth into the world, bearing the torch which he has
lighted at the altar of Wisdom. In front of both,
and a little to the right, is Discipline, or Self
Control, holding in one hand a scourge and in the
other a sword. She stands ready to accompany the
young graduate on his journey through life.
Below the picture is the inscription: “Doth not
Wisdom cry? She standeth in the top of the high
places, by the way of the places of the paths. She
crieth at the gates at the entry of the city, at the
coming in at the doors.”
------------------------------------------------------------------------
=The Growth of Radicalism.=—Two working principles have hitherto
furnished the basis for political and economic organizations in such
countries as the United States, Great Britain, and France. [Sidenote:
Democracy and individualism.] Democracy, by which we mean the control of
government by the whole people, acting chiefly through their
representatives, has been the accepted basis of political institutions.
Individualism, by which we mean an economic system founded upon the
individual ownership of private property and, through private property,
the individual control of industry has been in general the recognized
foundation of economic institutions. By the masses of the people in all
free countries the principles prefigured by these two words, democracy
and individualism, have been tacitly accepted for fifty years or more as
the groundwork of political and economic activity. Both were challenged
from certain quarters; the socialists, for example, attacked the whole
system of economic individualism; but in no country was the policy of
individualism overthrown.
[Sidenote: Should they be displaced?]
During and after the war, however, the demand for a reconstruction of
the world’s entire political and economic structure became more
insistent. Radical ideas as to what ought to be done, and radical
proposals as to how it ought to be done were brought forth and spread.
The world found itself, almost in a day, face to face with demands for
the complete repudiation of democracy as an ideal and of individualism
as a principle of economic organization. Proposals for state socialism,
guild socialism, communism, and a dictatorship of the proletariat were
put forth aggressively on every hand. No country proved to be immune
from this radical movement, although in some it made far greater headway
than in others.
=The Soviet Plan of Government in Theory.=[307]—Among the various
countries, Russia has gone the farthest, of course, in the radical
demolition of the old political and economic order. The overthrow of the
Czarist empire was presently followed by the establishment of soviet
government and a system of economic communism. This action naturally
attracted world-wide attention and it has exerted, during the past few
years, a profound influence upon the attitude of men toward political
and economic problems everywhere. [Sidenote: Why should Americans care
to know anything about it?] It has given new inspiration to radicalism
in the United States. We ought, therefore, to know something about this
extraordinary overturning of the old political and economic structure in
Russia; otherwise we cannot grasp the far-reaching significance of
radical movements in our own country.
What is the soviet form of government and what is meant by communism as
applied to industry?
The soviet form of government is a repudiation of the entire scheme of
government which has been described in this book. [Sidenote: Why the
Bolshevists object to democracy.] Its supporters regard democracy as a
mere weapon of the capitalist by means of which he exploits the worker.
The only way in which the workers can obtain their rights, they declare,
is by establishing a “dictatorship of the proletariat”, in other words,
a government absolutely dominated by themselves to the exclusion of all
others. This, in the first instance, must be done by violence; but,
eventually, they hold, the people will accept it peaceably.
[Sidenote: The difference between soviet and democratic government.]
Soviet government differs from democratic government in two
all-important respects. In a democracy all adult citizens, whatever
their occupation, are equally entitled to a share in the control of the
government. Democracy stands on the principle of universal, direct, and
secret suffrage. The soviet form of government repudiates the doctrine
of political equality. It asserts that all power must be vested in the
hands of the peasants and workers, and that the _bourgeoisie_ (by which
they mean capitalists, storekeepers, employers of any kind, including
even farmers who employ hired labor) are entitled to no share in the
control of the government. Democracy and equal suffrage, the soviet
apologists proclaim, are merely instruments by which the strong oppress
the weak. For a system of government by the people, they would
substitute government by a portion of the people. In Russia this has
meant, as a matter of fact, government by a very small fraction of the
people.
The soviet system also differs from democracy as respects the way in
which the officials of government are chosen. Representation in
democracies is based upon areas of territory. [Sidenote: The soviet
basis of representation.] All the voters of a town, country, or district
join in electing a single representative. The people who live in a given
territorial area are assumed to have a common interest by reason of
their living close together. Under the soviet system this is
considerably changed. Occupation as well as territory is the basis of
representation. Groups of voters unite in choosing delegates because
they work at the same trade, not because they live in the same
neighborhood. For example, all the workers in a particular factory, or
all the farmers in a certain district begin by choosing one or more
representatives. These representatives come together and form the city
workers’ soviet or the township soviet. The city workers’ soviet is made
up of one or more delegates from every factory. Each local soviet,
moreover, appoints delegates to higher soviets and these, in turn,
choose delegates to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, which is the
supreme governing body. As this congress is too large to do the routine
work of government, it delegates this function to a cabinet or Council
of Peoples’ Commissars.[308]
=The Soviet Plan of Government in Practice.=—This is the theory of
soviet government. The supreme political authority is constituted by the
_workers_ alone, through a long process of indirect election. The
national executive is several steps removed from the control of the
people. He is not directly responsible to the people as in the United
States. In actual fact, moreover, this elaborate plan of indirect
representation has become, in Russia, little more than a scheme on
paper. Many of the provincial Soviets have chosen no delegates at all.
There is no assurance that those who now hold the reins of power in
Russia are the real representatives of the masses of the people. To keep
themselves in office the Commissars have throttled all opposition.
[Sidenote: Some results of the soviet rule.] They have set at naught all
the securities for personal liberty which exist in democratic countries.
Arrests have been made without warrants, thousands of them; men and
women have been held in prison and put to death without public trial;
freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and freedom of assembly have
been denied. The soviet leaders admit all this but argue that these
measures are necessary in order to prevent a counter-revolution.
=The Economic Aspects of Communism.=—The Russian revolution did not
confine itself to political reconstruction alone. It was an economic
revolution as well. [Sidenote: Relation of communism to industry.] All
private trade, of whatever sort, was, in theory at least, abolished
throughout Russia and all industries taken over by the government. The
factories, shops, stores, and all other instrumentalities of business
were placed in charge of officials to be managed for the benefit of the
workers. These workers were assigned to the various industries by the
soviet authorities, compulsory labor being decreed by law and a fixed
standard of wages established. Trade unions and co-operative societies
were put under the ban. Workers received their pay in the form of
requisitions or orders on the government stores for food and other
supplies. Strikes were forbidden on penalty of imprisonment. All land
was declared to be owned by the state, but the peasant farmers were
allowed to retain their farms upon giving the government a share in the
produce.
[Sidenote: Breakdown of communism in Russia.]
Although the government did its best to carry through the foregoing
program, economic communism in Russia broke down.[309] Factories and
stores went out of business; the peasants could not be coerced into
supplying food for cities; foreign trade stopped almost entirely; the
railroads failed to function; everywhere there was misery and
starvation. So the soviet authorities in 1921 decided upon a partial
return to the system of privately-managed industry. Factories and shops,
to some extent, have been reopened under individual ownership; the trade
unions have been permitted to reorganize; the rules relating to
compulsory labor have been relaxed; and differences in the rate of wages
paid to different workers are once more permitted. The country has swung
back to a modified form of individualism and capitalistic production.
[Sidenote: The Russian lesson.]
The great lesson of communism in Russia is that no system of economic
organization can long survive unless it succeeds in producing enough to
feed, clothe, and shelter the people. When the incentive of private gain
is taken away, some equally strong incentive to production must be put
in its place; otherwise production will decline and there will not be
enough to go around. That is what happened in Russia. Neither compulsion
nor appeals to the loyalty of the worker availed to keep production up.
Fewer goods were produced and there was less to distribute. Equality of
distribution avails nothing when there is too little to be distributed.
=The International Aims of the Communists.=—Communism is not merely
national in its aim; it is international. Its motto is: “Workers of the
World, Unite!” Its goal is the violent overturning of the existing
political and economic organization in all countries so that soviet
governments may be established and all private industry abolished.
[Sidenote: Program of the Third International.] This is the program of
the _Third International_, a body made up of communist delegates from
all over the world. In order to promote this program the Russian
authorities have endeavored to carry on a propaganda in all other
countries, sending out literature and agents wherever possible. The
communists realize, however, that the prospects for such a revolution
are not good in countries like the United States, Great Britain, and
France so long as the trade union movement makes progress and gains
advantages for organized labor. Hence they aim to secure the destruction
of unions, to promote “outlaw” strikes, and to encourage every form of
industrial discontent.
[Sidenote: Socialism and communism are widely different.]
=Moderate Socialism and Communism Distinguished.=—Communism, as it has
been exemplified in Russia during the past few years, should be
distinguished from socialism as the latter term is commonly understood,
although extreme forms of socialism may go substantially as far.
Socialists do not propose that all except the workers shall be excluded
from a share in government. They do not propose to wipe out the
political rights of the individual, or to destroy trade unionism, or to
provide for labor conscription. Orthodox socialism does not aim at a
“dictatorship” of any kind.
[Sidenote: Socialism defined.]
=State Socialism.=—The program of the moderate socialists is commonly
known as state socialism. Briefly stated, it proposes that all the land,
the mines, the forests, the factories, the railroads, and every other
instrumentality of production or distribution should be managed in the
interests of the whole people. Under the system of individualism,
according to the socialist argument, these things are now managed
primarily in the interest of private owners. The worker creates values
in far greater proportion than the wages he receives. This surplus value
goes to the employer in the form of profits. The socialist would abolish
profits. The entire net earnings would go to the worker. The basis of
government would not, however, be revolutionized. With some changes to
make democracy more effective (for example, the wider use of the
initiative and referendum), state socialism would leave government about
as it is. The workers, being in the majority, would control government
through their numerical superiority at the polls; they would not deny
the suffrage to non-socialists. State socialism proposes the doing of
all this through the ballot-box, not by violence or armed revolution.
=The Case for Socialism.=—Many books have been written in advocacy of
state socialism and many arguments advanced in its behalf. The case for
socialism rests largely upon certain propositions which may be briefly
stated as follows: [Sidenote: The present industrial injustice.] Wealth
is largely the product of labor, yet labor does not get its rightful
share in the product. Capital and management, on the other hand, get
more than their rightful share. Hence the rich are growing richer, and
the poor are growing poorer. The control of industry, and with it the
well-being of many million workers, is passing steadily into the hands
of a very few men. Inequalities of wealth lead to discontent; the
present organization of industry results in unemployment; and men are
engaged in a perpetual class war with one another. Great wastes,
moreover, result from the system of competition. Several milkmen, for
instance, go up and down the same street, each serving a few families.
Think of what the postage rates would be if we had a similar state of
affairs under free competition in furnishing postal service! Socialism,
it is claimed, would unify production and distribution, thus preventing
waste.
[Sidenote: What socialism proposes as a remedy.]
Now the remedy for this is to abolish private capitalism, to have the
government take over the industries, divide the earnings fairly, giving
every worker his rightful share, thus securing a more nearly equal
distribution of wealth and happiness. By this means, also, poverty and
unemployment would be abolished. If all the products of labor were given
to the worker (rent, interest, and profits being abolished), there would
be enough to give everybody a reasonable day’s work and a comfortable
living. There would be steady employment for all. The great majority of
the people are workers. Their welfare should be the first care of
organized society; but their welfare can never be secured so long as
practically complete power over the conditions under which the workers
labor and live is exercised by the private owners of industry.
Socialists also claim that a moral gain would result, inasmuch as the
present class conflict would give way to a recognition of human
brotherhood. Co-operation, not conflict, would be the watchword of
industrial society.
=The Case Against Socialism.=—The advocates of socialism, in their
arguments, frequently assume something which they have not been able to
prove. [Sidenote: Are the poor growing poorer?] They proclaim that the
rich are growing richer and the poor are growing poorer, that the middle
class is being crushed out, and that soon there will be only two groups,
the very rich and the very poor. It is true that wealth is increasing
and that there are more rich men today than ever before in the history
of the world; but it is also true that the middle class is more numerous
and the worker much better off than at any previous time. The standard
of living among American wage-earners today is higher than it was among
well-to-do people a hundred years ago. The average worker is better
housed, better clothed, better fed, and has more of the comforts of life
than the employer of a century ago.
[Sidenote: The chief argument against socialism.]
But apart from this the crucial question concerns the way in which
production would be maintained and how the earnings would be distributed
under a socialist system. Today the main incentive to work is the
expectation of reward. Most men work because they expect to be paid for
it. Cut down their pay and they will usually stop work and try to
persuade other people from working. There are exceptions to the rule, of
course; but when men and women work hard and try to do their best it is
because they hope to get promoted, to get their wages raised, to secure
an easier job at higher pay.[310] Socialism would abolish this exact
relation between skill and wages. Everyone would work at whatever task
he was best fitted to perform and would be given enough to live on
comfortably. Or, as the socialists put it, everyone would produce
according to his ability and be paid according to his needs.
[Sidenote: Some practical questions.]
This, however, begs some very important questions of a practical nature.
Who would determine the work that you or I should do? Who would
determine that you must labor in the coal mines while I go abroad, as a
foreign ambassador? Who will determine your needs and mine, so that we
may be rewarded accordingly?
[Sidenote: Socialism and compulsion.]
The answer is that authorities would have to be established with power
to settle these things and to apply compulsion where necessary. We would
have industrial autocracy. Men and women would have no complete freedom
to choose their own occupations. The socialists say that if the existing
wage system were abolished everyone would do his best to increase
production in order to make the new plan a success; but where
socialistic experiments have been tried the contrary is true; the
workers do less and produce less. Let us remember, also, the increased
danger of corruption which would come if the authorities were given so
great an increase in power. The whole resources of the country would be
placed in the control of an official class; the entire labor-force of
the nation would be put at their disposal. The socialist answers that if
officials proved arbitrary or corrupt the people would turn them out of
office. Does our experience with other forms of government warrant any
such expectation?
[Sidenote: Socialism and human nature.]
Two methods of getting work done have been tried by the world at one
time or another. In ancient and mediæval times most of the work was done
by slaves. The slave got no wages; he did his work because he was
compelled to do it. In modern times, since slavery and serfdom no longer
exist among civilized people, most of the work is done by free men who
do it because they expect to be paid for doing it. And since there are
differences in the abilities of different men, some get more pay than
others, even though the opportunities be the same for all. If the
capable worker were not paid more than the less competent, he would not
exert himself to do his best. To get the best out of any free man he
must be given the hope of a reward in proportion to his efficiency, and
for the great majority of people this means a reward in dollars and
cents. That is human nature.
[Sidenote: Can human nature be changed?]
It is sometimes said that human nature may change and that, in a new
environment, men might work unselfishly for the common welfare without
reference to their rate of wages or profits. True enough the motives of
men may and do change somewhat; but when we trace the course of human
history through twenty centuries we find that the dominant traits of
mankind have altered very little in all that time. Human nature itself
affords the greatest obstacle to the success of a socialist system.
=Socialism and Liberty.=—Liberty does not include political freedom
alone. It comprises the right of the individual to choose his own
career, to make his own bargains, and to become his own employer if he
can. An industrial system in which all men are compelled to do as some
higher authority dictates would establish the very negation of liberty.
Under socialism the complete control of all economic life would be
vested in some supreme authority. It matters little how that authority
might be chosen; the concentration of such vast powers anywhere, in the
hands of any group of men, would make individual liberty a meaningless
expression. It may be replied that under our present system of private
industry the worker has in fact very little liberty; that many employers
are despots and that the worker is subjected to tyranny. That is to a
certain extent true. But in so far as there is an undue and needless
restriction under present conditions of industry the remedy is to
promote the liberty of the worker through the power of his own
organizations and by the laws of the land.
=Socialism and Democracy.=—Socialism and democracy can never be good
friends. Democracy is government _by the people_; in other words it is
government by amateurs. It is not government by a professional class.
The government of the German Empire before the war was largely in the
hands of a professional class, a bureaucracy it was called. Now a
democratic government, being managed by the rank and file of the people,
is often wasteful and clumsy in its handling of business affairs. We
have had some notable examples of this in the United States; for
example, the building of airplanes and ships during the war, the
operation of the railroads during 1918-1920, and the construction of
public buildings. A bureaucratic government, conducted by professional
administrators, is much more efficient. [Sidenote: Socialism would
professionalize the government.] It is not improbable, therefore, that
socialism, by placing upon the public authorities the entire management
of every form of industry, including factories and shops as well as
railroads and telegraphs, would mean the breakdown of the democratic
ideal and the professionalizing of government. The entire industrial
system of the country could not be successfully managed by amateurs. To
save it from collapse under socialism the government would have to be
reorganized on bureaucratic lines.
=Can Democracy Solve Its Problems?=—But if not socialism, what then?
Certain it is that we are facing great problems both at home and abroad
today; and these problems must be solved in the interest of human
happiness. We cannot close our eyes to them and trust that somehow or
other they will work out their own solution. Can democracy and our
present system of private industry master them? Well, democracy and our
present industrial system have overcome a great many obstacles in the
past and it is only by studying the past that we can make any forecast
of the future. The land surveyor, when he wants to project a straight
line from a given point, walks back some distance so that he may align
his pickets in the ground. Let us for a moment pursue the same plan,
walk back a dozen decades in American history and take a sight along the
great landmarks to the present time. What have democracy and
individualism contributed to the well-being and happiness of the
American people?
[Sidenote: Democracy and American progress.]
=What America Has Done.=—In the past one hundred and twenty years the
people of the United States have increased their territories ten-fold,
their numbers twenty-fold, and their wealth at least a thousand-fold.
They have, with one great exception, composed their internal quarrels
peaceably during the whole of this long period. They have developed a
government based upon the consent of the governed and have placed the
capstone upon it by the grant of universal suffrage. They have kept the
various branches of government within their own respective fields and
have thus prevented the growth of despotic power anywhere. The people’s
direct control over the policy of the government, moreover, has been
greatly augmented during the past generation. It is indeed doubtful
whether Washington, Hamilton, and Madison, if they were to arise from
their graves, would recognize the present government of the United
States as their own handiwork, so far has it moved along lines of
greater democracy. In the states and the cities this steady drift to
more direct popular control has been very marked. One need only mention
such things as the initiative, referendum and recall, direct primaries,
popular election of senators, the short ballot, the commission and
city-manager forms of government, and the extension of suffrage to
women—all of which are the product of the last twenty-five years—to
indicate how strong has been the tide of popular control.
Most striking of all American achievements, however, has been the wide
diffusion of material comforts among the masses of the people. In no
other country is there anything approaching it. The standard of living
among wage-earners is higher than it is anywhere else, much higher. The
average American worker is better housed and better provided with food
than is the typical workman in any other country. He and his children
get better educational opportunities and a better chance to rise in the
world. The way in which immigrants have been flocking to our shores
during the past hundred years is a proof that millions of men and women
have looked upon America as a land of opportunity. This is not to imply,
by any means, that there are no slums in American cities, no poverty, no
misery, and no industrial oppression. We have, in truth, far too much of
all these things. But it is also the truth that we have relatively less
of them than any of the other great industrial lands.
Not all of this progress and prosperity is due, of course, to the
political and economic system which America has maintained during the
past century. The rich natural resources of the country and the steady
industry of its people have been fundamental factors. But no matter how
vast their resources or how unremitting their industry a people cannot
achieve lasting prosperity and contentment unless they possess a
political system and an economic organization which is well suited to
their needs.
=What Democracy Has Failed to Do.=—It would be idle to regard democratic
government everywhere as an unqualified success. No scheme of political
organization will of itself secure a government which is both efficient
and popular. The active efforts of the people are required to achieve
this end. Not merely the consent of the governed but the participation
of the governed is essential. By reason of popular indifference the
institutions of democracy in America have frequently been perverted and
abused by men whom the people have placed in power. [Sidenote: Some
examples.] What passes for public opinion is at times nothing but
propaganda, organized to promote some selfish interest. Democracy has
not yet succeeded, moreover, in preventing wars or inducing all nations
to deal justly with one another. It has not prevented the rise of
opposing classes among the people, or kept groups of individuals from
setting themselves in antagonism to each other. Democracy has not
reconciled labor and capital; it has not carried its principles very far
into our industrial organization. These are serious failings, no doubt;
but the friends of democracy can fairly say, “Would any other system
have done better?” Democracy is what the people make it, and its faults
point to the defects of human nature.
=The Citizen’s Duty in a Democracy.=—No form of government gives the
citizen so much as democracy, and none makes greater demands upon him in
return. We are far too much concerned about the rights of men and women;
far too little concerned about their obligations to society, to the
state, and to their fellow-men. Voting at elections is but a small part
of the citizen’s duty. His share in the forming of a sound and
enlightened public opinion constitutes an obligation upon him every day
in the year. When public opinion takes an unwise course it is because
the people make up their minds hastily, without careful thought, and
without the guidance which should be provided by the educated men and
women of the land. Every individual is a unit in the forming of public
sentiment; he can be a helpful factor if he will. Education is the chief
corner-stone of democratic government, and it must also be the chief
prop to any plan of industrial democracy which hopes to be successful
and permanent. Education makes men and women tolerant of other people’s
opinions, gives them confidence in mankind, and faith in what mankind
can accomplish.
Democracy has passed through many raging storms. In the dark days of the
Civil War there were many who feared that in America it was about to
perish utterly. But it survived and grew stronger than before. Without
the faith of the people in it, and the work which is the exemplification
of faith, democracy can accomplish nothing; with these things there is
no problem that it need fear to face.
General References
E. M. FRIEDMAN, _American Problems of Reconstruction_, pp. 45-55;
BERTRAND RUSSELL, _Proposed Roads to Freedom_, pp. 186-212;
R. C. K. ENSOR (editor), _Modern Socialism_, pp. 65-89;
N. P. GILMAN, _Socialism and the American Spirit_, pp. 46-89;
H. G. WELLS, _What is Coming_, pp. 96-124;
O. D. SKELTON, _Socialism: A Critical Analysis_, pp. 16-61;
JOHN SPARGO, _Social Democracy Explained_, pp. 1-49;
C. J. BULLOCK, _Selected Readings in Economics_, pp. 668-705;
J. R. COMMONS, _Industrial Government_, pp. 110-134;
F. A. CLEVELAND and JOSEPH SCHAFER, _Democracy in Reconstruction_, pp.
165-192;
SIDNEY and BEATRICE WEBB, _A Constitution for the Socialist Commonwealth
of Great Britain_, _passim_;
WILLIAM MACDONALD, _A New Constitution for a New America_, pp. 127-139.
Group Problems
=1. What industrial democracy means.= The traditional organization of
industry. Relations of employer and employee. The representation of the
workers in the management of industry. Methods of securing this
representation. Shop councils. Merits and defects of the plan. Other
proposals. Effects of industrial democracy upon production.
=References=: G. D. H. COLE, _Guild Socialism Re-stated_, pp. 42-77;
_Ibid._, _Self-Government in Industry_, pp. 24-47; R. W. SELLARS, _The
Next Step in Democracy_, pp. 246-272; J. R. COMMONS, _Industrial
Government_, pp. 77-109; IDA M. TARBELL, _New Ideals in Business_, pp.
134-162; SIDNEY and BEATRICE WEBB, _A Constitution for the Socialist
Commonwealth of Great Britain_, pp. 147-167.
=2. The worker in the socialist state.= =References=: HARTLEY WITHERS,
_The Case for Capitalism_, pp. 138-168; H. G. WELLS and others,
_Socialism and the Great State_, pp. 69-119; R. W. SELLARS, _The Next
Step in Democracy_, pp. 135-156; O. D. SKELTON, _Socialism: A Critical
Analysis_, pp. 177-219; JOHN SPARGO, _Social Democracy Explained_, pp.
50-84.
=3. The newer problems of democracy.= =References=: F. A. CLEVELAND and
JOSEPH SCHAFER, _Democracy in Reconstruction_, pp. 25-66; E. M.
FRIEDMAN, _American Problems of Reconstruction_, pp. 447-464; F. J. C.
HEARNSHAW, _Democracy at the Crossways_, pp. 11-78; GRAHAM WALLAS, _Our
Social Heritage_, pp. 158-186; L. T. HOBHOUSE, _Democracy and Reaction_,
pp. 167-187; H. F. WARD, _The New Social Order_, pp. 35-75; J. H. TUFTS,
_Our Democracy; its Origins and its Tasks_, pp. 268-298.
Short Studies
1. =How the workers manage business enterprises.= C. R. FAY,
_Cooperation at Home and Abroad_, pp. 222-237.
2. =Anarchism: its teachings and methods.= BERTRAND RUSSELL, _Proposed
Roads to Freedom_, pp. 32-55; F. J. C. HEARNSHAW, _Democracy at the
Crossways_, pp. 262-287.
3. =Syndicalism: its organization and aims.= JOHN SPARGO, _Social
Democracy Explained_, pp. 244-277; J. G. BROOKS, _American Syndicalism_,
pp. 73-105.
4. =Communism.= LEO PASVOLSKY, _The Economics of Communism_, pp. 1-17;
48-83.
5. =Bolshevism.= R. W. POSTGATE, _The Bolshevik Theory_, pp. 13-41;
BERTRAND RUSSELL, _The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism_, pp. 119-156;
JOHN SPARGO, _Bolshevism_, pp. 262-323.
6. =The soviet experiment in Russia.= H. N. BRAILSFORD, _The Russian
Workers’ Republic_, pp. 37-79; FRANK COMERFORD, _The New World_, pp.
118-169; 281-305.
7. =Guild socialism.= G. D. H. COLE, _Guild Socialism Re-Stated_, pp.
9-41; HARTLEY WITHERS, _The Case for Capitalism_, pp. 189-235; GRAHAM
WALLAS, _Our Social Heritage_, pp. 102-121.
8. =Marxian socialism.= B. L. BRASOL, _Socialism_ vs. _Civilization_,
pp. 61-110; JOHN SPARGO, _Socialism Explained_, pp. 123-157.
9. =State socialism: the arguments for and against.= HARTLEY WITHERS,
_The Case for Capitalism_, pp. 138-168; A. E. DAVIES, _The Case for
Nationalization_, pp. 12-29.
10. =The individual and the new society.= A. B. HART (editor), _Problems
of Readjustment After the War_, pp. 98-128.
11. =Women in the new social order.= H. G. WELLS, _What is Coming_, pp.
159-188; H. A. HOLLISTER, _The Woman Citizen_, pp. 142-178.
12. =Fiscal reconstruction.= E. M. FRIEDMAN, _American Problems of
Reconstruction_, pp. 427-446.
Questions
1. Why has the movement for political and social reconstruction become
stronger in recent years?
2. Explain how “the soviet form of government is a repudiation of the
entire scheme of government which has been described in this book”.
3. Make a diagram showing the organization of the soviet government in
Russia. Show how much more direct is the control of the people over
their government in the United States.
4. What is the lesson of the economic breakdown in Russia?
5. Explain what is meant by the _International_. What are its aims?
6. State any arguments for socialism which are not given in the text.
Any arguments against socialism. Is it true that “as a general rule
there are only two ways of getting work done in this world”? In a
socialist state what would be the incentive to work? Would it be
sufficient?
7. Would the establishment of socialism necessarily involve the
abandonment of democracy? Argue the point.
8. Name the principal achievements of American democracy during the past
hundred years. Which of them do you regard as the most important and
why?
9. Name some present-day political and economic injustices which you
would like to see set right. Suggest what might be done about them.
10. Are you a more earnest or a less earnest believer in democracy by
reason of your having studied _Social Civics_?
Topics for Debate
1. Representation in government should be based on occupations rather
than on territorial divisions.
2. The laborers should be given a voice in the management of their
respective industries.
3. The condition of the laborer is better under private capitalism than
it would be under socialism.
-----
Footnote 307:
The term “soviet” means council or meeting. The constitution of the
Russian Socialist Federated Soviet Republic may be found in FRANK
COMERFORD, _The New World_, pp. 281-305.
Footnote 308:
Nikalai Lenin is now the head of this Council; Leon Trotzky is
Minister of War in it. Each member of the Council is head of a
department.
Footnote 309:
The breakdown was due in part, no doubt, to the disorganization
wrought by the war and the internal revolts which broke out in Russia
after the war. To make matters worse there were crop failures, with
resulting famines, in some of Russia’s best grain-producing regions.
Footnote 310:
It is quite true that some men and women work because they like to
work and dislike to be idle, or because they feel that what they do is
of value to the community, or for some other reason not directly
connected with their pay. They form, however, a very small fraction of
the total body of wage-earners.
APPENDIX
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES
PREAMBLE
We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect
Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the
common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of
liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this
Constitution for the United States of America.
ARTICLE I
LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT
Section 1. Two Houses
1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress
of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of
Representatives.
Section 2. House of Representatives
1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen
every second year by the people of the several states, and the electors
in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors[311]
of the most numerous branch of the state legislature.
2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to
the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the
United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that
state in which he shall be chosen.
3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the
several states which may be included within this Union, according to
their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the
whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a
term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, _three-fifths of all
other persons_[312]. The actual enumeration shall be made within three
years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and
within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall
by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for
every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one
Representative; and, until such enumerations shall be made, the state of
New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight,
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York
six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six,
Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia
three.
4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the
executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such
vacancies.
5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other
officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment.
Section 3. Senate
1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators
from each state chosen by the legislature thereof[313] for six years;
and each Senator shall have one vote.
2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first
election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three
classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated
at the expiration of the second year; of the second class, at the
expiration of the fourth year; and of the third class, at the expiration
of the sixth year; so that one-third may be chosen every second year;
and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess
of the legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make
temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which
shall then fill such vacancies.[314]
3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age
of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United
States, who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for
which he shall be chosen.
4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the
Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.
5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President
_pro tempore_, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall
exercise the office of President of the United States.
6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When
sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the
President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall
preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of
two-thirds of the members present.
7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to
removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office
of honor, trust, or profit, under the United States; but the party
convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment,
trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law.
Section 4. Elections and Meetings of Congress
1. The times, places, and manner, of holding elections for Senators and
Representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature
thereof: but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such
regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators.
2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such
meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by
law appoint a different day.
Section 5. Powers and Duties of the Houses
1. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and
qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall
constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn
from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of
absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each House
may provide.
2. Each House may determine the rules of the proceedings, punish its
members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of
two-thirds, expel a member.
3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and, from time to
time, publish the same, excepting such parts as may, in their judgment,
require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House,
on any question, shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be
entered on the journal.
4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the
consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other
place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.
Section 6. Privileges of and Restrictions on Members
1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for
their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury
of the United States. They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony,
and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their
attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to,
and returning from, the same; and for any speech or debate in either
House, they shall not be questioned in any other place.
2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was
elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the
United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof
shall have been increased during such time; and no person, holding any
office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during
his continuance in office.
Section 7. Revenue Bills: Veto of President
1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of
Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as
on other bills.
2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and
the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President
of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he
shall return it, with his objections, to that House in which it shall
have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their
journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration,
two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent,
together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall
likewise be reconsidered, and, if approved by two-thirds of that House,
it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses
shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons
voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each
house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President
within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to
him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it,
unless the Congress, by their adjournment, prevent its return, in which
case it shall not be a law.
3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the
Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a
question of adjournment), shall be presented to the President of the
United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved
by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of
the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and
limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.
Section 8. Legislative Powers of Congress
The Congress shall have power:
1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the
debts, and provide for the common defence and general welfare, of the
United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises, shall be uniform
throughout the United States:
2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States:
3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several
states, and with the Indian tribes:
4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on
the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States:
5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and
fix the standard of weights and measures:
6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and
current coin of the Unites States:
7. To establish post-offices and post-roads:
8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for
limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their
respective writings and discoveries:
9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court:
10. To define and punish piracies and felonies, committed on the high
seas, and offences against the law of nations:
11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules
concerning captures on land and water:
12. To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money to that
use shall be for a longer term than two years:
13. To provide and maintain a navy:
14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and
naval forces:
15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the
Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions:
16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and
for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the
United States, reserving to the states respectively the appointment of
the officers, and the authority of training the militia, according to
the discipline prescribed by Congress:
17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such
district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of
particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of
the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over
all places, purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in
which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals,
dock-yards, and other needful buildings:—And
18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying
into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this
Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any
department or officer thereof.
Section 9. Prohibitions upon the United States
1. The migration or importation of such persons, as any of the states,
now existing, shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by
the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight; but
a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten
dollars for each person.
2. The privilege of the writ of _habeas corpus_ shall not be suspended,
unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may
require it.
3. No bill of attainder, or _ex post facto_ law, shall be passed.
4. No capitation, or other direct tax, shall be laid, unless in
proportion to the _census_ or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be
taken.[315]
5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state.
6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue
to the ports of one state over those of another; nor shall vessels bound
to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties, in
another.
7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of
appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the
receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from
time to time.
8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no
person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without
the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office,
or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state.
Section 10. Prohibitions upon the States
1. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation;
grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit;
make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts;
pass any bill of attainder, _ex post facto_ law, or law impairing the
obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility.
2. No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts
or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary
for executing its inspection laws; and the net produce of all duties and
imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use
of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject
to the revision and control of the Congress. No state shall, without the
consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of
war, in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another
state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually
invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay.
ARTICLE II
EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT: THE PRESIDENT AND
VICE-PRESIDENT
Section 1. Term: Election: Qualifications: Salary: Oath of Office
1. The Executive power shall be vested in a President of the United
States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four
years, and together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term,
be elected as follows:
2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof
may direct, a number of Electors, equal to the whole number of Senators
and Representatives, to which the state may be entitled in the Congress;
but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust
or profit, under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector.
3. [The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by
ballot for two persons, of whom one, at least, shall not be an
inhabitant of the same state with themselves. And they shall make a list
of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which
list they shall sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of
the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the
Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate
and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes
shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes
shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number
of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one, who have such
majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of
Representatives shall immediately choose, by ballot, one of them for
President; and if no person have a majority, then, from the five highest
on the list, the said House shall, in like manner, choose the President.
But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the
representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this
purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the
states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice.
In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the
greatest number of votes of the Electors shall be the Vice-President.
But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate
shall choose from them, by ballot, the Vice-President.][316]
4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the Electors, and the
day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same
throughout the United States.
5. No person, except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United
States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be
eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be
eligible to that office, who shall not have attained to the age of
thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United
States.
6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death,
resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said
office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress
may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation or
inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what
officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act
accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be
elected.
7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a
compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the
period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive,
within that period, any other emolument from the United States, or any
of them.
8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the
following oath or affirmation:
9. “I do solemnly swear (or affirm), that I will faithfully execute the
office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my
ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United
States.”
Section 2. President’s Executive Powers
1. The President shall be Commander-in-Chief of the army and navy of the
United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called
into the actual service of the United States; he may require the
opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive
departments upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective
offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for
offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment.
2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present
concur; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the advice and consent
of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers, and
consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the
United States whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for,
and which shall be established by law; but the Congress may by law vest
the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the
President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments.
3. The President shall have power to fill all vacancies that may happen
during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall
expire at the end of their next session.
Section 3. President’s Executive Powers (_continued_)
1. He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of the
state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures
as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary
occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in case of
disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he
may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive
ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws
be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the
United States.
Section 4. Impeachment
1. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United
States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction
of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.
ARTICLE III
JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT
Section 1. Courts: Terms of Office
1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one
Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time
to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and
inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and
shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which
shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.
Section 2. Jurisdiction
1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity,
arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and
treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all
cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls; to all
cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which
the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more
states, between a state and citizens of another state,[317] between
citizens of different states, between citizens of the same state
claiming lands under grants of different states, and between a state, or
the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects.
2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the Supreme Court
shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before
mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as
to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the
Congress shall make.
3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by
jury; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes
shall have been committed; but when not committed within any state the
trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have
directed.
Section 3. Treason
1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war
against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and
comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony
of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court.
2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason,
but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or
forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted.
ARTICLE IV
RELATIONS OF STATES
Section 1. Public Records
1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public
acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the
Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts,
records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof.
Section 2. Rights in One State of Citizens of Another State
1. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and
immunities of citizens in the several states.[318]
2. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime,
who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall, on
demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be
delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the
crime.
3. No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or
regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall
be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may
be due.
Section 3. New States: Territories
1. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no
new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any
other state, nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more
states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures of
the states concerned as well as of the Congress.
2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful
rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property
belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall
be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of
any particular state.
Section 4. Protection to States by the Nation
1. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this Union a
republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against
invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive
(when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence.
ARTICLE V
AMENDMENT
1. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it
necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the
application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states,
shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case,
shall be valid, to all intents and purposes, as part of this
Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the
several states, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one
or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress:
provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one
thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first
and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first Article; and that
no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage
in the Senate.
ARTICLE VI
NATIONAL DEBTS: SUPREMACY OF NATIONAL LAW:
OATH
1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the
adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United
States under this Constitution as under the Confederation.
2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be
made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be
made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law
of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby,
anything in the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary
notwithstanding.
3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of
the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers,
both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound, by
oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious test
shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust
under the United States.
ARTICLE VII
ESTABLISHMENT OF CONSTITUTION
1. The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be
sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the states
so ratifying the same.
AMENDMENTS[319]
ARTICLE I
FREEDOM OF RELIGION, OF SPEECH, AND OF THE
PRESS: RIGHT OF PETITION
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or
prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of
speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to
assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.
ARTICLE II
RIGHT TO KEEP ARMS
A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free
state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be
infringed.
ARTICLE III
QUARTERING OF SOLDIERS IN PRIVATE HOUSES
No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without
the consent of the owner; nor, in time of war, but in a manner to be
prescribed by law.
ARTICLE IV
SEARCH WARRANTS
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers,
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be
violated; and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause,
supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place
to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
ARTICLE V
CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous,
crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in
cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in
actual service, in time of war, or public danger; nor shall any person
be subject, for the same offence, to be twice put in jeopardy of life or
limb; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness
against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without
due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use,
without just compensation.[320]
ARTICLE VI
CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS (_continued_)
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a
speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have
been previously ascertained by law; and to be informed of the nature and
cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against
him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor;
and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence.
ARTICLE VII
JURY TRIAL IN CIVIL CASES
In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved; and no
fact, tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of
the United States than according to the rules of the common law.
ARTICLE VIII
EXCESSIVE PUNISHMENTS
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor
cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
ARTICLE IX
UNENUMERATED RIGHTS OF THE PEOPLE
The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
ARTICLE X
POWERS RESERVED TO STATES
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor
prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively,
or to the people.
ARTICLE XI[321]
SUITS AGAINST STATES
The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend
to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the
United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects
of any foreign state.
ARTICLE XII
ELECTION OF PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT
1. The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by
ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall
not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name
in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct
ballots the person voted for as Vice-President; and they shall make
distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons
voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which
lists they shall sign, and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of
the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the
Senate; the President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate
and the House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the
votes shall then be counted; the person having the greatest number of
votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority
of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such a
majority, then, from the persons having the highest numbers, not
exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as President, the House
of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President.
But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the
representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this
purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the
states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice.
And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President,
whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth
day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as
President, as in case of the death, or other constitutional disability,
of the President.[322]
2. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President,
shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole
number of Electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then,
from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the
Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of
the whole number of Senators; a majority of the whole number shall be
necessary to a choice.[322]
3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President
shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States,
ARTICLE XIII[323]
SLAVERY
Section 1. Abolition of Slavery
Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for
crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist
within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.
Section 2. Power of Congress
Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate
legislation.
ARTICLE XIV[324]
CIVIL RIGHTS: APPORTIONMENT OF REPRESENTATIVES:
POLITICAL DISABILITIES: PUBLIC DEBT
Section 1. Civil Rights
All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the
jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state
wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce any law which shall
abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States;
nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property,
without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its
jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
Section 2. Apportionment of Representatives
Representatives shall be apportioned among the several states according
to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in
each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at
any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President
of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the executive and
judicial officers of a state, or the members of the legislature thereof,
is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being twenty-one
years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged,
except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of
representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the
number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male
citizens twenty-one years of age in such state.
Section 3. Political Disabilities
No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector
of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military,
under the United States, or under any state, who, having previously
taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United
States, or as a member of any state legislature, or as an executive or
judicial officer of any state, to support the Constitution of the United
States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the
same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may,
by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.
Section 4. Public Debt
The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law,
including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for
services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be
questioned. But neither the United States nor any state shall assume or
pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion
against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of
any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held
illegal and void.
Section 5. Powers of Congress
The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation,
the provisions of this article.
ARTICLE XV[325]
RIGHT OF SUFFRAGE
Section 1. Right of Negro to Vote
The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied
or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race,
color, or previous condition of servitude.
Section 2. Power of Congress
The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate
legislation.
ARTICLE XVI[326]
INCOME TAX
The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from
whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several states,
and without regard to any census or enumeration.
ARTICLE XVII[327]
SENATE: ELECTION: VACANCIES
The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from
each state, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each
Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each state shall have the
qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the
state legislatures.
When vacancies happen in the representation of any state in the Senate,
the executive authority of such state shall issue writs of election to
fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any state may
empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointment until the
people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct.
This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or
term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the
Constitution.
ARTICLE XVIII[328]
NATIONAL PROHIBITION
SECTION 1—After one year from the ratification of this article the
manufacture, sale or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the
importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United
States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for
beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.
SECTION 2—The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent
power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
SECTION 3—This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been
ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the
several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years of
the date of the submission hereof to the States by Congress.
ARTICLE XIX[329]
WOMAN SUFFRAGE
SECTION 1—The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not
be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of
sex.
SECTION 2—Congress shall have power to enforce this article by
appropriate legislation.
-----
Footnote 311:
Voters.
Footnote 312:
Annulled by the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments.
Footnote 313:
Superseded by the Seventeenth Amendment.
Footnote 314:
See Seventeenth Amendment.
Footnote 315:
See Sixteenth Amendment.
Footnote 316:
Superseded by the Twelfth Amendment.
Footnote 317:
Modified by the Eleventh Amendment.
Footnote 318:
Compare Fourteenth Amendment.
Footnote 319:
The first ten Amendments, known as the Bill of Rights, were adopted in
1791.
Footnote 320:
See Amendment XIV, Sec. 1, which extends part of this restriction to
the States.
Footnote 321:
Adopted in 1798 to protect the sovereignty of the States.
Footnote 322:
Adopted in 1804, superseding Article II, Sec. 1.
Footnote 323:
Adopted in 1865.
Footnote 324:
Adopted in 1868.
Footnote 325:
Adopted in 1870.
Footnote 326:
Adopted in 1913.
Footnote 327:
Adopted in 1913.
Footnote 328:
Adopted in 1919.
Footnote 329:
Adopted in 1920.
INDEX
A
Accidents, industrial, 411-412
Admission of new states, 227-228
Agriculture, the federal Department of, 299 _n_
scope and methods of, 339-342
special characteristics of, 343-345
improvements in, 345-346
government encouragement of, 346-348
financial aids to, 348-349
problems of, 349-352
Agricultural bloc, in Congress, 282 _n_, 350-351
Alaska, government of, 229 _n_
Albany Congress, 248
Ambassadors, appointment and duties of, 591-595
Amendments, to state constitutions, 232
to national constitution, 260-262
American Federation of Labor, 403-404
Americanization, the public schools as agencies of, 28
purpose and methods of, 33
“American Plan” in industry, 409
Anti-Trust Law. _See_ Sherman Act
Appointments to office, methods of, 99-101
confirmation of, 270-271
presidential, 293-294
Appeals, judicial, 311-312
Appropriations in Congress, 463-465
Arbitration, of labor disputes, 409-410
compulsory, 410-411
international, 601-602
Aristotle, classification of governments by, 66-67
Armaments, the cost of, 563-564
Army, various divisions of the, 567-571
control of, in war, 571-572
Army in peace, 572-573
Articles of Confederation, 249-251, 287
Assessments for taxation, 456-457
Athletics, value of, in training citizens, 86-88
Attorney-General, office of, 299 _n_
Australian ballot, 132
B
Balance of power in Europe, 629
Ballot, history of the, 131-132
reform of, 132-133
preferential, 133-134
Banks, functions of, 434
organization of, 435-437
federal reserve, 437-439
work of, 439-442
_See_ also Farm Loan Banks
Bargaining, collective, 405-406
Billboards, regulation of, 214-215
Bill of Rights, 261
Bimetallism, the controversy over, 428-430
Blacklists, industrial, 407
Blackstone’s _Commentaries_, 314 _n_
Bloc. _See_ Agricultural bloc
Blue-sky laws, 446 _n_
Boards, in counties, 169-170
in cities, 192
in state government, 238-239
of education, 498
of health, 534
Bonds, defined and explained, 445 _n_
government, 466-467
serial, 469
Bonaparte, Napoleon, on the qualities of a good constitution, 258
Bosses, political, their origin, 29
their methods, 160-161
Boycotts in labor troubles, 407
Brindell Case, 404 _n_
Bryan, William J., on free silver, 430
Budgets, how made, 462-463
in Congress, 463-465
Buildings, public, in cities, 212-214
Bureau of Animal Industry, 347
of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 376
of Child Welfare, 415 _n_
of Education, 499
of American Republics, 617
Burke, Edmund, on the function of a representative, 98-99
Business taxes, 222
C
Cabinet, organization and functions of, 297-303
Campaign funds, 161-162
Capital, as a factor in production, 48-50
Center of population in the United States, 21
Chancery. _See_ Equity
Charters, municipal, 186-190
Checks and balances, 232-234
Child labor, the restriction of, 414-415
Chief justice, duties of, in presidential impeachments, 270 _n_
China, economic resources of, 335
open door in, 618-620
Circuit courts, 313
Cities, drift of population to, 22-23
growth of, 183-184
character of population in, 184-186
relation to state, 186-190
government of, 190-199
administrative problems in, 203-222
taxation in, 455-457
City councils, 193-194
City government, development of, 182-184
present organization of, 184-199
_See_ also Municipal problems
City-manager plan, 197-198
City planning, 206-298
Citizenship, rights of, 79
qualifications for, 81
dual, 82 _n_
obligations of, 83-84
training for, 84-88
Civil liberty, origin and nature of, 78-81
relation of direct legislation to, 111
Civil War, effect of, on relations between nation and states, 227
on the constitution, 261-262
martial law during, 574-575
naval progress during, 575 _n_
cost of pensions after, 583
danger of foreign intervention during, 608
Civil service, federal, 104
in counties, 173
_See_ also Merit system
Clayton Act, 391, 408
Cleveland, adoption of city manager plan in, 197 _n_
Grover, use of armed forces in labor troubles by, 572-573
Closed shop, the question of, 408-409
Coal, the conservation of, 329-330
Codes of law, 315 _n_
Coinage in the United States, 427-430
Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, on the art of taxation, 455 _n_
Collective bargaining, 56, 405-406
Colleges, training for citizenship in, 87-88
Commerce, purposes of, 356-357
development of, 357-358
scope and nature of, 358-359
regulation of, 359-360
agencies of, 364-368
effect of tariffs on, 368-372
the encouragement of, 372-378
Commission government, in cities, 194-196
in states, 241-242
Commissions, public service, 480-481
Committees, party, 156-158
in the Senate, 268-269
in the House, 275
of conference, 277-278
on budget matters, 464-465
Communism, economic aspects of, 650-652
Common law, 314-315
Companies, commercial, 50-51
_See_ also Holding companies
Competition, the nature of, 54
among public utilities, 475-476
Conciliation in labor disputes, 409-410
Confederation, Articles of, 249-251
Confirmation of appointments, 100
Congress, of the Confederation, 248-252, 257
of the United States, influence of public opinion on, 95-96
organization and work of, 266-282
committees in, 268-278
agricultural bloc in, 350-351
new budget system in, 464-465
of Vienna, 627-628
Conservation of natural resources, 326-336
Consular service, 373-374
Constitution of the United States, events leading to, 246-253
makers of, 254-255
nature of, 257-258
development of, 258-260
methods of amending, 260-262
Constitutions, state, 230-232
Consumption of wealth, 39-40
Constabulary, state, 217
Constitutional Convention of 1787, 253-257
Continental Congress, 248
Contract, freedom of, 55-56
Conventions, party, state, 129, 156-157
national, 158-159
Coroner, office of, 172
Corporations, the nature of, 50-51
citizenship of, 81 _n_
industrial, 384-385
control of, 389-393
Council, in cities, 193-194
County districts, 177
County government, 167-174
County manager plan, 170
Courtesy of the Senate, 270-271
Courts, county, 170-171
state, 239
federal, 308-313
Courts-martial, 573-574
Covenant. _See_ League of Nations
Credit, agricultural, 348-349
relation of money to, 442-443
Credit, relation of prices to, 443-444
advantages and dangers of, 444-445
Crime, classifications of, 550-551
causes of, 552-553
methods of dealing with, 553-557
“Crime of 1873”, 429 _n_
“Cross of Gold” campaign, 430
Currency, paper, history of, 430-431
present forms of, 431-432
advantages of, 432-434
Currency Act (1900), 430
Custom, the influence of, 9-10
D
Darwin, Charles, theories of, 2-4
Debts, public, necessity of, 465-466
nature and amount of, 466-468
repayment of, 468-469
Declaration of Independence, influence of John Locke on, 64-65
assertion of civil rights in, 80
political doctrines of, 248-249
Defence, national, cost of, 563-564
need for, 564-567
methods of, 567-583
Degeneracy as a cause of poverty, 542
Demand and supply, relations of, 40
Democracy, true and false types, 68
progress of, 69
justification of, 70
relation of education to, 492-493
relation of socialism to, 657-658
achievements of, 658-660
citizen’s duty toward, 660-661
Departments, in city government, 191-192, 205-206
in state government, 238-239
in federal government, 299
Diminishing returns, the law of, 343
Diplomatic service, organization and functions of, 591-595
Direct legislation, progress of, 107-108
procedure in, 109-110
merits and defects of, 110-112
Disarmament, international, 576-577
_See_ also Washington Conference
Disease, the germ theory of, 516-517
transmission of, 517-520
in industry, 521-522
the prevention of, 522-524
District attorney. _See_ Prosecuting attorney
of Columbia, government of, 230 _n_
courts, federal, 313
Divine right, theory of, 63-64
Division of labor, 44-46
in agriculture, 344-345
of powers, 232-234
Divorce problem, 557-560
Domestic relations, courts of, 559
Drug evil, the, 526
Duties on imports, 459
_See_ also Tariffs and Tariff problems
E
Economics, the subject-matter of, 38-39
Education, relation to democracy, 492-493
to personal efficiency, 493-494
purpose and value of, 494-495
growth of, 495-496
control and management of, 496-498
national government’s work for, 498-499
federal aid to, 499-500
problems of, 500-507
vocational, 507-508
Educational tests for voting, 122-124
Elections, in counties, 169
procedure at, 129-137
corrupt practices at, 137-138
of senators, 267-268
of representatives in Congress, 273-274
presidential, 288-290
_See_ also Ballots, City Government, Voting
Emergency Fleet Corporation, 375
Employers’ liability, 411-412
England, local government in, 227
cabinet system in, 301
Environment, the influence of, 5-9
Equity, origin and nature of, 316-317
Espionage Act, the, 581
Europe, relations with, 613
Evolution, theory of, 1-5
in political institutions, 66
Excess profits, taxation of, 458-459
Exchange, the theory of, 53
Expatriation, the doctrine of, 83
F
Factories. _See_ Industry
Family, as a fundamental social group, 11-12
its place in the evolution of government, 66
Far East, American interests in the, 617-618
Farm Loan Banks, 348-349
Farmers’ Alliance. _See_ National Farmers’ Alliance
Institutes, 350
Farmer-Labor party, 351
Federalism, the nature of, 67-68
_Federalist, The_, 257
Federal reserve banks, organization and work of, 437-439
Trade Commission, 341-392
Filibusters, 278-279
Filtration of water supplies, 530-531
Fire prevention, the need for, 217-218
methods of, 218-219
Fisheries, economic importance of, 333
Fittest, survival of the, 3-4, 11
Food, the inspection of, 525-526
control of, in war time, 582
Foreign policy, American traditions relating to, 606-607
nature of, 587-590
control of, 590-591
how conducted, 591-602
Forests, economic importance of, 331
_See_ also Reserves
Four Power Treaty, 619-620
Fourteen Points, the, 609-610
France, local government in, 227
Franchises, taxation of, 456
public service, 477-480
Freedom of speech in war time, 581-582
Free silver, the fight for, 428-430
Free trade, arguments for and against, 370-372
G
Garbage, disposal of, 527-528
Gary system, 506-507
General property tax, 455-456
“Gentlemen’s agreement”, with Japan, 32
in industry, 386
Geography, influence of, 8-9, 333-336
George, Henry, social views of, 461 _n_
Germany, social insurance in, 419
Gerrymander, origin and use of, 273
Gladstone, W. E., opinion of the national constitution, 256-257
Gompers, Samuel, 405
Government, the importance of, 13
as a factor in production, 51-52
the basis of obedience to, 63-65
origin of, 65-66
classification of, 66-69
purpose of, 70-72
functions of, 72-73
the study of, 74
Governor, position and powers of, 237-238
Grand jury, 318
Granges. _See_ Patrons of Husbandry
Greenbacks, the, 431
Guidance, vocational, 396-397
Guild operation, 488-489
H
Habeas corpus, the writ of, 317 _n_
Habit, influence of, 10
Hague Conferences, the, 577
Hamilton, Alexander, 255, 257
_Report on Manufactures_, 370
Hawaii, government of, 229 _n_
Hayes-Tilden election, 290 _n_
Highways in counties, 168
Hobbes, Thomas, defender of absolutism, 65
Holding companies, 387
Holy Alliance, 598-599
Home rule, municipal, 187-190
House of Representatives, federal, organization and work of, 272-283
Housing, municipal control of, 531-533
I
Ideals, national, economic influence of, 327
effect of urban growth on, 184-186
Illiteracy in the United States, 502 _n_
Immigration, the course of, 23-24
causes of, 25-26
effects of, 26-29
restriction of, 29-30, 32
Impeachments, federal, 269-270
Income taxes, 458-459
Increasing returns, law of, 388
Incidence of taxation, 451-452
Individualism as an economic system, 14, 73
Index numbers, 443 _n_
Industrial accidents, 411-412
courts, 410-411
democracy, 393-394
Revolution, nature of, 383-384
Revolution, effect on labor, 400-401, 414 _n_
Workers of the World (the I. W. W.), 405
Industry, definition of, 383
development and organization of, 384-386
combinations in, 386-389
government regulation of, 389-393
present-day problems of, 393-397
the hygiene of, 520-521
Inheritances, taxes on, 458
Initiative and referendum, origin and spread of, 107-108
how used, 109-110
value of, 110-111
objections to, 111-112
Injunctions, use of, in labor disputes, 407-408
Insular possessions, government of, 229-230
Insane, problem of the, 549-550
Insects as disease carriers, 518-519
Insurance, against accident, 413
against unemployment, 418
against old age, 419
Interest on invested capital, 49-50
Interior Department, its work, 299 _n_
International, The, 651-652
International law, nature and scope of, 588-590
Interstate commerce, growth of, 359-361
regulation of, 362-364
Commerce Commission, jurisdiction and work of, 363-364
Interpretation, development of the constitution by, 259-260
J
Jackson, Andrew, removals from office by, 102
Japan, relations with, 618-620
Japanese, problem of the, on Pacific slope, 32-33
Jefferson, Thomas, believer in social contract theory, 65
on entangling alliances, 598, 606
Johnson, Andrew, impeachment of, 270 _n_
Judicial procedure, 317-323
Judicial supremacy, the doctrine of, 310-311
Judges, selection and removal of, 239-240
Jukes, the, 542-543
Junior high schools and colleges, 502-503
Jury, grand, 318
trial, 318-319
merits and defects of, 317-321
Justice, Department of, its work, 299 _n_
Juvenile delinquency, 557
K
Kansas plan of arbitration, 410-411
Knights of Labor, 402-403
L
Labor, as a factor in production, 43-44
division of, 44-46
perishable nature of, 46-47
federal department of, 299 _n_
Labor in agriculture, 349
changes in the conditions of, 400-401
organization of, 401-403
American Federation of, 403-404
the radical element in, 404-405
methods and policies of, 405-410
problems of, 410-419
services of, during the World War, 419-420
relations of, to League of Nations, 637
Latin-America, relations with, 615-617
Law, branches of the, 314-315
military, 573-574
martial, 574-575
relations of labor to, 411
League of Nations, origin of the, 625-630
covenant of, 630-632
as a scheme of government, 632-636
system of mandates, 636-637
relation of labor to, 637
public health work of, 638
American objections to, 638-639
work of, 639-640
relation of Washington Conference to, 640-641
future of, 641-642
relation of Monroe Doctrine to, 600 _n_
Legislative reference bureaus, 237 _n_
Legislatures, state, decline of confidence in, 108
organization of, 235-237
L’Enfant, Major, planning of Washington by, 207
Liquor traffic, its effect upon the public health, 526-527
Loans to European countries, 613-614
_See_ also Debts
Lobbying, 237 _n_
Local government in Europe and America compared, 178-179
Locke, John, his theory of political obedience, 64
Lockouts, industrial, 407
Lockwood Committee, its investigations, 55 _n_
London, first civil police established in, 216
poverty in, 541
Los Angeles, origin of recall in, 114
Louisiana Purchase, 228
Lusitania, sinking of the, 609
M
McCulloch _v._ Maryland, the case of, 435 _n_
Machines, political, 159-160
Madison, James, on the need of national defence, 564
contributions to _The Federalist_, 257
Magna Carta, 79, 323, 495
Maine, Sir Henry, on the rise of men from status to contract, 56
Management, industrial, as a factor in production, 50-51
Mandate (_mandamus_), the writ of, 317 _n_
Mandates, the system of, 636-637
Martial law, 574-575
Mayor, position and powers of the, 190-191
Mentally defective, the problem of the, 549-550
Merchant marine, 375-376
Mergers in industry, 387
Merit system, origin of, 103-104
workings of, 104-105
value of, 105-106
in the consular service, 374
Metropolitan counties, 173-174
Mexico, relations with, 615-617
Military government, 575 _n_
Military law, 573-574
Militarism, the encouragement of, 565-566
Milk, inspectors of, 524-525
Mines and minerals, economic importance of, 329-340
their relation to conquest, 334-335
Minimum wage laws, 416-417
Minor political parties, 152-153
Mints in the United States, 428
Money, origin of, 424-425
functions and characteristics of, 425-427
Money, forms of, in the United States, 427-433
relation of credit to, 442-443
quantity theory of, 444
_See_ also Currency
Monopolies, types of, 54
effects of, 55
industrial, 387-388
natural, 474-475
Monroe Doctrine, origin and nature of, 596-599
present status of, 600-601
Municipal problems, 203-222
_See_ also City government
N
National banks, organization and work of, 435-439
Farmers’ Alliance, 350
Guard, relation of federal authorities to, 568-569
Naturalization, requirements for, and procedure in, 81-82
Natural monopolies, 474-475
resources, 326-336
selection, the principle of, 3-4
Navy, growth and organization of, 575-576
_See_ also Disarmament
Near East, American interests in, 620
Negroes, migration of, to the United States, 27
present numbers and distribution, 30-31
problems of, 31-32
voting rights of, 261-262
Neutrality, laws of, 589
American contributions to the rights of, 601
New England town, the government of, 175-176
New York City, population of, 23
poverty in, 541
New Zealand, compulsory arbitration in, 409 _n_
Nominations, history of, 120-121
methods of making, 127-129
_See_ also Conventions, Primary
Normal schools, 504
Northern Securities Case, 365-390
O
Oil, the conservation of, 329-330
Old age pensions, 419
Open shop, controversies over, 408-409
Optional charter system, 189 _n_
Oregon, direct legislation in, 110
Organization, of industry, 50-51, 384-385
of labor, 401-405
Ownership, public. _See_ Public ownership
P
Pacific, problems of the, 618-620
Panama Canal, the, 617
Pan-American Congress, 617
Parks and recreation grounds, 212
Parole system, 555-556
Parties, political, nature and functions of, 145-150
history of, 150-151
programs of, 151-154
the voter’s relation to, 154-155
organization of, 156-161
finance of, 161-162
reform of, 162-163
Partnerships, business, 50
Patents, 55
Patrons of Husbandry, 350
Pauperism, nature of, and remedies for, 540-549
Pavements, 210-212
Peel, Sir Robert, first civil police system established by, 216 _n_
Penn, William, plan of colonial union proposed by, 248
Pensions, the cost of, 583
old age, 419
Petitions, for direct legislation, 109
Picketing during labor troubles, 407
Playground, training for citizenship on the, 86
Philippines, government of the, 229 _n_, 230 _n_
Plumb Plan, 366, 489
Pocket veto, 294
Police, history of, 215-216
organization of, 216-217
Poll taxes, 456
Pools in industry, 386-387
Poor relief, history and methods of, 540-549
Popular sovereignty, 94-95
Population, growth of, 19-20
distribution of, 20-21
center of, 21
drift of, to the cities, 22-23
“Pork barrel”, in Congress, 464 _n_
Porto Rico, government of, 229 _n_
Poverty, extent and causes of, 540-545
methods of dealing with, 545-549
President of the United States, position and powers of, 286-297
control of army, 571-572
control of navy, 576
Preparedness for war, the true nature of, 578-580
Price-fixing by governments, 391
Prices, relation of, to value, 53-54
to money and credit, 443-444
to taxes, 452
Primary, the different forms of, 127-129
Prisons and prison reform, 554-555
Private property, regulation of, 214-215
Probation system, 556-557
Production, economic, 41-42
the factors in, 42-52
large-scale, 388-389
Profit sharing, 394-395
Profits, nature and basis of, 51
Property, private. _See_ Private Property
Proportional representation, 134-136
Prosecuting attorney, 171-172
Protective tariffs, arguments for, 370-371
arguments against, 371-372
Public buildings, in counties, 168
in cities, 212-214
Public domain, 327-328
Public health, importance of, 514-515
progress in the protection of, 515-516
menaces to, 516-520
methods of safeguarding, 521-534
enforcement of regulations relating to, 534-535
Public Health Service, federal, 534-535
Public libraries, 504-505
Public opinion, nature and influence of, 94-96
Public ownership, in Europe, 482
in America, 483
arguments for, 483-485
arguments against, 435-437
Public service commissions, 480-481
Q
Quantity theory of money and prices, 444
Quarantine, methods of, 522-523
R
Races in the United States, 19-33
Radicalism, growth of, 646-647
Railroads, the beginnings of, 362-363
relation of, to Sherman Act, 364-365
in war time, 365-366
government operation of, 366-367
return to private operation of, 367
future of, 368
Railway Labor Board, 367
Ratio of representation, 272
Recall of officers, 113-114
Recess appointments, 271
Reciprocity with Canada, 373
Reconstruction, economic, in Europe, 614-615
political and economic, 646-661
Redistricting, 273
Refunding of public debts, 468
Registration of voters, 125-126
Regular army, 567-568
Removals from office, 106
Rent, its nature, 43
Representation, proportional, 134-136
Representatives, effect of direct legislation on the quality of, 112
the choice of, 96-97
proper function of, 98-99
Reserves, forest, 332-333
Restraint of trade, 389-390
Resources, natural, 326-336
Revolution, American, as a unifying factor, 248
Rings, political, 160-161
Rome, ancient, prestige of citizenship in, 80-81
Roosevelt, Theodore, on national defence, 565 _n_
in Venezuela controversy, 590
Rule of reason, the, 390
Rural exodus, the, 351-352
Russia, the new government in, 647-652
S
Sales tax, as proposed, 462
Schools. _See_ Education
Second jeopardy, 320
Secret diplomacy, 595-596
Selective service in war time, 570-571
Selectmen, boards of, in towns, 176
Senate of the United States, organization and powers of, 267-272
rejection of treaties by, 631
Senatorial courtesy. _See_ Courtesy of the Senate
Sewage, collection and disposal of, 527-528
Sheriff, office of, 171
Sherman Act, 364-365, 389-390, 391 _n_
Shipping Board, 375
Single tax, as proposed, 461-462
Short ballot, 132-133
in county elections, 174
Sinking funds, 468
Smith, Adam, on the canons of taxation, 455
Smoke abatement in cities, 531
Social contract, theory of, 65
control, 14-15
control, the limits to, 72-73
insurance as a means of reducing poverty, 548
Socialism, defined and explained, 652-653
arguments for, 653-654
arguments against, 654-658
Socialist party, its rise and present status, 154
Society, its origin and nature, 1-13
Soil, economic importance of, 327-328
exhaustion of, 345
Soviet system in Russia, 647-650
Speaker, office of, 274-275
Special assessments, 457
Spoils system, 101-103
in the consular service, 374
State Department, its work, 591
States, nature of, 62-63
relation of local government to, 186-190, 219-220
relation to national government, 226-227
admission of, 227-230
constitutions of, 230-232
functions of, 232-233
legislative organization in, 235-237
executive organization in, 237-238
judicial organization in, 239-240
encouragement of agriculture by, 348
control of corporations by, 392
tax systems of, 457-458
educational work of, 496-497
supervision of public health by, 534
Statutes and statutory law, 315-316
Steam, revolution in industry caused by, 384
Stock exchange, functions of, 445-446
Streets, planning of, 208-209
width and arrangement, 209-210
paving of, 210-212
Strikes, how organized, 406-407
Succession to the presidency, 296
Suffrage, history of, 119-120
negro, 120-121
universal, 121-122
_See_ also Elections, Voting
Supreme Court of the United States, its constitutional functions,
259-260
its organization and influence, 308-311
T
Tariffs and tariff policy, 368-372
Taxation, in cities, 220-222
the burden of, 450-451
the incidence of, 451-453
special nature of, 453-454
principles of, 454-455
local, 455-457
state, 457-458
national, 458-459
the two purposes of, 459-460
exemptions from, 460-461
the reform of, 461-462
Taxes, on immigrants, 30
as an element in the cost of production, 52
Teachers, the training of, 503-504
Tenements. _See_ Housing
Territories, the government of, 229-230
Timber, the conservation of, 331-332
Town government, 175-176
Towner-Sterling Bill, 499 _n_
Township government, 176-177
Trade unions. _See_ Organization of labor
Traffic zones, 210
Transportation Act, 364, 367
Treasury, Department of the, 299 _n_
Treaties, ratification of, by the Senate, 271
commercial, 373
how made, 596-597
Trial by jury, 318-321
Tribe, its place in political evolution, 66
Triple Alliance, 628-629
Trusts, industrial, 387
Tweed, William M., 161 _n_
Typhoid fever, its cause and method of transmission, 517-518
U
Unemployment, the problem of, 417-418
Unions, labor, aims and methods of, 401-410
Universal military training, merits and defects of, 578
Usage, development of constitution by, 258-259
Utility, the principle of, in determining demand, 40-41
Utilities, public, 215
the nature of, 474-476
regulation of, 470-477
franchises of, 477-480
public ownership of, 481-488
guild operation of, 488-489
V
Vaccination and inoculation, effects of 523-524
Value, definition of, 53
Versailles, Treaty of, 610, 631 _n_
Vice president, election of, 288
duties of, 270 _n_
functions of the, 296-297
Veto power, the President’s, 294-295
Vocation, the choice of a, 396-397
Vocational education, 507-508
_See_ also Guidance, vocational
Volunteers, use of, in war, 569-570
Voting, preferential, 133-134
qualifications for, 122-125
absent, 138
compulsory, 138-139
by machine, 139-140
in Congress, 278 _n_
_See_ also Registration of voters, Suffrage
W
Wages, factors affecting the rate of, 47-48
War, the cost of, 563-564
the causes of, 566-567
preparedness for, 578-581
the laws of, 588-589
humanizing of, 601
measures for the prevention of, 635-636
_See_ also Arbitration, Hague Conferences, League of Nations,
Washington Conference
War Industries Board, 582
Washington Conference, 575 _n_, 577, 619-620
Washington Conference, relation of League of Nations to, 640-641
Washington, George, as a non-partisan President, 102
on the weakness of the Confederation, 252
at the constitutional convention, 254
on two-house legislatures, 266
advice on foreign policy, 597-598, 606 _n_
Waste disposal, methods of, in cities, 527-528
Water supply, sources and methods of, 529-530
Wealth, definition of, 39
Weather Bureau, importance of its work, 347
Wellington, the Duke of, on the value of organized play, 87
Wider use of the school plant, 505-506
Whitehall, Indiana, center of population, 21
Wilson, Woodrow, on the aims of America in the World War, 609-610
_See_ also Fourteen Points, League of Nations, World War
Woman suffrage, the winning of, 262
Women, in industry, the protection of, 413-414
Workman’s compensation, 413
World power, the United States in relation to, 606-621
World War, rise of wages during, 48
American agriculture during, 342-343
American labor during, 419-420
public debts resulting from, 466
powers of the government during, 580-583
America’s part in, 608-609
cost of, 612
problems created by, 646-661
Writs at law, 317 _n_
Y
Year Book of the Department of Agriculture, 347
Footnotes
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Transcriber’s Note
The index entry regarding the duties of the Vice President refers to a
note on p. 270, but no such note exists.
The index entry regarding compulsory arbitration in New Zealand refers
to a note on p. 419. The note appears on p. 409.
Other errors deemed most likely to be the printer’s have been corrected,
and are noted here. The references are to the page and line in the
original. Where the error is in a footnote, the original note is
included and the line within it.
71.32 protect a[rg/gr]iculture Transposed.
80.2 It wa[s] a long and grim struggle Restored.
82.34 In the case of the Porto Ricans[,] citizenship Added.
105.10 They are practical[ in] their nature. Added.
179.33 and[ and] the county-manager plans. Removed.
193.7 that i[s/t] encourages Replaced.
250.26 [I/i]t could act only Replaced.
316.13 many states[.] Added.
329.8 restocking of lakes with fish)[.] Added.
353.33 _The Non-Partisan League_, pp.269-283[;/.] Replaced.
379.33 and future development[.] Added.
418.10 a certain p[re/er]centage of the total Transposed.
465.12 to the present taxpayers[.] Added.
468.n2.2 life of a public i[n/m]provement Replaced.
470.10 _Public Finance_, [pp. ]261-280. Added.
471.11 p. 457.[)] Added.
618.6 mastery of the Pacific[.] Added.
673.29 I do solem[n]ly swear Inserted.
683.6 a Senator or Represen[t]ative Inserted.