80. _BEET_ (Beta vulgaris) _is a well known fleshy or succulent root,
which is cultivated in our kitchen gardens, and grows wild in several
countries of the south of Europe._
_There are two principal varieties of beet, one of which is of deep red
or purple colour, and the other is white, crossed with bands of red._
Red beet is principally used at table boiled and cut in slices: it is,
however, sometimes pickled, and sometimes stewed with onions; but, if eaten
in great quantity, it is said to be injurious to the stomach. The roots may
be taken out of the ground for use about the end of August, but they do not
attain their full size and perfection till the month of October. When good
they are large, and of deep red colour; and, when boiled, they are tender,
sweet, and palatable.
It has lately been ascertained that beet roots may be substituted for malt,
if deprived of the greater part of their juice by pressure, then dried, and
treated in the same manner as the grain intended for brewing. The beer,
made from beet, has been found perfectly wholesome and palatable, and
little inferior to that prepared from malt.
From _white beet_ the French, during the late war, endeavoured to prepare
sugar; that article, as a British colonial produce, having been prohibited
in France. For this purpose, the roots were boiled as soon as possible
after they were taken from the earth. When cold, they were sliced, and
afterwards the juice was pressed out, and evaporated to the consistence of
syrup. The sugar was obtained, from this syrup, by crystallization. From
110 pounds' weight of the roots, 41½ pounds of juice were obtained, which,
on further evaporation, yielded somewhat more than 4¼ pounds of brown
sugar; and these, by a subsequent operation, produced four pounds of well
grained white powder sugar. The residuum, together with the syrup or
molasses which remained, produced after distillation, 3½ quarts of
rectified spirit, somewhat similar to rum.
81. _MANGEL WURZEL or ROOT OF SCARCITY, is a plant of the beet tribe_ (_a
variety of_ Beta cicla) _with large and red veined leaves; those arising
from the root being on footstalks, and those of the stem being without
stalks, and the flowers growing in threes._
The farmers, in some parts of Germany, cultivate this plant as food for
cattle, and they are said to prefer it, for that use, to potatoes, turnips,
carrots, and indeed to most other vegetables. It was introduced to the
public notice in England, by the late Dr. Lettsom; and it has been strongly
recommended, not only for the feeding of cattle, but also for the use of
man. Both the _leaves_ and _root_ grow to very large size; and the former,
which may be eaten as spinach, continue in season long after that plant is
withered. The root is insipid and unpalatable; but the stalks, and the
stronger middle part of the leaves, may be stewed, or eaten plain-boiled,
as asparagus.
82. _BARILLA is the Spanish name of a plant_ (Salsola soda) _from the
ashes of which is produced the salt called_ kali _or_ soda.
_Soda is also procured from the ashes of_ PRICKLY SALTWORT (Salsola
kali), SHRUBBY SALTWORT (Salsola fructicosa), _and numerous plants of
other tribes._
On the shores of the Mediterranean, where the preparation of soda is
pursued to considerable extent, the seeds of the plants from which it is
obtained are regularly sown in places near the sea. When at a sufficient
state of maturity, the plants are pulled up by the roots, dried, and
afterwards tied in bundles to be burnt. In some places, this is done in
ovens constructed for the purpose; and in others, in trenches dug near the
sea. The ashes, whilst they are hot, are continually stirred with long
poles, and the saline matter they contain forms, when cold, a solid mass,
almost as hard as stone. This mass is afterwards broken into pieces of
convenient size for exportation. The best sort of Spanish soda is in
dark-coloured masses of bluish tinge, very heavy, sonorous, dry to the
touch, and it externally abounds in small cavities. Its taste is sharp,
corrosive, and strongly saline.
Soda is chiefly employed in glass and soap manufactories. See the uses of
minerals, Vol. i. No. 200.
83. _ELMS are forest-trees well known in almost every part of England.
There are several species, of which, however, only three, the_ COMMON ELM
(Ulmus campestris, Fig. 61,) WYCH HAZEL, _or_ BROAD-LEAVED ELM (Ulmus
montana, Fig. 62,) _and_ DUTCH ELM (Ulmus suberosa), _grow in this
country without cultivation_. _They are easily distinguishable from most
other forest-trees, by their leaves being rough, and doubly serrated at
the edge._
_Of these trees the flowers of the first are four-cleft, and have each
four stamens, and the fruit is oblong: those of the second are five or
six cleft, and have each five or six stamens, the fruit is roundish, and
the leaves are broad; those of the third are four-cleft, and have four
stamens, and the bark of the branches has a corky appearance._
The Dutch elm is grown in most parts of England. The common elm, though
plentiful in Worcestershire, Middlesex, and some other southern counties,
is said to be rare further north than Grantham or Stamford. The wych hazel
is common in woods and hedges throughout the whole of South Britain.
The use of the elm as _timber_ is chiefly confined to rough and inferior
work. Implements of husbandry are almost wholly made of it; and it is
employed for waggons, carts, mill-wheels, water-pipes, low-priced chairs,
blocks for hat-makers, and various other purposes; and among the lower and
middling classes, almost exclusively, for coffins. The preference which it
has obtained for the latter purpose, is supposed to have originated in its
peculiar durability in moist situations.
Some of the northern writers state that, from the _inner bark_ of the elm,
if stripped off in the spring, and boiled in water, a very palatable kind
of beer may be brewed; and that this bark, dried and ground to powder, has,
in times of scarcity, been mixed with meal to make bread. It is
occasionally administered as a decoction for obstinate cutaneous
complaints; and it has been proposed for use in rheumatism, dropsy, and
other diseases. The young _leaves_ may be used for the feeding of
silk-worms.
Few trees are better adapted than the elm for planting in hedge rows, along
the sides of roads, and along shady walks; but in the latter case the
numerous suckers which grow up from its roots give much trouble to keep the
ground clear.
84. _GENTIAN is a bitter drug, the dried root of a plant_ (Gentiana
lutea) _which grows wild amongst the Alps, and in other mountainous parts
of the Continent._
_The flower-stem of the gentian is two or three feet high, strong,
smooth, and erect. The leaves which grow upon its lower part are
spear-shaped and ribbed, and those on the upper part are concave, smooth,
and egg-shaped. The flowers, which are large and yellow, grow round the
upper part of the stem on strong footstalks, and are divided at the edge
into five or more segments. The calyx is a kind of sheath._
Gentian is one of the principal bitters that are now used in medicine; and
is of considerable service in fevers, and in such complaints as arise from
weakness of the stomach. It is externally of a brown colour, and internally
yellowish or bright red. Its taste is at first sweetish, but immediately
afterwards bitter and pungent. As a simple bitter, it is rendered more
grateful to the stomach by the addition of some warm aromatic; and, for
this purpose, orange-peel is commonly employed. An extract of gentian root,
boiled with water till it has nearly the consistence of honey, is kept in
the shops.
85. _GARDEN CARROT_ (Daucus carota) _is a plant too well known to need
any description._
In few vegetable productions are the effects of cultivation more
conspicuous than in the carrot. The wild plants, which are common in most
parts of England, have a root so small and woody, that no one could suppose
they had any alliance whatever to the large and succulent root of the
garden carrot.
The various uses of the carrot in cookery are well known. But, although it
contains much nutriment, this root is difficult of digestion; particularly
if eaten raw, or imperfectly boiled. Carrots are an excellent fodder for
cattle and horses, either alone or mixed with hay; and, if given to cows,
in winter or the early part of spring, they are said to cause a great
increase of milk. If carrots be boiled with their wash, hogs will thrive
well upon them. In some parts of England this vegetable has been cultivated
as a winter food for deer; and the leaves have sometimes been made into
hay. Carrots contain a large proportion of saccharine matter, and various
but unsuccessful experiments have been made to extract sugar from them.
They have, however, been more advantageously employed in distillation. Ten
pounds' weight of carrots will yield about half a pint of very strong,
ardent spirit: and the carrots (twenty tons in weight) produced by an acre
of ground, have been known to produce 240 gallons of spirit. A syrup made
of these roots, and clarified with the white of eggs, has been found useful
for many purposes. An infusion of the _seeds_ and the expressed juice of
the roots, are said to afford relief in fits of the gravel. A marmalade of
carrots has been used with success in sea-scurvy, and a poultice prepared
from them is sometimes employed in cancerous ulcers. Crickets are so fond
of these roots that they may easily be destroyed by making a paste of
flour, powdered arsenic, and scraped carrots, and placing this near their
habitations.
86. _ROCK SAMPHIRE_ (Crithmum maritimum) _is an umbelliferous plant, with
fleshy, spear-shaped leaflets, and small but regular-shaped white
flowers._
The cliffs of Dover have long been celebrated for the production of this
vegetable, which has received an additional interest from the notice that
Shakspeare has taken of the gathering of it:
"Half-way down
Hangs one that gathers samphire; dreadful trade!"
It is also found on cliffs of other parts of the south of England, as well
as in Italy, France, and Spain; and generally in inaccessible situations.
In some parts of England the _leaves_ of samphire pickled in vinegar are in
use for the table: they are also used in salads, and for other culinary
purposes. But their place is frequently supplied by a much more common
plant, which grows in salt marshes, and has the name of _marsh samphire_
(_Salicornia_). This, however, is a very inferior substitute, and entirely
destitute of the fine aromatic flavour of the former species.
87. _ASAFOETIDA is a resinous gum, procured from the root of a large
umbelliferous plant_ (Ferula asafoetida) _which grows in the mountains of
some parts of Persia._
_The leaves of this plant are nearly two feet long, doubly winged, and
have the leaflets alternate. The flowers are small, and the seeds oval,
flat, and each marked with three longitudinal lines._
No one who has ever smelt the peculiarly powerful, and garlic-like odour of
asafoetida, can well forget it. If exposed to the air, but particularly
when heated, it will pervade every apartment of a house. Notwithstanding
this, it constitutes a favourite seasoning, for food, with the inhabitants
of many of the eastern countries of the world. The Banian Indians, who
never eat animal food, use it in almost all their dishes; and, before their
meals, they even rub their mouths with it, to stimulate their appetite. It
is sometimes used by our own cooks, but in very small quantity, in place of
garlic. In many parts of Arabia and Persia, asafoetida is much esteemed as
a remedy for internal diseases, and even as an external application to
wounds; and, with us, it is considered a powerful medicine in several
disorders. It has been applied with success, in the cure of hooping-cough
and worms; and in flatulent colics, it has, in many cases, afforded great
relief. It is imported in masses of various sizes and form, and of yellow,
brown, or bluish colour, sometimes interspersed with roundish white pieces.
The plant from the root of which asafoetida is produced grows in the
mountains which surround the small town of Disgnun, in Persia; and, at the
season when it is collected, the whole place smells of it. The upper part
of the roots, which are sometimes as thick as a man's leg, rises somewhat
above the surface of the ground. The harvest commences when the leaves
begin to decay; and the whole gathering is performed by the inhabitants of
the place, in four different journeys to the mountains. The demand for the
article in foreign countries being first ascertained to be sufficient for
the trouble of collecting, the persons employed proceed to the mountains in
companies of four or five each. The juice is obtained by cutting the roots
across, at the same time sheltering them by the leaves (which have been
previously twisted off) from the intense heat of the sun. Each party takes
into its care about 2000 plants. After the first incision has been made,
the roots are suffered to remain untouched for about a month, when they are
again visited, and the gum which has exuded is taken off. This operation is
repeated three times, a few days betwixt each; after which the plants are
exhausted and left to die. At the respective gatherings each party
generally brings away about fifty pounds' weight of asafoetida. It is
stated that a single ship is exclusively devoted to transporting the bulk
of this commodity to the ports in the Persian Gulf; and that, when smaller
parcels are carried, it is usual to tie them to the top of the mast.
In the year 1784, the asafoetida plant was introduced into the Botanic
garden at Edinburgh, from seeds which had been sent by Dr. Guthrie of
Petersburgh to Dr. Hope.
The _ferula tribe_ consists of nine or ten known species of plants, and it
is supposed that asafoetida is yielded by several of them.
In some parts of the Levant the sailors are said to use the _stalks_ of a
species of ferula to transport fire from one island to another. This custom
is of great antiquity, and explains a passage of Hesiod, who, speaking of
the fire stolen from heaven by Prometheus, says that he carried it in a
ferula. The foundation of this fable is undoubtedly owing to what Diodorus
Siculus informs us of Prometheus, that he was the inventor of the steel
with which fire is struck from flint; and in all probability that prince
made use of the pith of the ferula instead of tinder, to convey it from one
place to another.
88. _CORIANDER is a small globular seed, produced by an annual
umbelliferous plant_ (Coriandrum sativum), _with leaves in slender
segments, and small whitish flowers, that grows wild in Suffolk and
Essex, and is cultivated in several parts of England._
In several farms in Essex and Kent the cultivation of coriander is pursued
to considerable extent. This is done solely for the seed, which is used by
distillers, druggists, and confectioners. In some parts of the North of
Europe it is ground and mixed with dough, to give an aromatic flavour to
bread.
Coriander is usually grown with teasel (53) and caraway (91); but, as
neither of the latter come to perfection until the second year after they
have been sown, the coriander is harvested without interfering with the
other crops. In this labour, which usually commences about the beginning of
July, women and children are principally employed: and, to prevent the
seeds of the largest and best plants from being shed and lost, each stem is
cut separately. The stems are then carried into some convenient part of the
field, and threshed all together upon a sail cloth.
So luxuriantly, and, at the same time, so abundantly does this plant grow
in a wild state, in some of the southern parts of Europe, as almost to
choke the growth of wheat and other grain. Every part of it, except the
seed, has a fetid and disagreeable smell. The seeds, when taken in large
quantities, have been considered injurious; but Dr. Withering states, that
he has known six drams of them taken without any remarkable effect.
89. _PARSNIP is the root of an umbelliferous plant_ (Pastinaca sativa),
_with winged and serrated leaves, and small yellow flowers, which is
cultivated in kitchen gardens, and which also grows wild on the borders
of ploughed fields in several parts of England._
The wild and cultivated parsnips differ much from each other, but
particularly in the roots of the latter being large and succulent, and
those of the former being slender and woody.
Parsnips are propagated by seed sown in February or March, and the roots
are in perfection about October. These, besides their use as a vegetable
for the table, are of great value for the feeding of cattle, horses, sheep,
and hogs. Land in Guernsey, which lets for 7_l._ an acre, is sown with
parsnips to feed cattle; and the milk of the cows so fed is not only richer
than it would otherwise be, but yields butter of fine saffron colour and
excellent taste.
If parsnips be washed clean, and sliced among bran, horses will eat them.
They will fatten sheep and oxen in a short time; and for the feeding of
hogs they are at least equal if not superior to carrots. As food for
mankind they are considered extremely nutritive; and may, with great
advantage, be kept on board ships that are destined for long voyages. It
is, however, said that they should not be dug up for use in the spring,
because, at that season, the nutritive juices rising upward to produce the
seed, they are then unwholesome.
Parsnips abound in saccharine juice; and various experiments have, in vain,
been made with a view to extract sugar from them. In several parts of
Ireland they are used instead of malt in brewing; and, when properly
fermented, they afford an agreeable beverage. The _seeds_ are considered by
some practitioners as an efficacious remedy in intermittent fevers.
90. _FENNEL_ (Anethum foeniculum) _is a well known plant, which is
cultivated in gardens, and grows wild in several parts of England._
The _leaves_ of fennel, both boiled and raw, are used in sauce for several
kinds of fish. The tender buds are eaten in salads; and, in Italy, the
_stalks_ are sometimes blanched as winter salad. A distilled water,
prepared from the seeds, is occasionally administered as a medicine; and
there was formerly a notion that the _roots_ were peculiarly valuable, as a
remedy in several diseases, but they are now almost wholly disregarded.
91. _CARAWAY is a small well known seed, produced by an umbelliferous
plant_ (Carum carui), _with smooth and double winged leaves, narrow
leaflets, and small white, or pale flesh-coloured flowers, of which the
petals are bent inward, so as to become heart-shaped._
The _seeds_ of caraway have a pleasant spicy smell, and a warm aromatic
taste. They are much used by pastry-cooks and confectioners in cakes, and
for other purposes. Incrusted with sugar, they are called caraway comfits.
They are also distilled with spirituous liquors, to improve their flavour;
and are recommended as a medicine in several disorders. An essential _oil_
and a _spirit_ are also prepared from them. In the spring of the year the
_leaves_ are sometimes used in soups, or boiled with pot-herbs. The _roots_
may be converted into an agreeable pickle; and, if simply boiled, they are
said by Parkinson to be better than parsnips.
This plant grows wild in several parts of England, but particularly in
meadows and pastures near Bury St. Edmunds, in Suffolk. It is much
cultivated in Essex and Kent, sometimes alone, and sometimes mixed with
teasel (53) and coriander (88). The season for cutting it is about the
beginning of July; and it is threshed in the field on a cloth, in the same
manner as rape-seed (187).
92. _ANISE-SEEDS are the production of an umbelliferous annual plant_
(Pimpinella anisum), _which grows wild in Egypt, Syria, and other Eastern
countries. They are roundish and striated, flatted on one side, and
pointed at one end; and of pale colour, inclining to green._
Attempts were made more than two hundred years ago to cultivate anise in
this country, but the summers of our climate are seldom warm enough to
bring the plant to perfection. It has consequently been found necessary to
import the seed from Malta and Spain, where it is cultivated to
considerable extent.
Anise-seeds have an aromatic smell, and a pleasant warm taste, accompanied
with some degree of sweetness. They have long been employed in medicine,
and have been considered useful in diseases of the lungs and complaints of
the stomach. They give out all their virtue to rectified spirit; and a
spirituous water prepared from a mixture of equal parts of anise-seed and
angelica, is kept in the shops as a cordial.
93. _PARSLEY_ (Apium petroselinum) _is an annual umbelliferous plant too
common to need any description._
The uses of parsley, in our kitchens, both for sauce and garnish, are
numerous and well known. It is, however, poisonous to several kinds of
birds; and, although so commonly used at table, facts have been adduced
from which it would appear that, with some persons, it occasions epilepsy,
or at least aggravates the fits in those who are subject to that disease.
Inflammation in the eyes has also been attributed to the use of it. Parsley
is eaten with great avidity by sheep, and has been recommended for use in
several diseases of those animals, as well as in some diseases of horses.
Both the _roots_ and _seed_ are employed in medicine. The former have a
sweetish taste, accompanied with a slight warmth, and a flavour somewhat
resembling that of the carrot: the latter are warm and aromatic.
Parsley is a native of Sardinia, and propagated by seed, which is usually
sown about the month of March.
94. _CELERY_ (Apium graveolens) _is a well known plant belonging to the
same tribe as parsley._
In a wild state celery is found in ditches and marshes of several parts of
England, and is a small, acrid, and noxious plant, called _smallage_: but,
when cultivated, it entirely loses these properties.
It is grown in trenches, and is earthed up for the purpose of blanching or
whitening the lower parts. The seeds are sown in spring, and the plants may
be taken out for use towards the end of the autumn. Celery is eaten raw in
salads, boiled in soup, or stewed. The seeds are used, particularly at sea,
for the flavouring of soup, to which they give the same taste as the plant
itself.
95. _COPAL is a somewhat resinous substance, obtained from a tree_ (Rhus
copallinum) _the produce of America, which has winged and very entire
leaves, the foot-stalks membranaceous and jointed._
We annually import considerable quantities of copal from the Spanish
colonies in America, in irregular masses, some of which are transparent, of
yellowish or brown colour, and others are whitish and semi-transparent.
When copal is dissolved in any volatile liquid, and thinly spread upon
wood, metal, or any other firm substance, so that the liquid may evaporate,
the copal remains perfectly transparent; and forms one of the most
beautiful and perfect varnishes that can be imagined. The varnish thus
formed has the name of _copal varnish_, and is said to have been first
discovered in France. One mode of preparing it is by melting the copal with
an equal quantity of linseed oil (97); another, by mixture with oil of
turpentine; and a third, by mixture with alcohol or spirit of wine. The
particular processes are described in the fourth volume of Dr. Thomson's
System of Chemistry, fifth edition; but they are too long and intricate for
insertion here.
Copal is the varnish which is chiefly used in the japanning of snuff-boxes,
tea-boards, and other similar articles.