57. _ALKANET is a dyeing drug, the bark of a root which produces a rough
plant_ (Anchusa tinctoria), _with downy and spear-shaped leaves, and
clusters of small purple or reddish flowers, the stamens of which are
shorter than the corolla._
Though this plant is sometimes cultivated in England, by far the greater
portion of the alkanet which we use is imported either from the Levant, or
from the neighbourhood of Montpelier in France.
Alkanet imparts a fine deep red colour to all unctuous substances, and to
spirits of wine; but it tinges water with a dull, brownish hue. Its chief
use is for the colouring of oils, plasters, lip-salve, and other similar
articles. It is likewise employed in compositions for rubbing, and giving
colour to mahogany furniture. Wax tinged with alkanet, and applied to the
surface of warm marble, stains it flesh colour, and sinks deep into the
stone.
58. _The COWSLIP is a plant_ (Primula veris) _which grows in most
meadows and pastures, and is too well known to require any description._
The _flowers_ of the cowslip, when picked and dried, are sometimes used as
a balsamic tea. When boiled, with a certain proportion of water and sugar,
and afterwards properly fermented, they may be made into a peculiarly
pleasant wine.
The _roots_ have a fine odour; and, when immersed in ale or beer, are said
to add considerably to the strength of the liquor. The _leaves_ are
sometimes eaten as a pot-herb, and in salads; and both the leaves and
flowers are an excellent food for silk-worms.
59. _BUCK-BEAN, or BOG-BEAN_ (Menyanthes trifoliata), _is a common plant
in shallow ponds; and is distinguishable by its leaves growing in threes,
and its pink and white flowers being shaggy on their inner surface._
There is no British plant the flowers of which are more beautiful than
those of buck-bean; and nothing but the difficulty of propagating it in dry
ground could prevent its having a place in every garden. The _leaves_ are
intensely bitter, and are occasionally used in the Highlands of Scotland as
a tea, to strengthen the stomach. The inhabitants of some parts of Sweden
employ them in place of hops, to impart a bitter taste to ale; two ounces
of them being considered equal in strength to a pound of hops. By some
persons the leaves of buck-bean are smoked instead of tobacco; and
different preparations of this plant have been found efficacious as a
remedy against agues, and in scorbutic and scrofulous diseases,
rheumatisms, and dropsy. There is an opinion that sheep, when compelled to
eat of buck-bean, are cured of the rot. In Lapland it is said that the
pounded roots, though very unpalatable, are sometimes converted into bread.
60. _SCAMMONY is a concrete or dried juice obtained from the roots of a
climbing plant of the convolvulus tribe_ (Convolvulus scammonia, Fig. 7,)
_which is cultivated in Asiatic Turkey, Syria, and Persia._
_This plant is known by having arrow-shaped leaves, notched in a
particular manner at the base, and each flower-stalk bearing two or three
large and somewhat purplish white flowers._
The roots of the scammony plant are thick, black on the surface, white
within, and full of an acrid milky juice, which, in a concrete state, is
frequently used in medicine. To obtain it, the earth, at a certain season
of the year, is removed from the upper part of the roots whilst they are
growing, and the tops are cut obliquely. The juice flows from the wound
into a small vessel sunk into the earth, at the lower end of the gash, to
receive it. But, as each root furnishes only a very small quantity, the
produce of several roots is usually mixed together for the greater
convenience of being exposed to the sun and dried. Still, however, the
quantity, thus obtained, is sometimes insufficient to supply the demand. In
this case an addition is made to it by the pressure of juice from the
leaves and stalks.
The best scammony is imported from Aleppo, in light, spongy, friable
pieces, of shining blackish grey colour, which have a faint, unpleasant
smell, and a bitterish, pungent taste. It is sometimes adulterated with
flour, and sometimes even with sand or earth.
In its medical effects, scammony, when administered alone, is an
efficacious, though violent purgative. But if triturated or ground down
with sugar, almonds, or gum-arabic, its operation becomes sufficiently mild
and safe.
61. _JALAP is a dark-coloured root, which is usually imported, in
transverse slices, from South America._
_The plant that produces it_ (Convolvulus jalapa, Fig. 8) _belongs to the
convolvulus tribe, and has generally somewhat heart-shaped leaves, and
flowers that are reddish on the outside, and dark purple or yellowish
within._
The name of jalap is derived from Xalapa, a town in South America, situated
betwixt Vera Cruz and Mexico, where the plant, of which it is the root, was
originally discovered, and whence it has been imported, in great
quantities, into Europe. The jalap plant is now cultivated in the botanical
garden at Charlestown, and in several other parts of America. When recent,
the root is large, whitish, and full of juice; but, when dried, the best
pieces are compact, hard, weighty, and of dark colour, with black circular
marks. Both in smell and taste it is very nauseous. It is frequently mixed
with slices of bryony root; but these are easily distinguished by their
paler colour and porous texture.
The only mode in which this root is of use is as a medicine; and it is
administered in substance, in a tincture, and an extract. It has been
advantageously employed in several disorders; but, as it is very powerful
in its effects, great caution is necessary in the use of it, particularly
with children.
62. _PERUVIAN BARK is the produce of a tree which grows in South America,
and chiefly in Peru, whence its name has been derived._
_This tree_ (Cinchona officinalis), _in size and general appearance,
somewhat resembles our cherry-tree. Its leaves are in pairs, oval,
pointed, nerved, and smooth on the upper side; and the flowers hang in
loose clusters, are fringed at the edges, and red in the inside_ (Fig.
10.)
Formerly this valuable medicine had the name of _Jesuit's bark_, from its
having been first introduced into Europe by some persons of the religious
order called Jesuits, that were settled in South America. They had been
instructed in the use of it by the inhabitants of Peru, to whom it had long
been known; and it continued, for many years, to be a lucrative article of
commerce to them. For its officinal name of cinchona it was indebted to the
lady of a Spanish Viceroy, the Countess del Cinchon, who, about 170 years
ago, derived great benefit from taking it.
The tree from which it is obtained grows spontaneously, and in great
abundance, in several of the mountainous forests of Quito and Peru. The
proper time for cutting it is from September to November, the only season
during which there is any considerable intermission from rain. The Indians,
as soon as they have discovered a spot where the trees are in sufficient
number, build a few huts for themselves, and one large hut for containing
the bark, to preserve it from wet. They then go forth, each furnished with
a large knife, and a bag which will hold about fifty pounds' weight of
bark. Each tree occupies two men. They first cut or slice down the bark as
far from the ground as they can reach. They then tie to the tree several
sticks a little distance apart, and each about half a yard in length, to
serve as a ladder by which they can ascend to the upper part, always
slicing off the bark as far as they can reach, before they fix a new step.
In this manner one of the two mounts to the top, whilst the man below
collects what his companion cuts. To relieve each other, they ascend the
different trees by turns; and they are generally able to fill their bags
once in the course of the day. When they return to their huts, they spread
out the bark to dry, and they are very careful to preserve it from wet,
which would greatly injure it.
There are three sorts of bark in use: the _pale_, the _red_, and the
_yellow_. Of these the two last have recently been discovered. The red is
now very scarce, and is seldom brought into Europe. The pale bark is
imported, from the Spanish Main, in large bundles, closely packed in goat
or other skins. The yellow is in much larger pieces, and flatter and
thicker than those of the pale bark.
We are informed, by some writers, that the Peruvians first learned the use
of this bark from observing certain animals, affected with intermittent
fevers, instinctively led to it. Others say that one of the inhabitants of
Peru, having an ague, was cured by drinking the water of a pool into which
some trees of this kind had accidentally fallen. On its first introduction
into Europe, its use was opposed by many eminent physicians; and, for a
long time afterwards, it was believed to be a very dangerous remedy. Its
character, however, in process of time, became perfectly established, and
it is now considered one of the most valuable medicines we possess.
Peruvian bark is used as a remedy in intermittent fevers or agues; and, by
some persons, is prescribed in other kinds of fevers, in confluent
small-pox, in gangrenous sore throat, and indeed in every species of
gangrene. It is given in powder, as an extract, a spirituous tincture, and
a decoction; but the most efficacious form is that of powder. In taste it
is bitter and astringent, leaving an impression upon the palate which
continues for some time afterwards; but its smell is rather agreeable than
otherwise.
63. _COFFEE is the seed of an evergreen shrub which is cultivated in hot
climates, and is chiefly imported from Arabia and the East and West
Indies._
_This shrub_ (Coffea Arabica, Fig. 9) _is from fifteen to twenty feet in
height. The leaves are four or five inches long, and two inches broad,
smooth, green, and glossy on the upper surface; and the flowers, which
grow in bunches at the base of the leaves, are white and sweet-scented.
The berries or fruit are of a somewhat oval shape, about the size of a
cherry, and of dark red colour, when ripe. Each of these contains two
cells, and each cell has a single seed, which is the coffee as we see it
before it undergoes the process of roasting._
Coffee is an article of only late introduction. To the Greeks and Romans it
was wholly unknown. Its use appears to have originated in Ethiopia; and, in
1554, it is stated to have been first introduced into Constantinople,
whence it was gradually adopted in the western parts of Europe. In 1652 Mr.
Daniel Edwards, a Turkey merchant, brought with him to England a Greek
servant, whose name was Pasqua, and who understood the methods of roasting
coffee, and making it into a beverage. This man was the first who publicly
sold coffee in this country; and he kept a house for that purpose in George
Yard, Lombard Street. At Paris, coffee was nearly unknown until the arrival
of the Turkish ambassador, Solomon Aga, in 1669; about three years after
which the first coffee-house is said to have been established in that city.
The coffee shrub was originally planted in Jamaica in 1732.
Great attention is paid to the culture of coffee in Arabia. The trees are
raised from seed sown in nurseries, and afterwards planted out, in moist
and shady situations, on sloping grounds, or at the foot of mountains. Care
is taken to conduct little rills of water to the roots of the trees, which
at certain seasons require to be constantly surrounded with moisture. As
soon as the fruit is nearly ripe, the water is turned off, lest the fruit
should be rendered too succulent. In places much exposed to the south, the
trees are planted in rows, and are shaded from the otherwise too intense
heat of the sun, by a branching kind of poplar tree. When the fruit has
attained its maturity, cloths are placed under the trees, and, upon these,
the labourers shake it down. They afterwards spread the berries on mats,
and expose them to the sun to dry. The husk is then broken off by large and
heavy rollers of wood or iron. When the coffee has been thus cleared of its
husk, it is again dried in the sun, and lastly winnowed with a large fan,
for the purpose of clearing it from the pieces of husks with which it is
intermingled. A pound of coffee is generally more than the produce of one
tree; but a tree in great vigour will produce three or four pounds.
The best coffee is imported from Mocha, a town on the eastern bank of the
Red Sea. This, which in Europe is called _Mocha_ and _Turkey coffee_, bears
a higher price than any which our colonists are able to raise; owing, as it
is supposed, to the difference of climate and soil in which it is grown. It
is packed in large bales, each containing a number of smaller bales; and,
when good, it appears fresh, and of a greenish olive colour. The coffee
next in esteem to this is grown in Java and the East Indies, and that of
lowest price in the West Indies. When stowed in ships with rum, pepper, or
other articles, it is said that coffee contracts a rank and unpleasant
flavour, and this has been assigned as a reason of the inferiority of such
as is imported from our own plantations.
The quantity of coffee annually supplied by Arabia is supposed to be
upwards of fourteen millions of pounds. Before the commencement of the
French Revolution the island of St. Domingo alone exported more than
seventy millions of pounds per annum.
Almost all the Mahometans drink coffee at least twice a day, very hot, and
without sugar. The excellence of coffee depends, in a great measure, on the
skill and attention that are exercised in the roasting of it. If it be too
little roasted, it is devoid of flavour; and if too much, it becomes acrid,
and has a disagreeable burnt taste. In England the operation of roasting is
usually performed in a cylindrical tin box, perforated with numerous holes,
and fixed upon a spit which runs lengthwise through the centre, and is
turned by a jack.
In a medical view, coffee is said to be of use in assisting digestion,
promoting the natural secretions, and preventing or removing a disposition
to drowsiness. It has been found highly beneficial in relieving some cases
of severe head-ach.
The outer pulpy part of the berry, and the inner membrane, which
immediately invests the seeds, are used by the Arabians, and of these the
former is much esteemed, and constitutes what is called _coffee à la
sultane_.
64. _STRAMONIUM, or THORN-APPLE_ (Datura stramonium), _is an annual
plant, with thick round stalks, somewhat triangular leaves, jagged or
toothed at the edges, large white and funnel-shaped flowers, and seed
vessels large and beset with spines._
Although originally a native of America, stramonium is now a frequent weed
on dunghills, and in cultivated ground of our own country; and, when once
introduced into a garden, it is difficult to be eradicated. Its smell is
exceedingly unpleasant, and its qualities are so pernicious, when taken
internally, as to occasion giddiness, torpor, and sometimes even death. The
seeds are particularly injurious. Notwithstanding this, the inspissated or
dried juice of the leaves has been considered a valuable remedy in
epileptic and other convulsive disorders. An ointment prepared from them
affords relief in external inflammations; and smoking the dried leaves has
lately been recommended in asthmatic complaints.
The soporiferous and intoxicating qualities of stramonium are well known in
eastern countries, and have often occasioned the plant to be employed for
very improper uses.
65. _TOBACCO, in the state that we see it, is a narcotic drug formed from
the dried leaves of an annual plant_ (Nicotiana tabacum, Fig. 11) _that
is principally cultivated in North America,_
_The stalk of the tobacco plant is erect, strong, round, and hardy. The
leaves are large, oblong, pointed, clammy, and of pale green colour. The
flowers, which terminate the stem and branches in loose clusters, are of
reddish colour, and funnel shaped, with a long hairy tube; and the seed
vessel is oval, and divided into two cells, that contain many rounded
seeds._
The cultivation of tobacco is carried on to great extent in several parts
of North America. The seed, mixed with ashes on account of its smallness,
is sown a little before the beginning of the rainy season; and, in order
the better to cover it, the beds are raked over or trampled upon. In about
a fortnight the young plants begin to appear, and, as soon as they have
four leaves, they are drawn up and transplanted in lines, and about three
feet asunder, into the tobacco field. Here they are kept clear of weeds;
and, as soon as they have eight or nine leaves each, the tops are nipped
off to make the leaves grow thicker and longer. When the plants are full
grown, and the leaves are become somewhat brittle, they are cut with a
knife close to the ground. They are suffered to lie upon the ground for a
little while, after which they are carried to the drying shed, where they
are hung by pairs upon lines or ropes. When perfectly dry, the leaves are
stripped from the stalks, and made into small bundles tied round with
another leaf. These bundles are laid in heaps, and covered with blankets
for about seven days to heat; after which they are closely stowed in casks
for exportation.
The name of tobacco was given to this article from its having been
originally brought into Europe from Tobago, or Tabago, an island in the Bay
of Panama, near the coast of America.
To the American Indians the use of tobacco has been known for many
centuries; and the practice of _smoking_ it is common to almost all the
tribes. Tobacco forms a part of every entertainment; and, in the intervals
of hunting, sleeping, and eating, it occupies no small portion of their
time. In many of their religious ceremonies tobacco is used; and instances
have occurred in which they have taken it in such quantity that death has
ensued.
The custom of smoking is understood to have been first introduced into
England, by Sir Walter Raleigh, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and a
ludicrous story has often been told respecting it: that Sir Walter having
directed a servant to bring him a jug of water, the man, at his return into
the room, found him smoking, and, alarmed at seeing his master apparently
on fire, threw the whole contents of the jug into his face to quench it.
So extensive has this nauseous practice now become, especially in Holland
and Germany, that it constitutes a daily luxury with nearly all the
peasantry of those countries, as well as with the more indolent and wealthy
classes of the inhabitants. To many constitutions it is very injurious.
When first begun, it occasions vomiting, intoxication, and other unpleasant
effects. These however, by repetition, are discontinued, though its
stupifying qualities are never entirely overcome.
Another form under which tobacco is used, is that of _snuff_. The basis of
snuff is tobacco powdered; but many other matters are added, to give it a
peculiar smell, or to impart pungency to it. When first applied to the
nose, snuff excites sneezing, but, by repetition, this entirely ceases. The
practice of taking snuff has, in some instances, been found injurious to
the smell and the voice; it has been attended with loss of memory, and by
symptoms of a weakened or debilitated state of the nervous system.
But there is no mode of using tobacco so disgusting, to persons
unaccustomed to it, as chewing. By the labouring classes, and particularly
by mariners, this practice is chiefly followed, from a notion, though
apparently a very erroneous one, that it will prevent the return of hunger,
and, in some degree, supply a lack of food.
Though all these are disgusting as practices, there is no doubt, but,
medicinally, they may be attended with good effects. By smoking and
chewing, tooth-ach has often been relieved; and some persons consider the
former a means of guarding against contagion. The occasional and moderate
use of snuff has, in several cases, been found beneficial, particularly in
head-achs, and in diseases of the eyes and ears. Infusions of tobacco are
sometimes administered in medicine, but this drug is principally given in
the form of a vinous or watery infusion. Tobacco is a powerful medicine,
and requires to be used with great caution. The smoke of this herb, when
blown against noxious insects, destroys them, and is the means which
gardeners adopt for ridding hot-houses and green-houses of such as infest
their plants.
The tobacco plant is sufficiently hardy to sustain the rigour of an
European climate, and is cultivated in several parts of Spain and Portugal.
As however, on importation, it pays a heavy tax to government, the culture
of it in this country is restricted, by the legislature, to half a rod of
ground in _physic gardens_; and if this be exceeded the cultivator is
liable to a penalty of ten pounds for every rod.
The different kinds of tobacco and snuff are attributable rather to the
difference of climate and soil in which the plants have been grown, and to
the different modes of management and manufacture, than to any essential
distinction in the plants from which they are manufactured.
66. _DEADLY NIGHTSHADE_ (Atropa belladonna) _is an extremely poisonous
plant, which grows in hedges and waste grounds, in several parts of
England, and has somewhat oval leaves of dull green colour, purple
bell-shaped flowers, and shining black berries, each about the size of a
small cherry._
There is no British plant so injurious in its effects on the human frame as
this; and the alluring appearance and sweetish taste of the _berries_ have,
in many instances, particularly with children, been succeeded by the most
fatal consequences. It is true that some persons have been known to eat
three or four of them without injury; but in others a single berry, and
even the half of one, has occasioned death. The _leaves_ are more powerful
than the berries. The usual symptoms of this poison are a deep and deadly
stupor, giddiness, delirium, great thirst, retching, and convulsions. A
draught of vinegar, and keeping the patient constantly in motion, are said
to be the best means of cure.
Some writers have supposed it was the deadly nightshade which produced
those strange and dreadful effects that are described by Plutarch to have
been experienced by the Roman soldiers, under the command of Antony, during
their retreat from the Parthians:--"Their distress for provisions was so
great that they were compelled to eat of plants unknown to them. Among
others, they found an herb of which many ate; these, shortly afterwards,
lost their memory and their senses, and wholly employed themselves in
turning over all the stones they could find; then, being seized with
vomiting, they fell down dead."
The _leaves_ of the deadly nightshade have sometimes been used externally,
and with good effect, in cases of cancer; and in ulcers and tumours of
different kinds. They are likewise given, internally, in infusion; but the
sufferings of the patient, however small the dose may be, are so dreadful
that few practitioners like to resort to them.
67. _POTATOE_ (Solanum tuberosum) _is a well known edible root, which was
originally imported into this country from America._
No root with which we are acquainted is so valuable to mankind in temperate
climates, as the potatoe. In some countries, particularly in Ireland, it
forms a most important article of food to the lower classes of inhabitants.
By the English peasantry the potatoe is by no means esteemed as it
deserves. In addition to its value for culinary uses, it might, in a very
essential degree, be made to serve as a substitute for bread. If duly
prepared, and mixed with a nearly equal portion of wheat flour, it may even
be made into loaves. A kind of cheese may be made, by reducing potatoes to
the consistence of paste, adding an equal quantity of the curd from which
cheese is made, with a little salt and some other ingredients, mixing the
whole together, and forming them in moulds. The Germans prepare a favourite
dish by slicing boiled potatoes and pouring over them the same kind of
sauce which is used for salads, and mixing anchovies with them.
These roots afford an excellent food for horses and cattle; and it is said
that bullocks will fatten on them more speedily than on cabbages or
turnips. Potatoes are likewise serviceable for the fattening of hogs; but,
for a little while before these are killed, it is requisite to use barley
meal in addition, as otherwise the fat of the bacon is liable to boil away
in the cooking. In the use of potatoes as food, it is requisite to prepare
them in some manner by heat, as otherwise they are both unpalatable and
poisonous.
A kind of brandy was formerly distilled from potatoes; but this has been
forbidden by the legislature. Starch may be made from potatoes, by the
simple process of scraping them in water, and well washing the pulp: the
starch settles to the bottom of the vessel, in a heavy and closely
connected sediment. This starch is of use for the same purposes as starch
prepared from wheat: it is also valuable as a size; which, unlike the size
produced from animal substances, does not easily putrefy, and has no
disagreeable smell. Bakers in Germany, by the addition of calcined oyster
shells and burnt hartshorn, convert the pulp of potatoes into yeast. The
_stalks_ or haulm of potatoes are capable of being made into paper. They
are also of considerable utility as manure. The _apples_, or seed-vessels,
may be usefully employed as a pickle: and, if properly prepared, they are
said to be even more palatable than cucumbers.
There are numerous varieties of the potatoe. Of these the most remarkable
are the different kinds of _kidney potatoes_, the _Aylesbury white_, and
_Altringham early white_, which are chiefly grown for the table; the _ox
noble_, _Irish purple_, and _red potatoes_, which are adapted for fodder.
This valuable root was originally imported from America, about the
beginning of the seventeenth century. The inhabitants of Ireland assert
that it was first introduced into that country, by the accidental wreck,
upon their coast, of a vessel which was laden with potatoes and freighted
for England.
The usual mode of planting potatoes is by cutting the roots into pieces,
reserving one eye or bud to each division, and setting these in the earth.
They will succeed in any tolerable soil; but they flourish most luxuriantly
in light sandy loams. The proper time for digging them up is during dry
weather in autumn, when the leaves and stems begin to decay. When
cultivated on a small scale, they are usually dug with a three pronged
fork; but when raised in fields, where this process would be too tedious,
they are turned up by a plough.
68. _CAPSICUMS are South American and Indian plants easily known by their
hollow pods, of shining red or yellow colour, which contain many small,
flat, and kidney-shaped seeds._
_The principal species are, Heart or Bell pepper_ (_Capsicum grossum_),
_Guinea pepper_ (_Capsicum annuum_, Fig. 12), _and Bird pepper_
(_Capsicum baccatum_).
All the species of capsicum possess the same general qualities. In hot
climates, but particularly in the East and West Indies, and some parts of
Spanish America, the fruit of these plants is much used for culinary
purposes. It is eaten in large quantities, both with animal and vegetable
food; and is mixed, in greater or less proportion, with almost all kinds of
sauces.
_Cayenne pepper_ is made from the fruit of different species of capsicum.
This fruit, when ripe, is gathered, dried in the sun, and then pounded; and
the powder is mixed with a certain portion of salt, and kept, for use, in
closely stopped bottles. Of late years Cayenne pepper has been introduced
into most of the countries of Europe; and it is now very generally used as
a poignant ingredient in soups and highly seasoned dishes. Its taste is
extremely acrid, and it leaves a durable sensation of heat on the palate,
which is best removed by butter or oil. When taken in small quantity,
cayenne pepper is a grateful stimulant; and, in medicine it is used, both
externally and internally, to promote the action of the bodily organs when
languid or torpid; and it is said to be found efficacious in many gouty and
paralytic cases.
69. _The GUINEA PEPPER, or ANNUAL CAPSICUM_ (Fig. 12), _is a slender
herbaceous plant, with smooth leaves, white flowers, single flower
stalks, and smooth, shining fruit of oblong shape, and usually of red and
yellow colour._
This plant is a native both of the East and West Indies, and is considered
the most hardy of the whole tribe of capsicum. In many parts of the South
of Europe, its _fruit_ is eaten green by the peasants at their breakfasts,
and is preferred by them to onions or garlic. The fruit of all the species
may be rendered useful in domestic economy, either as a pickle, or as
cayenne pepper. For the latter, it may be dried before a fire, and ground
to powder in a common pepper-mill.
70. _The BUCK-THORN_ (Rhamnus catharticus) _is a spinous shrub, which
grows in thickets and hedges, and has clusters of small green flowers,
globular black berries, and somewhat oval leaves, serrated at the edge._
About the month of September the berries of the buck-thorn begin to ripen;
and, if these are bruised when perfectly ripe, they yield a green tint.
They are made into the _sap-green_ which is used by painters in
water-colours, by evaporating their juice to the consistence of a gum. From
the juice of the unripe berries, mixed with alum, a yellow dye is obtained,
which is employed by dyers, and also for staining maps or paper. If the
fruit be gathered late in the autumn the juice is purple. The _syrup_ of
buck-thorn berries is sometimes used in dropsies and other complaints,
though there are objections to it from its occasioning sickness and
griping. The berries have a faint disagreeable smell, and a nauseous bitter
taste. It is not unusual to mix with, or substitute for them, the fruit of
the berry-bearing alder, and of the dog-berry tree. The fraud is, however,
easily detected on examination; for the buck-thorn berries have each four
seeds, which the others have not.
The _inner bark_ of the buck-thorn is said to yield a medicine preferable
to that afforded by the berries, but it is an extremely powerful one.
71. _NUX VOMICA, or VOMIC NUT, is a round, flat seed, about an inch in
diameter, of greyish brown colour, and horny consistence, the produce of
a tree_ (Strychnos nux vomica) _which grows in the East Indies._
_The tree is of large size, and has somewhat oval leaves, in pairs, each
marked with three or five strong ribs. The young branches have swelled
joints. The flowers are in a kind of umbels at the extremity of the
branches._
The _fruit_ which produces the vomic nut is a species of berry, about the
size of a small apple, and covered with a hard substance somewhat
resembling that of the pomegranate (154), and of beautiful orange colour
when ripe. This fruit is filled with a pulp which contains the seeds.
There is so great a consumption of nux vomica, that the quantity vended at
the East India Company's sales, in 1808, was about five tons' weight, and
its price about nineteen shillings per hundred weight, exclusive of the
duty. It is imagined that public brewers sometimes use this drug in the
adulteration of ale and porter, for the purpose of rendering it more
intoxicating than it otherwise would be.
It is employed for the destruction of vermin; and is said to be quickly
fatal to dogs, foxes, wolves, and most other quadrupeds. When pounded and
mixed with oatmeal, it is used for the killing of rats. Yet deleterious as
this drug is, it has lately been employed on the Continent, as a medicine
of great efficacy, in spasmodic affections of the bowels, and some other
complaints; but its administration ought only to be attempted by medical
men.
An extract of nux vomica has lately been imported from India; but it is not
generally known for what purpose.
72. _The TEAK-TREE_ (Tectonia grandis) _is a valuable species of timber,
which grows in the forests of the East Indies._
_This tree attains the height of fifty feet and upwards. Its leaves are
somewhat oval, slightly scalloped, rough on the upper side, and clad with
a white down beneath; and its flowers are in bunches, small, white, and
fragrant._
For the building of ships, teak-wood is esteemed superior to every kind of
timber except oak. It is said to be almost incorruptible in water; and its
bitterness preserves it from the attack of worms. For all the purposes of
carpentry, teak is the most useful timber that is produced in Asia. It is
easily wrought, and is peculiarly strong and durable. That which grows on
the coast of Malabar is considered the best; but the greatest quantity is
obtained from Pegu. The former is nearly all hill timber, whereas the
latter is the produce of a low and flat country. In India much of the
furniture is made of teak wood.
The attention of government has of late been called to the cultivation of
this timber; and great encouragement is now given to an extensive
propagation of it. In the present scarcity of oak timber in England, the
increase of teak in the East is become an object of importance to the
prosperity of our navy. Its culture has also been recommended in our West
Indian islands, the climate and soil of which are considered nearly similar
to those of its native country.
73. _MANGOS, as they are imported into this country, are the unripe fruit
of an East Indian tree_ (Mangifera Indica) _pickled in vinegar._
_The mango tree grows to a great size, and has spear-shaped leaves, each
eight or nine inches long, and two inches wide. The flowers spring, in a
loose kind of bunch, from the extremity of the stems._
The _fruit_ of this tree, when ripe, is as large as a goose's egg, and is
much esteemed in India, on account of its invigorating odour; which, it is
imagined, will restore health to persons in a declining state. Beneath its
rough shell there is a kernel, similar to that of the almond, which may be
eaten either fresh or preserved. From the expressed juice of this fruit the
Indians prepare a kind of wine. When intended for pickling, the fruit is
gathered in an unripe state. An imitation of mangos is made in our own
country with a particular sort of melon. A small square piece is cut from
the side of the melon, through which the seeds are taken out. It is then
filled with mustard seeds and shred garlic, and afterwards pickled with
vinegar and spices. Large cucumbers are sometimes prepared as mangos.
74. _RED CURRANTS are the fruit of a well known shrub_ (Ribes rubum),
_which is cultivated, in gardens; and which also grows wild in woods or
thickets of some of the northern parts of England. Its bunches are smooth
and pendant; and its flowers are flattish._
The utility of this fruit in domestic economy has long been established.
Its _juice_, if boiled with an equal weight of loaf sugar, forms an
agreeable substance, called _currant jelly_, which is much employed in
sauces and for other culinary purposes; and also in the cure of sore
throats and colds. The French frequently mix currant jelly with sugar and
water, as a beverage; and, by many persons, this mixture is preferred to
orgeat or lemonade. The juice of currants is a valuable remedy in
obstructions of the bowels; and, in febrile complaints, it is useful on
account of its readily quenching thirst, and for its cooling effect on the
stomach. This juice, fermented with a proper quantity of sugar, becomes a
palatable wine, which is much improved by keeping; and which, with care,
may be kept for twenty years and upwards. Modes of making this, as well as
other British wines, are to be found in all the domestic receipt books.
The _inner bark_, boiled with water, is a popular remedy in jaundice; and,
by some medical men, it has been administered in dropsical complaints.
_White_ and _flesh-coloured currants_ have, in every respect, the same
qualities as the red species.
75. _BLACK CURRANTS are the fruit of a garden shrub_ (Ribes nigrum)
_which is distinguished by having its bunches hairy and its flowers
oblong._
The berries of the black currant shrub are larger than those of the red;
and, in some parts of Siberia, are said to attain the size of a hazel nut.
They are occasionally made into wine, jelly, and rob or syrup. The two
latter are frequently employed in the cure of sore throats; and, from the
great use of black currants in quinsies, they have sometimes been
denominated _squinancy_ or _quincy berries_.
The leaves are fragrant, and have been recommended for their medicinal
virtues. An infusion of them, in the manner of tea, is very grateful, and,
by many persons, is preferred to tea. The tender leaves tinge common
spirits so as to resemble brandy; and an infusion of the young _roots_ is
useful in fevers of the eruptive kind.
Black currant trees grow wild in wet hedges, and near the banks of rivers,
in several parts of Norfolk. The _dried currants_ of the shops do not
belong to this family, but are a small kind of grape (79).
76. _GOOSEBERRIES are the fruit of a prickly shrub_ (Ribes grossularia)
_which grows wild in Cheshire, Lancashire, and several parts of
Yorkshire._
Few of the garden fruits are more esteemed for the table than gooseberries.
For culinary purposes, gooseberries are generally employed before they are
ripe; but this is founded on erroneous notions of their chemical
properties, since, either for sauces or wine, though they are more cool and
refreshing, they do not possess the delicate flavour and rich saccharine
qualities which are inherent in the ripe fruit. Wine made of gooseberries
has great resemblance to Champaigne. In the making of wine, after the juice
has been expressed, it is customary to throw away the _skins_ of the fruit.
These, however, may with advantage be employed in distillation, as they
afford an agreeable spirit somewhat resembling brandy. When kept a few
months, this spirit is said to be little inferior, either in strength or
flavour, to the best Cogniac brandy. Vinegar may be made from gooseberries.
Some of the kinds are bottled while green, and kept for winter use; and
others are, for the same purpose, preserved with sugar.
Gooseberries vary much in colour, size, and quality. Some are smooth, and
others hairy. Some are red, others green, and others yellow or amber
coloured. Wild gooseberries are greatly inferior, in size, to those which
are cultivated in gardens.
77. _IPECACUANHA_ (Viola ipecacuanha) _is a medicinal root, small,
wrinkled, bent, and contorted into a great variety of shapes; which is
imported from the West Indies and South America, and is given as an
emetic._
There are three kinds of ipecacuanha: ash-coloured or grey, brown, and
white. Of these, the ash-coloured is usually preferred for medicinal use,
from its being more efficacious than the white, and less violent than the
brown. Ipecacuanha was first brought into Europe towards the middle of the
seventeenth century; but it was not admitted into general use until about
the year 1686, when it was introduced into practice under the patronage of
Louis the Fourteenth of France. Its taste is bitterish and somewhat acrid;
and it seems to cover the tongue with a kind of mucilage. It is one of the
mildest and safest emetics with which we are acquainted; and is
administered in powder, as a wine, and as a tincture. It has this peculiar
advantage, that, if it do not operate as an emetic, it passes off without
injury by the skin or bowels. In very small doses it is efficacious in
obstinate coughs, and in several other complaints. The roots of a kind of
dogsbane (_Apocynum_) are not unfrequently substituted for those of
ipecacuanha; but, in some instances, this substitution has been attended
with fatal consequences.
78. _VINES are a very important tribe of shrubs, to the fruit of which we
are indebted for all our foreign wines, for raisins of every description,
and for the dried currants of the shops._
_Several species of vine are cultivated; but by far the most important of
the whole is the common vine_ (Vitis vinifera _of Linnæus_).
The earliest introduction of the vine into the western parts of Europe is
stated to have been about the year 280, under the sanction of Probus, the
Roman Emperor, who, throughout his whole dominions, was a zealous
encourager of agricultural pursuits. There can be no doubt that vines were
anciently propagated in our own island for the purpose of wine, and that
there were vineyards of considerable extent in Gloucestershire, Hampshire,
and some other counties; but, as vines are principally found to flourish in
inland countries, lying betwixt the thirtieth and fifty-first degrees of
latitude, it is evident that there can be no part of Great Britain
sufficiently adapted to their successful cultivation.
Any person who has seen a hop garden, may easily form an idea of the
appearance of a _vineyard_. Vines are usually propagated by slips,
cuttings, or offsets from the roots. These, when they have obtained a
sufficiency of roots, are transplanted from the nursery-ground into the
vineyard, the soil of which ought to be light and rich. They are placed, in
this ground, in rows, and at regular intervals, leaving space sufficient
for the vine-dressers and the reapers to pass betwixt them; and as soon as
the rooted plants are three years old, they begin to bear fruit. The season
for pruning and dressing them is the early part of the year, before the sap
begins to rise; and about the time when the flowers appear, the plants are
fastened to poles, for the purposes of supporting them, of preventing them
from growing entangled with each other, admitting a free circulation of air
amongst them, and affording greater convenience for gathering the fruit.
The vintage, which is a season of mirth and delight to the whole country,
commences in the early part of autumn. The villagers assemble in the
respective vineyards under the direction of overseers. The reaping of the
grapes is, in general, performed in three distinct gatherings. The first of
these comprehends all the finest and ripest bunches, carefully clearing
away from them every grape that appears green or decayed: the second is
confined to the large and thick clusters which are not so ripe as the
others; and those which are nearly green, withered, or decayed, are
gathered last.
To obtain the juice from the grapes, they are subjected to the operation of
large presses of somewhat similar construction to the cyder presses of our
own country (the separate gatherings being still kept apart), and the juice
is received into vessels fixed for that purpose. Afterwards it undergoes
the necessary fermentation to convert it into wine. By the ancients the
juice was obtained by treading the grapes. This practice is alluded to in
various parts of Scripture, but perhaps in none are the characteristics of
the ancient vintage expressed more strongly than in the predictions of
Isaiah concerning Moab: "And gladness is taken away, and joy out of the
plentiful field; and in the vineyards there shall be no singing, neither
shall there be any shouting: the treaders shall tread out no wine in their
presses; I have made their vintage-shouting to cease." The treading of
grapes is still practised in several parts of the world. The ancients
frequently kept their wine in skins, or leathern bags, well secured at the
seams; hence the passage in the gospels; "neither do men put new wine into
old bottles; else the bottles break, and the wine runneth out, and the
bottles perish: but they put new wine into new bottles, and both are
preserved."
The kinds of wine are extremely various. The difference which exists
betwixt them is not, however, so much owing to a distinction in the species
of grapes, as in the quality of the fruit, produced by the varieties of
soil, cultivation, and climate to which they are subject. This difference
likewise depends, in some instances, on the peculiar mode of fermentation,
and the state of the grapes from which the wine is produced.
(_a_) PORTUGUESE WINES.--Of all the kinds of wine that are consumed in
England, none are so much in request as _red port_. This has its name from
the city of Oporto, in the neighbourhood of which the vines that produce it
are chiefly cultivated. A great proportion, however, of the port that is
consumed in England, is said to be mixed with a Spanish red wine of
inferior quality, or to be otherwise adulterated. Red port is brought over
in casks called pipes, which measure 138 gallons each, and ought to fill
fifty-two dozen bottles of legal measure.
The difference in colour betwixt red wines and white does not so much
depend upon the quality of the grape, as upon the mode in which the wines
are prepared. The juice of red grapes, if carefully pressed, and fermented
separately from the skins, forms a white wine. If the skins be pressed so
as to discharge the colouring matter they contain, or, if they be allowed
to remain in the juice during the fermentation, the wine assumes a red
tinge.
_White port_, and _Lisbon_, are two kinds of white wine which we receive
from Portugal. Of these, the former was much in demand some years ago, but
it is now seldom called for; the latter is still in use.
(_b_) FRENCH WINES.--Many excellent wines are produced in France. That
usually considered the best is _Burgundy_, a red wine of very delicate
flavour, which has its name from the province where it is made. The wines
of the neighbourhood of Orleans, however, after having been matured by age,
are much like Burgundy. _Claret_ is the only French red wine for which
there is any great demand in England. It is thin and highly flavoured, and
is chiefly supplied from the neighbourhood of Bourdeaux. Some of the red
wines of Champaigne are highly prized for their excellence and delicacy,
though they, occasionally, have a pungent and sourish taste. _Hermitage_ is
produced from vineyards, at a place so called, near the village of Thein,
on the eastern bank of the Rhone; and _Côte Rotie_ from vineyards on the
opposite side of the river.
No French white wine has so much celebrity as _Champaigne_. This is of two
kinds; one of which, called still or quiet Champaigne, has gone through the
whole process of fermentation; the other, which has the name of sparkling
Champaigne, has been bottled before the fermentation was complete: this,
consequently, proceeds slowly in the bottle, and causes the wine, on the
drawing of the cork, to sparkle in the glass. _Vin de Grave_ is produced in
the vicinity of Bourdeaux, and the lower parts of Gascoigne: _Pontac_ is
made in Guienne; and _Frontignac_ and _Muscadel_ are white wines, the
delicious productions of Languedoc.
(_c_) SPANISH WINES.--The country about Xeres, in Andalusia, is celebrated
for a grape which produces an excellent wine called _Sherry_. There are
several French and English houses at Xeres and Seville which trade, to
great extent, in this wine. It is very strong, and full-bodied, owing, in a
great degree, to the quantity of brandy with which it is mixed. In the
province of Valencia, some of the proprietors have wines of different
kinds, sixty, eighty, and even a hundred years old, the prices of which
differ according to their age. _Rota_, in Seville, produces a rich and
sweet white wine; and the country around _Malaga_, near Gibraltar, is
celebrated for white wine which is known by that name; and so assiduously
is the cultivation of the vine there pursued, that the export of the
produce of the vineyards yields to the inhabitants an annual revenue of
more than 200,000_l._ sterling per annum. We import from Spain a harsh and
inferior kind of _red wine_, which, duty free, sells for only 10_l._ or
15_l._ per pipe of 126 gallons; but the territory of Alicant produces a
very rich and excellent kind of red wine. The sweet red wine which we call
_Tent_ is a Spanish production; chiefly imported from Cadiz, and in
hogsheads of about sixty gallons each. It is made from the juice of a
particular kind of grapes, which are not used for this purpose until some
time after they have been perfectly ripe.
(_d_) ITALIAN WINES.--Notwithstanding the ancient celebrity of many of the
wines of Italy, by far the greater part of what are now manufactured in
that country are thin and bad. Certain vineyards on mount Vesuvius,
however, still have great celebrity for a luscious red wine called
_Lachryma Christi_.
(_e_) GERMAN WINES.--Germany produces many excellent wines, of which Tokay,
Hock, Rhenish, and Moselle, are the most celebrated. _Tokay_ has its name
from a town in Hungary, near which it is chiefly made. The quantity of this
wine is so small that, even on the spot where it is manufactured, it is
sold at a very high price. It is made by mixing with the common grapes a
portion of luscious, half-dried, and shrivelled grapes; the latter being
absolutely necessary to constitute the peculiar quality of the wine. The
two kinds of grapes are pressed separately, and the juice is afterwards
mixed, fermented, and strained through a cloth or sieve into the barrels in
which it is to continue. The best Tokay does not long remain in the place
where it is made, a great portion of it being sent into the cellars of the
nobility in other parts of Hungary. Tokay is certainly a fine wine, but is
no way adequate to the price for which it is sold. Several years ago it
could not be purchased, even in Hungary, for much less than half a guinea
of English money per bottle; and yet there are few Englishmen, who, except
on account of its scarceness, would prefer it to good Claret or Burgundy.
Of all the German wines, that which is in greatest demand in England is
_Hock_. This has its name from the town of Hochstadt in Suabia, celebrated
for a great battle which was fought in its neighbourhood by the French and
the allies in 1704. _Rhenish_ and _Moselle_ are produced chiefly on the
banks of the rivers Rhine and Moselle, and have a cool, sharp taste, and
considerable strength. Anterior to the late wars in Germany, there were
wines in the cellars of many of the noble and wealthy inhabitants of that
country which were more than a hundred years old, and of such body as to be
uninjured even by so great an age.
(_f_) MADEIRA and TENERIFFE WINES.--To the Madeira and Canary islands we
are indebted for some excellent white wines. Of these _Madeira wine_ is
considered by far the most valuable, particularly after it has been ripened
by conveyance into a hot climate. The number of pipes of Madeira annually
made is about 30,000. The grapes, when gathered, are put into wooden
vessels, and the juice is extracted by persons treading upon them.
The Canary Islands gave name to a rich white wine, which was formerly in
great esteem under the name of _Canary sack_, and is now usually called
_Malmsey Madeira_. The genuine _Malmsey_ wine, which is of sweet and
luscious flavour, and rich golden yellow colour, is the produce of
Malvesia, one of the Greek islands, and thence had originally its name, the
French merchants denominating it _Vin de Malvesia_: but so little is now
made that few persons can possess it. _Teneriffe wine_, when two or three
years old, has much the flavour of Madeira, but, after this age, it becomes
so sweet and mellow, as somewhat to resemble Malaga.
(_g_) CAPE WINES.--There are produced, at the Cape of Good Hope, two kinds
of peculiarly rich, sweet, and delicate wine, called _red_ and _white
Constantia_. The farm from which they have their name is situated about
eight miles from Cape Town. The grapes of this farm, owing, as it is
supposed, to some peculiarity in the soil, are superior to any other in the
whole country. The vintage commences about March or April; and great care
is taken in the manufacture of the wine, no fruit being used but such as is
fully ripe and in the highest perfection. The annual produce is considered
to be about sixty pipes of the red, and 100 pipes of the white wine.
Constantia is in perfection when about two years old; but, when kept six or
seven years, it sparkles in the glass somewhat like wine which has not
undergone a perfect fermentation. What is denominated _Cape Madeira_ is a
light kind of white wine, the produce of the Cape of Good Hope.
Considerable quantities of this wine are now consumed in England, in
consequence of the lowness of its price. This is owing to its paying to
government only one-third part of the duty which is imposed on most other
wines.
The juice of unripe grapes has a harsh, sour, and rough taste. This, under
the name of _verjuice_, was formerly much esteemed for culinary and other
purposes. The young twigs of the vine, when dried, cut into small pieces,
and moistened with water, afford a wholesome food for cattle and horses.
The _leaves_ and _tendrils_ have an astringent taste, which it is probable
they would impart to British made wines, and thus render them somewhat
similar to foreign wines. The _wood_ of the vine, reduced to charcoal, is
used by painters for drawing outlines; and, from the seeds or _stones_, a
kind of oil is sometimes made, which can scarcely be distinguished from
olive oil. These stones, when purified, moderately roasted, and ground to a
coarse powder, form a tolerable substitute for chocolate.
_Brandy_ is a spirituous liquor, produced by the distillation of wine; and
prepared in most of the wine countries of Europe. The principal
manufactories of this spirit are in France, particularly in Languedoc, and
Anjou, whence comes the well-known _Cognac brandy_. The distilleries of
brandy in Catalonia, in Spain, are so extensive as to yield more than
35,000 pipes per annum. When brandy first issues from the still, it is
colourless as water; and the colour, which is given to it by the merchants,
is produced partly by the oaken casks in which it is kept, but chiefly by
the addition of red saunders wood, burnt sugar, and other colouring
matters. These, however, do not in the least affect the quality of the
spirit.
In addition to the preceding uses of the vine, we have to add those of its
fruit in a recent state, called _grapes_, as a delicious addition to our
desserts; and of this fruit, in a dried state, under the appellation of
raisins and currants.
_Raisins_ are grapes which have been suffered to remain on the trees until
they are perfectly ripe, and have been dried. They are occasionally dried
in ovens. Sometimes the clusters, being tied several together, are dipped
in a ley of the ashes of rosemary and vine branches, with a certain portion
of slaked lime, and are then dried by exposure to the sun. The best fruit
of this description are the _sun_, and _jar raisins_; both of which are
dried in the sun, without any preparation. These are imported from the
southern countries of Europe; and also from the Asiatic provinces of
Turkey. They are principally used for desserts, whilst _Malaga raisins_,
and some other kinds, are employed for culinary purposes and the making of
wine.
79. _The CURRANTS of commerce are a small kind of raisins, or dried
grapes, which are produced in the Grecian Archipelago, and particularly
in the islands of Zante and Cephalonia._
The chief plantation of these grapes was anciently in the isthmus of
Corinth, whence they obtained the name of _Corinths_, since corrupted to
currants, Few, however, are now produced there, the vineyards having been
neglected in consequence of the jealousy of the Turks not allowing large
vessels to enter the gulf for their exportation. These grapes have no
stones, are usually either of a red or black colour, and when recently
gathered, are an extremely delicious fruit.
The harvest commences in the month of August, and as soon as the grapes are
plucked from the trees, they are spread to dry, upon a floor prepared for
the purpose by stamping the earth quite hard. This floor is formed with a
gentle rising in the middle, that the rain, in case any should fall, may
run off, and not injure the fruit. When sufficiently dry, the currants are
cleaned, and laid up in magazines, being poured into them through a hole,
and stowed so closely that it is necessary to dig them out with an iron
instrument. They are packed for exportation in large casks, and by persons
who have their feet greased in order to tread them close.
The principal consumption of currants is in England; but the inhabitants of
the islands whence they are brought know little of the use we make of them.
They imagine that we employ them only in the dyeing of cloth, and are
entirely ignorant of our luxury of Christmas pies, and plum puddings. A
small but inferior kind of currants are grown in some parts of Spain.